Microtubules Negatively Regulate Insulin Secretion in Pancreatic β Cells

A microrheological examination of insulin-secreting β-cells in healthy and diabetic-like conditions

Pancreatic β-cells regulate glucose homeostasis through glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, which is hindered in type-2 diabetes. Transport of the insulin vesicles is expected to be affected by changes in the viscoelastic and transport properties of the cytoplasm. These are evaluated in situ through particle-tracking measurements using a rat insulinoma β-cell line. The use of inert probes assists in decoupling the material properties of the cytoplasm from the active transport through cellular processes. The effect of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion is examined, and the subsequent remodeling of the cytoskeleton, at constant effects of cell activity, is shown to result in reduced mobility of the tracer particles. Induction of diabetic-like conditions is identified to alter the mean-squared displacement of the passive particles in the cytoplasm and diminish its reaction to glucose stimulation.

In situ structure of actin remodeling during glucose-stimulated insulin secretion using cryo-electron tomography

Actin mediates insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells through remodeling. Hampered by limited resolution, previous studies have offered an ambiguous depiction as depolymerization and repolymerization. We report the in situ structure of actin remodeling in INS-1E β-cells during glucose-stimulated insulin secretion at nanoscale resolution. After remodeling, the actin filament network at the cell periphery exhibits three marked differences: 12% of actin filaments reorient quasi-orthogonally to the ventral membrane; the filament network mainly remains as cell-stabilizing bundles but partially reconfigures into a less compact arrangement; actin filaments anchored to the ventral membrane reorganize from a "netlike" to a "blooming" architecture. Furthermore, the density of actin filaments and microtubules around insulin secretory granules decreases, while actin filaments and microtubules become more densely packed. The actin filament network after remodeling potentially precedes the transport and release of insulin secretory granules. These findings advance our understanding of actin remodeling and its role in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion.

Advanced Imaging Techniques for the Characterization of Subcellular Organelle Structure in Pancreatic Islet β Cells

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) affects more than 32.3 million individuals in the United States, creating an economic burden of nearly $966 billion in 2021. T2D results from a combination of insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion from the pancreatic β cell. However, genetic and physiologic data indicate that defects in β cell function are the chief determinant of whether an individual with insulin resistance will progress to a diagnosis of T2D. The subcellular organelles of the insulin secretory pathway, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and secretory granules, play a critical role in maintaining the heavy biosynthetic burden of insulin production, processing, and secretion. In addition, the mitochondria enable the process of insulin release by integrating the metabolism of nutrients into energy output. Advanced imaging techniques are needed to determine how changes in the structure and composition of these organelles contribute to the loss of insulin secretory capacity in the β cell during T2D. Several microscopy techniques, including electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and soft X-ray tomography, have been utilized to investigate the structure-function relationship within the β cell. In this overview article, we will detail the methodology, strengths, and weaknesses of each approach. © 2024 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 14:5243-5267, 2024.

Preparation of Whole-mount Mouse Islets on Vascular Extracellular Matrix for Live Islet Cell Microscopy

Pancreatic islet β cells preferentially secrete insulin toward the plasma membrane, making contact with the capillary extracellular matrix (ECM). Isolated islets separated from the exocrine acinar cells are the best system for cell biology studies of primary β cells, whereas isolated islets lose their capillary network during ex vivo culture. Providing the appropriate extracellular signaling by attaching islets to vascular ECM-coated surfaces can restore the polarized insulin secretion toward the ECM. The guided secretion toward ECM-coated glass coverslips provides a good model for recording insulin secretion in real time to study its regulation. Additionally, β cells attached to the ECM-coated coverslips are suitable for confocal live imaging of subcellular components including adhesion molecules, cytoskeleton, and ion channels. This procedure is also compatible for total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, which provides optimal signal-to-noise ratio and high spatial precision of structures close to the plasma membrane. In this article, we describe the optimized protocol for vascular ECM-coating of glass coverslips and the process of attachment of isolated mouse islets on the coverslip. This preparation is compatible with any high-resolution microscopy of live primary β cells. Key features • Optimized coating procedure to attach isolated islets, compatible for both confocal and TIRF microscopy. • The ECM-coated glass coverslip functions as the artificial capillary surface to guide secretion toward the coated surface for optimal imaging of secretion events. • Shows the process of islets attachment to the ECM-coated surface in a 6-day ex vivo culture.

Tau suppresses microtubule-regulated pancreatic insulin secretion

Tau protein is implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies, but its physiological function is in debate. Mostly explored in the brain, tau is also expressed in the pancreas. We further explored the mechanism of tau's involvement in the regulation of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in islet β-cells, and established a potential relationship between type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and AD. We demonstrate that pancreatic tau is crucial for insulin secretion regulation and glucose homeostasis. Tau levels were found to be elevated in β-islet cells of patients with T2DM, and loss of tau enhanced insulin secretion in cell lines, drosophila, and mice. Pharmacological or genetic suppression of tau in the db/db diabetic mouse model normalized glucose levels by promoting insulin secretion and was recapitulated by pharmacological inhibition of microtubule assembly. Clinical studies further showed that serum tau protein was positively correlated with blood glucose levels in healthy controls, which was lost in AD. These findings present tau as a common therapeutic target between AD and T2DM.

Unveiling nanoscale optical signatures of cytokine-induced β-cell dysfunction

Pro-inflammatory cytokines contribute to β-cell failure in both Type-1 and Type-2 Diabetes. Data collected so far allowed to dissect the genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic and biochemical landscape underlying cytokine-induced β-cell progression through dysfunction. Yet, no report thus far complemented such molecular information with the direct optical nanoscopy of the β-cell subcellular environment. Here we tackle this issue in Insulinoma 1E (INS-1E) β-cells by label-free fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) and fluorescence-based super resolution imaging by expansion microscopy (ExM). It is found that 24-h exposure to IL-1β and IFN-γ is associated with a neat modification of the FLIM signature of cell autofluorescence due to the increase of either enzyme-bound NAD(P)H molecules and of oxidized lipid species. At the same time, ExM-based direct imaging unveils neat alteration of mitochondrial morphology (i.e. ~ 80% increase of mitochondrial circularity), marked degranulation (i.e. ~ 40% loss of insulin granules, with mis-localization of the surviving pool), appearance of F-actin-positive membrane blebs and an hitherto unknown extensive fragmentation of the microtubules network (e.g. ~ 37% reduction in the number of branches). Reported observations provide an optical-microscopy framework to interpret the amount of molecular information collected so far on β-cell dysfunction and pave the way to future ex-vivo and in-vivo investigations.

Glucose-stimulated KIF5B-driven microtubule sliding organizes microtubule networks in pancreatic beta cells

In pancreatic islet beta cells, molecular motors use cytoskeletal polymers microtubules as tracks for intracellular transport of insulin secretory granules. Beta-cell microtubule network has a complex architecture and is non-directional, which provide insulin granules at the cell periphery for rapid secretion response, yet to avoid over-secretion and subsequent hypoglycemia. We have previously characterized a peripheral sub-membrane microtubule array, which is critical for withdrawal of excessive insulin granules from the secretion sites. Microtubules in beta cells originate at the Golgi in the cell interior, and how the peripheral array is formed is unknown. Using real-time imaging and photo-kinetics approaches in clonal mouse pancreatic beta cells MIN6, we now demonstrate that kinesin KIF5B, a motor protein with a capacity to transport microtubules as cargos, slides existing microtubules to the cell periphery and aligns them to each other along the plasma membrane. Moreover, like many physiological beta-cell features, microtubule sliding is facilitated by a high glucose stimulus. These new data, together with our previous report that in high glucose sub-membrane MT array is destabilized to allow for robust secretion, indicate that MT sliding is another integral part of glucose-triggered microtubule remodeling, likely replacing destabilized peripheral microtubules to prevent their loss over time and beta-cell malfunction.

Insulin secretion hot spots in pancreatic β cells as secreting adhesions

Pancreatic β cell secretion of insulin is crucial to the maintenance of glucose homeostasis and prevention of diseases related to glucose regulation, including diabetes. Pancreatic β cells accomplish efficient insulin secretion by clustering secretion events at the cell membrane facing the vasculature. Regions at the cell periphery characterized by clustered secretion are currently termed insulin secretion hot spots. Several proteins, many associated with the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons, are known to localize to and serve specific functions at hot spots. Among these proteins are the scaffolding protein ELKS, the membrane-associated proteins LL5β and liprins, the focal adhesion-associated protein KANK1, and other factors typically associated with the presynaptic active zone in neurons. These hot spot proteins have been shown to contribute to insulin secretion, but many questions remain regarding their organization and dynamics at hot spots. Current studies suggest microtubule- and F-actin are involved in regulation of hot spot proteins and their function in secretion. The hot spot protein association with the cytoskeleton networks also suggests a potential role for mechanical regulation of these proteins and hot spots in general. This perspective summarizes the existing knowledge of known hot spot proteins, their cytoskeletal-mediated regulation, and discuss questions remaining regarding mechanical regulation of pancreatic beta cell hot spots.

CAMSAP2 localizes to the Golgi in islet β-cells and facilitates Golgi-ER trafficking

Glucose stimulation induces the remodeling of microtubules, which potentiates insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells. CAMSAP2 binds to microtubule minus ends to stabilize microtubules in several cultured clonal cells. Here, we report that the knockdown of CAMSAP2 in primary β-cells reduces total insulin content and attenuates GSIS without affecting the releasability of insulin vesicles. Surprisingly, CAMSAP2 knockdown does not change microtubule stability. Unlike in cultured insulinoma cells, CAMSAP2 in primary β-cells predominantly localizes to the Golgi apparatus instead of microtubule minus ends. This novel localization is specific to primary β- but not α-cells and is independent of microtubule binding. Consistent with its specific localization at the Golgi, CAMSAP2 promotes efficient Golgi-ER trafficking in primary β-cells. Moreover, primary β-cells and insulinoma cells likely express different CAMSAP2 isoforms. We propose that a novel CAMSAP2 isoform in primary β-cells has a non-canonical function, which promotes Golgi-ER trafficking to support efficient production of insulin and secretion.

Responses of INS-1 cells to glucose stimulation patterns

Diabetes has become a major public health problem in the world for many years, and it is driving us to probe into its complex mechanism of insulin secretion in pancreatic β cells. The nanoscale resolution characterization of pancreatic β cells in response to glucose led to insights into diverse mechanical and functional processes at the single cell level. Recent advances allowed the direct observations of cytoskeleton dynamics which were quantitatively determined. Here, we firstly performed the glucose stimulation with multiple physiologically relevant glucose patterns. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) produced high spatial resolution mechanical images together with the insulin secretions linking the physical interactions to the biochemical process of INS-1 cells. Altered material properties of the INS-1 cells revealed the regulation of multiple glucose stimulation patterns. Rapidly responded to high glucose (HG), INS-1 cells presented the unique meshing networks of elasticities. The decreases of Young's modulus (YM) and insulin secretion suggested that mechanical changes affected the insulin release. Furthermore, the frequency and gradient of glucose patterns induced nanomechanical and secreting changes of the INS-1 cells and gained the knowledge on the potential controllability of glucose. The relationships between the cellular mechanics and insulin secretion of INS-1 cells could contribute to establish a mechanical cell model for the study of β cells in diabetes. The results also indicated the cell mechanics as promising mechanical biomarkers for β cells, and promoted the understanding of specific mechanical mechanism of glucose regulation, which lighted on the further application of functional glucose regulation in therapy.

Inflammatory Cytokines Rewire the Proinsulin Interaction Network in Human Islets

CONTEXT

Aberrant biosynthesis and secretion of the insulin precursor proinsulin occurs in both type I and type II diabetes. Inflammatory cytokines are implicated in pancreatic islet stress and dysfunction in both forms of diabetes, but the mechanisms remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to determine the effect of the diabetes-associated cytokines on proinsulin folding, trafficking, secretion, and β-cell function.

METHODS

Human islets were treated with interleukin-1β and interferon-γ for 48 hours, followed by analysis of interleukin-6, nitrite, proinsulin and insulin release, RNA sequencing, and unbiased profiling of the proinsulin interactome by affinity purification-mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Cytokine treatment induced secretion of interleukin-6, nitrites, and insulin, as well as aberrant release of proinsulin. RNA sequencing showed that cytokines upregulated genes involved in endoplasmic reticulum stress, and, consistent with this, affinity purification-mass spectrometry revealed cytokine induced proinsulin binding to multiple endoplasmic reticulum chaperones and oxidoreductases. Moreover, increased binding to the chaperone immunoglobulin binding protein was required to maintain proper proinsulin folding in the inflammatory environment. Cytokines also regulated novel interactions between proinsulin and type 1 and type 2 diabetes genome-wide association studies candidate proteins not previously known to interact with proinsulin (eg, Ataxin-2). Finally, cytokines induced proinsulin interactions with a cluster of microtubule motor proteins and chemical destabilization of microtubules with Nocodazole exacerbated cytokine induced proinsulin secretion.

CONCLUSION

Together, the data shed new light on mechanisms by which diabetes-associated cytokines dysregulate β-cell function. For the first time, we show that even short-term exposure to an inflammatory environment reshapes proinsulin interactions with critical chaperones and regulators of the secretory pathway.

Insulin-degrading enzyme ablation in mouse pancreatic alpha cells triggers cell proliferation, hyperplasia and glucagon secretion dysregulation

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Type 2 diabetes is characterised by hyperglucagonaemia and perturbed function of pancreatic glucagon-secreting alpha cells but the molecular mechanisms contributing to these phenotypes are poorly understood. Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) is present within all islet cells, mostly in alpha cells, in both mice and humans. Furthermore, IDE can degrade glucagon as well as insulin, suggesting that IDE may play an important role in alpha cell function in vivo.

METHODS

We have generated and characterised a novel mouse model with alpha cell-specific deletion of Ide, the A-IDE-KO mouse line. Glucose metabolism and glucagon secretion in vivo was characterised; isolated islets were tested for glucagon and insulin secretion; alpha cell mass, alpha cell proliferation and α-synuclein levels were determined in pancreas sections by immunostaining.

RESULTS

Targeted deletion of Ide exclusively in alpha cells triggers hyperglucagonaemia and alpha cell hyperplasia, resulting in elevated constitutive glucagon secretion. The hyperglucagonaemia is attributable in part to dysregulation of glucagon secretion, specifically an impaired ability of IDE-deficient alpha cells to suppress glucagon release in the presence of high glucose or insulin. IDE deficiency also leads to α-synuclein aggregation in alpha cells, which may contribute to impaired glucagon secretion via cytoskeletal dysfunction. We showed further that IDE deficiency triggers impairments in cilia formation, inducing alpha cell hyperplasia and possibly also contributing to dysregulated glucagon secretion and hyperglucagonaemia.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

We propose that loss of IDE function in alpha cells contributes to hyperglucagonaemia in type 2 diabetes.

Microtubules in Pancreatic β Cells: Convoluted Roadways Toward Precision

Pancreatic islet β cells regulate glucose homeostasis via glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). Cytoskeletal polymers microtubules (MTs) serve as tracks for the transport and positioning of secretory insulin granules. MT network in β cells has unique morphology with several distinct features, which support granule biogenesis (via Golgi-derived MT array), net non-directional transport (via interlocked MT mesh), and control availability of granules at secretion sites (via submembrane MT bundle). The submembrane MT array, which is parallel to the plasma membrane and serves to withdraw excessive granules from the secretion hot spots, is destabilized and fragmented downstream of high glucose stimulation, allowing for regulated secretion. The origin of such an unusual MT network, the features that define its functionality, and metabolic pathways that regulate it are still to a large extent elusive and are a matter of active investigation and debate. Besides the MT network itself, it is important to consider the interplay of molecular motors that drive and fine-tune insulin granule transport. Importantly, activity of kinesin-1, which is the major MT-dependent motor in β cells, transports insulin granules, and has a capacity to remodel MT network, is also regulated by glucose. We discuss yet unknown potential avenues toward understanding how MT network and motor proteins provide control for secretion in coordination with other GSIS-regulating mechanisms.

Trisomy 21 increases microtubules and disrupts centriolar satellite localization

Trisomy 21, the source of Down syndrome, causes a 0.5-fold protein increase of the chromosome 21-resident gene Pericentrin (PCNT) and reduces primary cilia formation and signaling. We investigate how PCNT imbalances disrupt cilia. Using isogenic RPE-1 cells with increased chromosome 21 dosage, we find PCNT accumulates around the centrosome as a cluster of enlarged cytoplasmic puncta that localize along microtubules (MTs) and at MT ends. Cytoplasmic PCNT puncta impact the density, stability and localization of the MT trafficking network required for primary cilia. The PCNT puncta appear to sequester cargo peripheral to centrosomes in what we call pericentrosomal crowding. The centriolar satellite proteins, PCM1, CEP131 and CEP290, important for ciliogenesis, accumulate at enlarged PCNT puncta in trisomy 21 cells. Reducing PCNT when chromosome 21 ploidy is elevated is sufficient to decrease PCNT puncta and pericentrosomal crowding, reestablish a normal density of MTs around the centrosome, and restore ciliogenesis to wild type levels. A transient reduction in MTs also decreases pericentrosomal crowding and partially rescues ciliogenesis in trisomy 21 cells, indicating that increased PCNT leads to defects in the MT network deleterious to normal centriolar satellite distribution. We propose that chromosome 21 aneuploidy disrupts MT-dependent intracellular trafficking required for primary cilia.

Cryptic splicing events result in unexpected protein products from calpain-10 (CAPN10) cDNA

Calpain-10 (CAPN10) belongs to the calpain superfamily. Genetic polymorphisms of the CAPN10 gene are associated with susceptibility to develop type 2 diabetes mellitus. Although the role of CAPN10 in the pathophysiology of diabetes has been extensively investigated, its biochemical properties are largely unknown. In this report, we made the surprising discovery that CAPN10 cDNA transcripts are subject to cryptic splicing and unexpected protein products were expressed. The same set of splicing products was reproducibly detected in four types of cultured cells including the primary culture of mouse myoblast. At least, one of the products was identical to a natural splicing variant. Sequence analysis of the splicing potential of CAPN10 cDNA, together with mutagenesis studies, resulted in the identification of a powerful splicing acceptor site at the junction of the sequences encoded by exons 9 and 10. We successfully extended the analysis to create expression construct resistant to splicing for both human and mouse CAPN10. The construct allowed us to analyze two major CAPN10 isoforms and reveal their difference in substrate proteolysis and potential cell functions. These results demonstrate that proteins produced from cDNA do not necessarily reflect the original nucleotide sequence. We provide insight into the property of recombinantly expressed CAPN10 proteins in cultured cells circumventing unexpected protein products.

Morphology and Transport in Eukaryotic Cells

Transport of intracellular components relies on a variety of active and passive mechanisms, ranging from the diffusive spreading of small molecules over short distances to motor-driven motion across long distances. The cell-scale behavior of these mechanisms is fundamentally dependent on the morphology of the underlying cellular structures. Diffusion-limited reaction times can be qualitatively altered by the presence of occluding barriers or by confinement in complex architectures, such as those of reticulated organelles. Motor-driven transport is modulated by the architecture of cytoskeletal filaments that serve as transport highways. In this review, we discuss the impact of geometry on intracellular transport processes that fulfill a broad range of functional objectives, including delivery, distribution, and sorting of cellular components. By unraveling the interplay between morphology and transport efficiency, we aim to elucidate key structure-function relationships that govern the architecture of transport systems at the cellular scale. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biophysics, Volume 51 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Organization and dynamics of the cortical complexes controlling insulin secretion in β-cells

Insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells is regulated by cortical complexes that are enriched at the sites of adhesion to extracellular matrix facing the vasculature. Many components of these complexes, including bassoon, RIM, ELKS and liprins, are shared with neuronal synapses. Here, we show that insulin secretion sites also contain the non-neuronal proteins LL5β (also known as PHLDB2) and KANK1, which, in migrating cells, organize exocytotic machinery in the vicinity of integrin-based adhesions. Depletion of LL5β or focal adhesion disassembly triggered by myosin II inhibition perturbed the clustering of secretory complexes and attenuated the first wave of insulin release. Although previous analyses in vitro and in neurons have suggested that secretory machinery might assemble through liquid–liquid phase separation, analysis of endogenously labeled ELKS in pancreatic islets indicated that its dynamics is inconsistent with such a scenario. Instead, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and single-molecule imaging showed that ELKS turnover is driven by binding and unbinding to low-mobility scaffolds. Both the scaffold movements and ELKS exchange were stimulated by glucose treatment. Our findings help to explain how integrin-based adhesions control spatial organization of glucose-stimulated insulin release.

Summary: Characterization of the composition of cortical complexes controlling insulin secretion, showing that their dynamics is inconsistent with assembly through liquid–liquid phase separation.

Microtubules regulate pancreatic β-cell heterogeneity via spatiotemporal control of insulin secretion hot spots

Heterogeneity of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in pancreatic islets is physiologically important but poorly understood. Here, we utilize mouse islets to determine how microtubules (MTs) affect secretion toward the vascular extracellular matrix at single cell and subcellular levels. Our data indicate that MT stability in the β-cell population is heterogenous, and that GSIS is suppressed in cells with highly stable MTs. Consistently, MT hyper-stabilization prevents, and MT depolymerization promotes the capacity of single β-cell for GSIS. Analysis of spatiotemporal patterns of secretion events shows that MT depolymerization activates otherwise dormant β-cells via initiation of secretion clusters (hot spots). MT depolymerization also enhances secretion from individual cells, introducing both additional clusters and scattered events. Interestingly, without MTs, the timing of clustered secretion is dysregulated, extending the first phase of GSIS and causing oversecretion. In contrast, glucose-induced Ca²⁺ influx was not affected by MT depolymerization yet required for secretion under these conditions, indicating that MT-dependent regulation of secretion hot spots acts in parallel with Ca²⁺ signaling. Our findings uncover a novel MT function in tuning insulin secretion hot spots, which leads to accurately measured and timed response to glucose stimuli and promotes functional β-cell heterogeneity.

Targeting the insulin granule for modulation of insulin exocytosis

The pancreatic β-cells control insulin secretion in the body to regulate glucose homeostasis, and β-cell stress and dysfunction is characteristic of Type 2 Diabetes. Pharmacological targeting of the β-cell to increase insulin secretion is typically utilised, however, extended use of common drugs such as sulfonylureas are known to result in secondary failure. Moreover, there is evidence they may induce β-cell failure in the long term. Within β-cells, insulin secretory granules (ISG) serve as compartments to store, process and traffic insulin for exocytosis. There is now growing evidence that ISG exist in multiple populations, distinct in their protein composition, motility, age, and capacity for secretion. In this review, we discuss the implications of a heterogenous ISG population in β-cells and highlight the need for more understanding into how unique ISG populations may be targeted in anti-diabetic therapies.

Hyperosmotic Stress Induces a Specific Pattern for Stress Granule Formation in Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Stress granules (SGs) are assemblies of selective messenger RNAs (mRNAs), translation factors, and RNA-binding proteins in small untranslated messenger ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) complexes in the cytoplasm. Evidence indicates that different types of cells have shown different mechanisms to respond to stress and the formation of SGs. In the present work, we investigated how human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs/IMR90-1) overcome hyperosmotic stress compared to a cell line that does not harbor pluripotent characteristics (SH-SY5Y cell line). Gradient concentrations of NaCl showed a different pattern of SG formation between hiPSCs/IMR90-1 and the nonpluripotent cell line SH-SY5Y. Other pluripotent stem cell lines (hiPSCs/CRTD5 and hESCs/H9 (human embryonic stem cell line)) as well as nonpluripotent cell lines (BHK-21 and MCF-7) were used to confirm this phenomenon. Moreover, the formation of hyperosmotic SGs in hiPSCs/IMR90-1 was independent of eIF2α phosphorylation and was associated with low apoptosis levels. In addition, a comprehensive proteomics analysis was performed to identify proteins involved in regulating this specific pattern of hyperosmotic SG formation in hiPSCs/IMR90-1. We found possible implications of microtubule organization on the response to hyperosmotic stress in hiPSCs/IMR90-1. We have also unveiled a reduced expression of tubulin that may protect cells against hyperosmolarity stress while inhibiting SG formation without affecting stem cell self-renewal and pluripotency. Our observations may provide a possible cellular mechanism to better understand SG dynamics in pluripotent stem cells.

Bayesian metamodeling of complex biological systems across varying representations

Comprehensive modeling of a whole cell requires an integration of vast amounts of information on various aspects of the cell and its parts. To divide and conquer this task, we introduce Bayesian metamodeling, a general approach to modeling complex systems by integrating a collection of heterogeneous input models. Each input model can in principle be based on any type of data and can describe a different aspect of the modeled system using any mathematical representation, scale, and level of granularity. These input models are 1) converted to a standardized statistical representation relying on probabilistic graphical models, 2) coupled by modeling their mutual relations with the physical world, and 3) finally harmonized with respect to each other. To illustrate Bayesian metamodeling, we provide a proof-of-principle metamodel of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion by human pancreatic β-cells. The input models include a coarse-grained spatiotemporal simulation of insulin vesicle trafficking, docking, and exocytosis; a molecular network model of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion signaling; a network model of insulin metabolism; a structural model of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor activation; a linear model of a pancreatic cell population; and ordinary differential equations for systemic postprandial insulin response. Metamodeling benefits from decentralized computing, while often producing a more accurate, precise, and complete model that contextualizes input models as well as resolves conflicting information. We anticipate Bayesian metamodeling will facilitate collaborative science by providing a framework for sharing expertise, resources, data, and models, as exemplified by the Pancreatic β-Cell Consortium.

Microtubules and Gαo-signaling modulate the preferential secretion of young insulin secretory granules in islet β cells via independent pathways

For sustainable function, each pancreatic islet β cell maintains thousands of insulin secretory granules (SGs) at all times. Glucose stimulation induces the secretion of a small portion of these SGs and simultaneously boosts SG biosynthesis to sustain this stock. The failure of these processes, often induced by sustained high-insulin output, results in type 2 diabetes. Intriguingly, young insulin SGs are more likely secreted during glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) for unknown reasons, while older SGs tend to lose releasability and be degraded. Here, we examine the roles of microtubule (MT) and Gαo-signaling in regulating the preferential secretion of young versus old SGs. We show that both MT-destabilization and Gαo inactivation results in more SGs localization near plasma membrane (PM) despite higher levels of GSIS and reduced SG biosynthesis. Intriguingly, MT-destabilization or Gαo-inactivation results in higher secretion probabilities of older SGs, while combining both having additive effects on boosting GSIS. Lastly, Gαo inactivation does not detectably destabilize the β-cell MT network. These findings suggest that Gαo and MT can modulate the preferential release of younger insulin SGs via largely parallel pathways.

Short Duration Alagebrium Chloride Therapy Prediabetes Does Not Inhibit Progression to Autoimmune Diabetes in an Experimental Model

Mechanisms by which advanced glycation end products (AGEs) contribute to type 1 diabetes (T1D) pathogenesis are poorly understood. Since life-long pharmacotherapy with alagebrium chloride (ALT) slows progression to experimental T1D, we hypothesized that acute ALT therapy delivered prediabetes, may be effective. However, in female, non-obese diabetic (NODShiLt) mice, ALT administered prediabetes (day 50-100) did not protect against experimental T1D. ALT did not decrease circulating AGEs or their precursors. Despite this, pancreatic β-cell function was improved, and insulitis and pancreatic CD45.1+ cell infiltration was reduced. Lymphoid tissues were unaffected. ALT pre-treatment, prior to transfer of primed GC98 CD8+ T cell receptor transgenic T cells, reduced blood glucose concentrations and delayed diabetes, suggesting islet effects rather than immune modulation by ALT. Indeed, ALT did not reduce interferon-γ production by leukocytes from ovalbumin-pre-immunised NODShiLt mice and NODscid recipients given diabetogenic ALT treated NOD splenocytes were not protected against T1D. To elucidate β-cell effects, NOD-derived MIN6N8 β-cell major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class Ia surface antigens were examined using immunopeptidomics. Overall, no major changes in the immunopeptidome were observed during the various treatments with all peptides exhibiting allele specific consensus binding motifs. As expected, longer MHC Class Ia peptides were captured bound to H-2Db than H-2Kb under all conditions. Moreover, more 10-12 mer peptides were isolated from H-2Db after AGE modified bovine serum albumin (AGE-BSA) treatment, compared with bovine serum albumin (BSA) or AGE-BSA+ALT treatment. Proteomics of MIN6N8 cells showed enrichment of processes associated with catabolism, the immune system, cell cycling and presynaptic endocytosis with AGE-BSA compared with BSA treatments. These data show that short-term ALT intervention, given prediabetes, does not arrest experimental T1D but transiently impacts β-cell function.

The PKD-Dependent Biogenesis of TGN-to-Plasma Membrane Transport Carriers

Membrane trafficking is essential for processing and transport of proteins and lipids and to establish cell compartmentation and tissue organization. Cells respond to their needs and control the quantity and quality of protein secretion accordingly. In this review, we focus on a particular membrane trafficking route from the trans-Golgi network (TGN) to the cell surface: protein kinase D (PKD)-dependent pathway for constitutive secretion mediated by carriers of the TGN to the cell surface (CARTS). Recent findings highlight the importance of lipid signaling by organelle membrane contact sites (MCSs) in this pathway. Finally, we discuss our current understanding of multiple signaling pathways for membrane trafficking regulation mediated by PKD, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), growth factors, metabolites, and mechanosensors.

Measurement of Pulsatile Insulin Secretion: Rationale and Methodology

Pancreatic β-cells are responsible for the synthesis and exocytosis of insulin in response to an increase in circulating glucose. Insulin secretion occurs in a pulsatile manner, with oscillatory pulses superimposed on a basal secretion rate. Insulin pulses are a marker of β-cell health, and secretory parameters, such as pulse amplitude, time interval and frequency distribution, are impaired in obesity, aging and type 2 diabetes. In this review, we detail the mechanisms of insulin production and β-cell synchronization that regulate pulsatile insulin secretion, and we discuss the challenges to consider when measuring fast oscillatory secretion in vivo. These include the anatomical difficulties of measuring portal vein insulin noninvasively in humans before the hormone is extracted by the liver and quickly removed from the circulation. Peripheral concentrations of insulin or C-peptide, a peptide cosecreted with insulin, can be used to estimate their secretion profile, but mathematical deconvolution is required. Parametric and nonparametric approaches to the deconvolution problem are evaluated, alongside the assumptions and trade-offs required for their application in the quantification of unknown insulin secretory rates from known peripheral concentrations. Finally, we discuss the therapeutical implication of targeting impaired pulsatile secretion and its diagnostic value as an early indicator of β-cell stress.

Temporal Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Dynamic Gene Expression Patterns Driving β-Cell Maturation

Newly differentiated pancreatic β cells lack proper insulin secretion profiles of mature functional β cells. The global gene expression differences between paired immature and mature β cells have been studied, but the dynamics of transcriptional events, correlating with temporal development of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), remain to be fully defined. This aspect is important to identify which genes and pathways are necessary for β-cell development or for maturation, as defective insulin secretion is linked with diseases such as diabetes. In this study, we assayed through RNA sequencing the global gene expression across six β-cell developmental stages in mice, spanning from β-cell progenitor to mature β cells. A computational pipeline then selected genes differentially expressed with respect to progenitors and clustered them into groups with distinct temporal patterns associated with biological functions and pathways. These patterns were finally correlated with experimental GSIS, calcium influx, and insulin granule formation data. Gene expression temporal profiling revealed the timing of important biological processes across β-cell maturation, such as the deregulation of β-cell developmental pathways and the activation of molecular machineries for vesicle biosynthesis and transport, signal transduction of transmembrane receptors, and glucose-induced Ca²⁺ influx, which were established over a week before β-cell maturation completes. In particular, β cells developed robust insulin secretion at high glucose several days after birth, coincident with the establishment of glucose-induced calcium influx. Yet the neonatal β cells displayed high basal insulin secretion, which decreased to the low levels found in mature β cells only a week later. Different genes associated with calcium-mediated processes, whose alterations are linked with insulin resistance and deregulation of glucose homeostasis, showed increased expression across β-cell stages, in accordance with the temporal acquisition of proper GSIS. Our temporal gene expression pattern analysis provided a comprehensive database of the underlying molecular components and biological mechanisms driving β-cell maturation at different temporal stages, which are fundamental for better control of the in vitro production of functional β cells from human embryonic stem/induced pluripotent cell for transplantation-based type 1 diabetes therapy.

Granular detail of β cell structures for insulin secretion

Pancreatic β cells secrete insulin in response to increased glucose concentrations. Müller et al. (2021. J. Cell Biol. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202010039) use 3D FIB-SEM to study the architecture of these cells and to elucidate how glucose stimulation remodels microtubules to control insulin secretory granule exocytosis.

3D FIB-SEM reconstruction of microtubule-organelle interaction in whole primary mouse β cells

Microtubules play a major role in intracellular trafficking of vesicles in endocrine cells. Detailed knowledge of microtubule organization and their relation to other cell constituents is crucial for understanding cell function. However, their role in insulin transport and secretion is under debate. Here, we use FIB-SEM to image islet β cells in their entirety with unprecedented resolution. We reconstruct mitochondria, Golgi apparati, centrioles, insulin secretory granules, and microtubules of seven β cells, and generate a comprehensive spatial map of microtubule-organelle interactions. We find that microtubules form nonradial networks that are predominantly not connected to either centrioles or endomembranes. Microtubule number and length, but not microtubule polymer density, vary with glucose stimulation. Furthermore, insulin secretory granules are enriched near the plasma membrane, where they associate with microtubules. In summary, we provide the first 3D reconstructions of complete microtubule networks in primary mammalian cells together with evidence regarding their importance for insulin secretory granule positioning and thus their supportive role in insulin secretion.

Modulation of Insulin Sensitivity by Insulin-Degrading Enzyme

Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) is a highly conserved and ubiquitously expressed metalloprotease that degrades insulin and several other intermediate-size peptides. For many decades, IDE had been assumed to be involved primarily in hepatic insulin clearance, a key process that regulates availability of circulating insulin levels for peripheral tissues. Emerging evidence, however, suggests that IDE has several other important physiological functions relevant to glucose and insulin homeostasis, including the regulation of insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells. Investigation of mice with tissue-specific genetic deletion of Ide in the liver and pancreatic β-cells (L-IDE-KO and B-IDE-KO mice, respectively) has revealed additional roles for IDE in the regulation of hepatic insulin action and sensitivity. In this review, we discuss current knowledge about IDE’s function as a regulator of insulin secretion and hepatic insulin sensitivity, both evaluating the classical view of IDE as an insulin protease and also exploring evidence for several non-proteolytic functions. Insulin proteostasis and insulin sensitivity have both been highlighted as targets controlling blood sugar levels in type 2 diabetes, so a clearer understanding the physiological functions of IDE in pancreas and liver could led to the development of novel therapeutics for the treatment of this disease.

AKAP6 orchestrates the nuclear envelope microtubule-organizing center by linking golgi and nucleus via AKAP9

The switch from centrosomal microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) to non-centrosomal MTOCs during differentiation is poorly understood. Here, we identify AKAP6 as key component of the nuclear envelope MTOC. In rat cardiomyocytes, AKAP6 anchors centrosomal proteins to the nuclear envelope through its spectrin repeats, acting as an adaptor between nesprin-1α and Pcnt or AKAP9. In addition, AKAP6 and AKAP9 form a protein platform tethering the Golgi to the nucleus. Both Golgi and nuclear envelope exhibit MTOC activity utilizing either AKAP9, or Pcnt-AKAP9, respectively. AKAP6 is also required for formation and activity of the nuclear envelope MTOC in human osteoclasts. Moreover, ectopic expression of AKAP6 in epithelial cells is sufficient to recruit endogenous centrosomal proteins. Finally, AKAP6 is required for cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and osteoclast bone resorption activity. Collectively, we decipher the MTOC at the nuclear envelope as a bi-layered structure generating two pools of microtubules with AKAP6 as a key organizer.

Integration of single-cell datasets reveals novel transcriptomic signatures of β-cells in human type 2 diabetes

Pancreatic islet β-cell failure is key to the onset and progression of type 2 diabetes (T2D). The advent of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has opened the possibility to determine transcriptional signatures specifically relevant for T2D at the β-cell level. Yet, applications of this technique have been underwhelming, as three independent studies failed to show shared differentially expressed genes in T2D β-cells. We performed an integrative analysis of the available datasets from these studies to overcome confounding sources of variability and better highlight common T2D β-cell transcriptomic signatures. After removing low-quality transcriptomes, we retained 3046 single cells expressing 27 931 genes. Cells were integrated to attenuate dataset-specific biases, and clustered into cell type groups. In T2D β-cells (n = 801), we found 210 upregulated and 16 downregulated genes, identifying key pathways for T2D pathogenesis, including defective insulin secretion, SREBP signaling and oxidative stress. We also compared these results with previous data of human T2D β-cells from laser capture microdissection and diabetic rat islets, revealing shared β-cell genes. Overall, the present study encourages the pursuit of single β-cell RNA-seq analysis, preventing presently identified sources of variability, to identify transcriptomic changes associated with human T2D and underscores specific traits of dysfunctional β-cells across different models and techniques.

Insulin granule biogenesis and exocytosis

Insulin is produced by pancreatic β-cells, and once released to the blood, the hormone stimulates glucose uptake and suppresses glucose production. Defects in both the availability and action of insulin lead to elevated plasma glucose levels and are major hallmarks of type-2 diabetes. Insulin is stored in secretory granules that form at the trans-Golgi network. The granules undergo extensive modifications en route to their release sites at the plasma membrane, including changes in both protein and lipid composition of the granule membrane and lumen. In parallel, the insulin molecules also undergo extensive modifications that render the hormone biologically active. In this review, we summarize current understanding of insulin secretory granule biogenesis, maturation, transport, docking, priming and eventual fusion with the plasma membrane. We discuss how different pools of granules form and how these pools contribute to insulin secretion under different conditions. We also highlight the role of the β-cell in the development of type-2 diabetes and discuss how dysregulation of one or several steps in the insulin granule life cycle may contribute to disease development or progression.

The adaptor protein APPL2 controls glucose-stimulated insulin secretion via F-actin remodeling in pancreatic β-cells

Filamentous actin (F-actin) cytoskeletal remodeling is critical for glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in pancreatic β-cells, and its dysregulation causes type 2 diabetes. The adaptor protein APPL1 promotes first-phase GSIS by up-regulating soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein expression. However, whether APPL2 (a close homology of APPL1 with the same domain organization) plays a role in β-cell functions is unknown. Here, we show that APPL2 enhances GSIS by promoting F-actin remodeling via the small GTPase Rac1 in pancreatic β-cells. β-cell specific abrogation of APPL2 impaired GSIS, leading to glucose intolerance in mice. APPL2 deficiency largely abolished glucose-induced first- and second-phase insulin secretion in pancreatic islets. Real-time live-cell imaging and phalloidin staining revealed that APPL2 deficiency abolished glucose-induced F-actin depolymerization in pancreatic islets. Likewise, knockdown of APPL2 expression impaired glucose-stimulated F-actin depolymerization and subsequent insulin secretion in INS-1E cells, which were attributable to the impairment of Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) activation. Treatment with the F-actin depolymerization chemical compounds or overexpression of gelsolin (a F-actin remodeling protein) rescued APPL2 deficiency-induced defective GSIS. In addition, APPL2 interacted with Rac GTPase activating protein 1 (RacGAP1) in a glucose-dependent manner via the bin/amphiphysin/rvs-pleckstrin homology (BAR-PH) domain of APPL2 in INS-1E cells and HEK293 cells. Concomitant knockdown of RacGAP1 expression reverted APPL2 deficiency-induced defective GSIS, F-actin remodeling, and Rac1 activation in INS-1E cells. Our data indicate that APPL2 interacts with RacGAP1 and suppresses its negative action on Rac1 activity and F-actin depolymerization thereby enhancing GSIS in pancreatic β-cells.

Glucose Regulates Microtubule Disassembly and the Dose of Insulin Secretion via Tau Phosphorylation

The microtubule cytoskeleton of pancreatic islet β-cells regulates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). We have reported that the microtubule-mediated movement of insulin vesicles away from the plasma membrane limits insulin secretion. High glucose-induced remodeling of microtubule network facilitates robust GSIS. This remodeling involves disassembly of old microtubules and nucleation of new microtubules. Here, we examine the mechanisms whereby glucose stimulation decreases microtubule lifetimes in β-cells. Using real-time imaging of photoconverted microtubules, we demonstrate that high levels of glucose induce rapid microtubule disassembly preferentially in the periphery of individual β-cells, and this process is mediated by the phosphorylation of microtubule-associated protein tau. Specifically, high glucose induces tau hyper-phosphorylation via glucose-responsive kinases GSK3, PKA, PKC, and CDK5. This causes dissociation of tau from and subsequent destabilization of microtubules. Consequently, tau knockdown in mouse islet β-cells facilitates microtubule turnover, causing increased basal insulin secretion, depleting insulin vesicles from the cytoplasm, and impairing GSIS. More importantly, tau knockdown uncouples microtubule destabilization from glucose stimulation. These findings suggest that tau suppresses peripheral microtubules turning over to restrict insulin oversecretion in basal conditions and preserve the insulin pool that can be released following stimulation; high glucose promotes tau phosphorylation to enhance microtubule disassembly to acutely enhance GSIS.

α-catenin isoforms are regulated by glucose and involved in regulating insulin secretion in rat clonal β-cell models

The recent finding that β-catenin levels play an important rate-limiting role in processes regulating insulin secretion lead us to investigate whether its binding partner α-catenin also plays a role in this process. We find that levels of both α-E-catenin and α-N-catenin are rapidly up-regulated as levels of glucose are increased in rat clonal β-cell models INS-1E and INS-832/3. Lowering in levels of either α-catenin isoform using siRNA resulted in significant increases in glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and this effect was attenuated when β-catenin levels were lowered indicating these proteins have opposing effects on insulin release. This effect of α-catenin knockdown on GSIS was not due to increases in insulin expression but was associated with increases in calcium influx into cells. Moreover, simultaneous depletion of α-E catenin and α-N catenin decreased the actin polymerisation to a similar degree as latrunculin treatment and inhibition of ARP 2/3 mediated actin branching with CK666 attenuated the α-catenin depletion effect on GSIS. This suggests α-catenin mediated actin remodelling may be involved in the regulation of insulin secretion. Together this indicates that α-catenin and β-catenin can play opposing roles in regulating insulin secretion, with some degree of functional redundancy in roles of α-E-catenin and α-N-catenin. The finding that, at least in β-cell models, the levels of each can be regulated in the longer term by glucose also provides a potential mechanism by which sustained changes in glucose levels might impact on the magnitude of GSIS.

Islet-expressed circular RNAs are associated with type 2 diabetes status in human primary islets and in peripheral blood

BACKGROUND

Circular RNAs are non-coding RNA molecules with gene regulatory potential that have been associated with several human diseases. They are stable and present in the circulation, making them excellent candidates for biomarkers of disease. Despite their promise as biomarkers or future therapeutic targets, information on their expression and functionality in human pancreatic islets is a relatively unexplored subject.

METHODS

Here we aimed to produce an enriched circRNAome profile for human pancreatic islets by CircleSeq, and to explore the relationship between circRNA expression, diabetes status, genotype at T2D risk loci and measures of glycaemia (insulin secretory index; SI and HbA1c) in human islet preparations from healthy control donors and donors with type 2 diabetes using ANOVA or linear regression as appropriate. We also assessed the effect of elevated glucose, cytokine and lipid and hypoxia on circRNA expression in the human beta cell line EndoC-βH1.

RESULTS

We identified over 2600 circRNAs present in human islets. Of the five most abundant circRNAs in human islets, four (circCIRBP, circZKSCAN, circRPH3AL and circCAMSAP1) demonstrated marked associations with diabetes status. CircCIRBP demonstrated an association with insulin secretory index in isolated human islets and circCIRBP and circRPH3AL displayed altered expression with elevated fatty acid in treated EndoC-βH1 cells. CircCAMSAP1 was also noted to be associated with T2D status in human peripheral blood. No associations between circRNA expression and genotype at T2D risk loci were identified in our samples.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that circRNAs are abundantly expressed in human islets, and that some are differentially regulated in the islets of donors with type 2 diabetes. Some islet circRNAs are also expressed in peripheral blood and the expression of one, circCAMSAP1, correlates with diabetes status. These findings highlight the potential of circRNAs as biomarkers for T2D.

Recent Insights into Beta-cell Exocytosis in Type 2 Diabetes

As one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, diabetes affects an estimated 422 million adults, and it is expected to continue expanding such that by 2050, 30% of the U.S. population will become diabetic within their lifetime. Out of the estimated 422 million people currently afflicted with diabetes worldwide, about 5% have type 1 diabetes (T1D), while the remaining ~95% of diabetics have type 2 diabetes (T2D). Type 1 diabetes results from the autoimmune-mediated destruction of functional β-cell mass, whereas T2D results from combinatorial defects in functional β-cell mass plus peripheral glucose uptake. Both types of diabetes are now believed to be preceded by β-cell dysfunction. T2D is increasingly associated with numerous reports of deficiencies in the exocytosis proteins that regulate insulin release from β-cells, specifically the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins. SNARE protein's functionality is further regulated by a variety of accessory factors such as Sec1/Munc18 (SM), double C2-domain proteins (DOC2), and additional interacting proteins at the cell surface that influence the fidelity of insulin release. As new evidence emerges about the detailed mechanisms of exocytosis, new questions and controversies have come to light. This emerging information is also contributing to dialogue in the islet biology field focused on how to correct the defects in insulin exocytosis. Herein we present a balanced review of the role of exocytosis proteins in T2D, with thoughts on novel strategies to protect functional β-cell mass.

Kindlin-2 modulates MafA and β-catenin expression to regulate β-cell function and mass in mice

β-Cell dysfunction and reduction in β-cell mass are hallmark events of diabetes mellitus. Here we show that β-cells express abundant Kindlin-2 and deleting its expression causes severe diabetes-like phenotypes without markedly causing peripheral insulin resistance. Kindlin-2, through its C-terminal region, binds to and stabilizes MafA, which activates insulin expression. Kindlin-2 loss impairs insulin secretion in primary human and mouse islets in vitro and in mice by reducing, at least in part, Ca²⁺ release in β-cells. Kindlin-2 loss activates GSK-3β and downregulates β-catenin, leading to reduced β-cell proliferation and mass. Kindlin-2 loss reduces the percentage of β-cells and concomitantly increases that of α-cells during early pancreatic development. Genetic activation of β-catenin in β-cells restores the diabetes-like phenotypes induced by Kindlin-2 loss. Finally, the inducible deletion of β-cell Kindlin-2 causes diabetic phenotypes in adult mice. Collectively, our results establish an important function of Kindlin-2 and provide a potential therapeutic target for diabetes.

Beta cell dysfunction and reduction in beta cell mass are hallmark events in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus. We identify focal adhesion protein Kindlin-2 as a key factor that controls insulin synthesis and secretion and beta cell mass by modulating MafA and beta-catenin proteins in pancreatic beta cells.

Detection of Microtubule Nucleation Hotspots at the Golgi

Cell polarization is important for multiple physiological processes. In motile cells, microtubules (MTs) are organized as a polarized array, which is to a large extent comprised of Golgi-derived MTs (GDMTs), which asymmetrically extend toward the cell front. We have recently found that GDMT asymmetry is based on a nonrandom positioning of spatially restricted nucleation hotspots, where MTs form in a cooperative manner. Here, we summarize methods used for GDMT identification including microtubule regrowth after complete drug-induced depolymerization and tracking of growing microtubules using fluorescent MT plus-end-tracking proteins (+TIPs) in living cells, and subsequent detection of those GDMTs that originate from the nucleation hotspots. These approaches can be used for quantification of the spatial distribution of MT nucleation events associated with the Golgi or another large structure.

The Golgi apparatus and cell polarity: Roles of the cytoskeleton, the Golgi matrix, and Golgi membranes

Membrane trafficking plays a crucial role in cell polarity by directing lipids and proteins to specific subcellular locations in the cell and sustaining a polarized state. The Golgi apparatus, the master organizer of membrane trafficking, can be subdivided into three layers that play different mechanical roles: a cytoskeletal layer, the so-called Golgi matrix, and the Golgi membranes. First, the outer regions of the Golgi apparatus interact with cytoskeletal elements, mainly actin and microtubules, which shape, position, and orient the organelle. Closer to the Golgi membranes, a matrix of long coiled-coiled proteins not only selectively captures transport intermediates but also participates in signaling events during polarization of membrane trafficking. Finally, the Golgi membranes themselves serve as active signaling platforms during cell polarity events. We review here the recent findings that link the Golgi apparatus to cell polarity, focusing on the roles of the cytoskeleton, the Golgi matrix, and the Golgi membranes.

Microtubules Regulate Localization and Availability of Insulin Granules in Pancreatic Beta Cells

Two key prerequisites for glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in β cells are the proximity of insulin granules to the plasma membrane and their anchoring or docking to the plasma membrane (PM). Although recent evidence has indicated that both of these factors are altered in the context of diabetes, it is unclear what regulates localization of insulin granules and their interactions with the PM within single cells. Here, we demonstrate that microtubule (MT)-motor-mediated transport dynamics have a critical role in regulating both factors. Super-resolution imaging shows that whereas the MT cytoskeleton resembles a random meshwork in the cells' interior, MTs near the cell surface are preferentially aligned with the PM. Computational modeling suggests two consequences of this alignment. First, this structured MT network preferentially withdraws granules from the PM. Second, the binding and transport of insulin granules by MT motors prevents their stable anchoring to the PM. These findings suggest the MT cytoskeleton may negatively regulate GSIS by both limiting the amount of insulin proximal to the PM and preventing or breaking interactions between the PM and the remaining nearby insulin granules. These results predict that altering MT network structure in β cells can be used to tune GSIS. Thus, our study points to the potential of an alternative therapeutic strategy for diabetes by targeting specific MT regulators.

A New Look at the Functional Organization of the Golgi Ribbon

A characteristic feature of vertebrate cells is a Golgi ribbon consisting of multiple cisternal stacks connected into a single-copy organelle next to the centrosome. Despite numerous studies, the mechanisms that link the stacks together and the functional significance of ribbon formation remain poorly understood. Nevertheless, these questions are of considerable interest, since there is increasing evidence that Golgi fragmentation – the unlinking of the stacks in the ribbon – is intimately connected not only to normal physiological processes, such as cell division and migration, but also to pathological states, including neurodegeneration and cancer. Challenging a commonly held view that ribbon architecture involves the formation of homotypic tubular bridges between the Golgi stacks, we present an alternative model, based on direct interaction between the biosynthetic (pre-Golgi) and endocytic (post-Golgi) membrane networks and their connection with the centrosome. We propose that the central domains of these permanent pre- and post-Golgi networks function together in the biogenesis and maintenance of the more transient Golgi stacks, and thereby establish “linker compartments” that dynamically join the stacks together. This model provides insight into the reversible fragmentation of the Golgi ribbon that takes place in dividing and migrating cells and its regulation along a cell surface – Golgi – centrosome axis. Moreover, it helps to understand transport pathways that either traverse or bypass the Golgi stacks and the positioning of the Golgi apparatus in differentiated neuronal, epithelial, and muscle cells.

Regulation of Glucose-Dependent Golgi-Derived Microtubules by cAMP/EPAC2 Promotes Secretory Vesicle Biogenesis in Pancreatic β Cells

The microtubule (MT) network is an essential regulator of insulin secretion from pancreatic β cells, which is central to blood-sugar homeostasis. We find that when glucose metabolism induces insulin secretion, it also increases formation of Golgi-derived microtubules (GDMTs), notably with the same biphasic kinetics as insulin exocytosis. Furthermore, GDMT nucleation is controlled by a glucose signal-transduction pathway through cAMP and its effector EPAC2. Preventing new GDMT nucleation dramatically affects the pipeline of insulin production, storage, and release. There is an overall reduction of β-cell insulin content, and remaining insulin becomes retained within the Golgi, likely because of stalling of insulin-granule budding. While not preventing glucose-induced insulin exocytosis, the diminished granule availability substantially blunts the amount secreted. Constant dynamic maintenance of the GDMT network is therefore critical for normal β-cell physiology. Our study demonstrates that the biogenesis of post-Golgi carriers, particularly large secretory granules, requires ongoing nucleation and replenishment of the GDMT network.

A glucose-dependent spatial patterning of exocytosis in human β-cells is disrupted in type 2 diabetes

Impaired insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes (T2D) is linked to reduced insulin granule docking, disorganization of the exocytotic site, and an impaired glucose-dependent facilitation of insulin exocytosis. We show in β-cells from 80 human donors that the glucose-dependent amplification of exocytosis is disrupted in T2D. Spatial analyses of granule fusion, visualized by total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy in 24 of these donors, demonstrate that these are non-random across the surface of β-cells from donors with no diabetes (ND). The compartmentalization of events occurs within regions defined by concurrent or recent membrane-resident secretory granules. This organization, and the number of membrane-associated granules, is glucose-dependent and notably impaired in T2D β-cells. Mechanistically, multi-channel Kv2.1 clusters contribute to maintaining the density of membrane-resident granules and the number of fusion 'hotspots', while SUMOylation sites at the channel N- (K145) and C-terminus (K470) determine the relative proportion of fusion events occurring within these regions. Thus, a glucose-dependent compartmentalization of fusion, regulated in part by a structural role for Kv2.1, is disrupted in β-cells from donors with type 2 diabetes.

Subdiffusive Dynamics Lead to Depleted Particle Densities near Cellular Borders

It has long been known that the complex cellular environment leads to anomalous motion of intracellular particles. At a gross level, this is characterized by mean-squared displacements that deviate from the standard linear profile. Statistical analysis of particle trajectories has helped further elucidate how different characteristics of the cellular environment can introduce different types of anomalousness. A significant majority of this literature has, however, focused on characterizing the properties of trajectories that do not interact with cell borders (e.g., cell membrane or nucleus). Numerous biological processes ranging from protein activation to exocytosis, however, require particles to be near a membrane. This study investigates the consequences of a canonical type of subdiffusive motion, fractional Brownian motion, and its physical analog, generalized Langevin equation dynamics, on the spatial localization of particles near reflecting boundaries. Results show that this type of subdiffusive motion leads to the formation of significant zones of depleted particle density near boundaries and that this effect is independent of the specific model details encoding those dynamics. Rather, these depletion layers are a natural and robust consequence of the anticorrelated nature of motion increments that is at the core of fractional Brownian motion (or alternatively generalized Langevin equation) dynamics. If such depletion zones are present, it would be of profound importance given the wide array of signaling and transport processes that occur near membranes. If not, that would suggest our understanding of this type of anomalous motion may be flawed. Either way, this result points to the need to further investigate the consequences of anomalous particle motions near cell borders from both theoretical and experimental perspectives.

Transgene-associated human growth hormone expression in pancreatic β-cells impairs identification of sex-based gene expression differences

Fluorescent protein reporter genes are widely used to identify and sort murine pancreatic β-cells. In this study, we compared use of the MIP-GFP transgene, which exhibits aberrant expression of human growth hormone (hGH), with a newly derived Ins2^Apple allele that lacks hGH expression on the expression of sex-specific genes. β-Cells from MIP-GFP transgenic mice exhibit changes in the expression of 7,733 genes, or greater than half of their transcriptome, compared with β-cells from Ins2^Apple/+ mice. To determine how these differences might affect a typical differential gene expression study, we analyzed the effect of sex on gene expression using both reporter lines. Six hundred fifty-seven differentially expressed genes were identified between male and female β-cells containing the Ins2^Apple allele. Female β-cells exhibit higher expression of Xist, Tmed9, Arpc3, Eml2, and several islet-enriched transcription factors, including Nkx2-2 and Hnf4a, whereas male β-cells exhibited a generally higher expression of genes involved in cell cycle regulation. In marked contrast, the same male vs. female comparison of β-cells containing the MIP-GFP transgene revealed only 115 differentially expressed genes, and comparison of the 2 lists of differentially expressed genes revealed only 17 that were common to both analyses. These results indicate that 1) male and female β-cells differ in their expression of key transcription factors and cell cycle regulators and 2) the MIP-GFP transgene may attenuate sex-specific differences that distinguish male and female β-cells, thereby impairing the identification of sex-specific variations.

Mammalian Target of Rapamycin at the Crossroad Between Alzheimer's Disease and Diabetes

Accumulating evidence suggests that Alzheimer's disease may manifest as a metabolic disorder with pathology and/or dysfunction in numerous tissues. Adults with Alzheimer's disease suffer with significantly more comorbidities than demographically matched Medicare beneficiaries (Zhao et al, BMC Health Serv Res 8:108, 2008b). Reciprocally, comorbid health conditions increase the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (Haaksma et al, PLoS One 12(5):e0177044, 2017). Type 2 diabetes mellitus is especially notable as the disease shares many overlapping pathologies observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease, including hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, dyslipidemia, inflammation, and cognitive dysfunction, as described in Chap. 8 of this book (Yoshitake et al, Neurology 45(6):1161-1168, 1995; Leibson et al, Am J Epidemiol 145(4):301-308, 1997; Ott et al, Neurology 53(9):1937-1942, 1999; Voisin et al, Rev Med Interne 24(Suppl 3):288s-291s, 2003; Janson et al. Diabetes 53(2):474-481, 2004; Ristow M, J Mol Med (Berl) 82(8):510-529, 2004; Whitmer et al, BMJ 330(7504):1360, 2005, Curr Alzheimer Res 4(2):103-109, 2007; Ohara et al, Neurology 77(12):1126-1134, 2011). Although nondiabetic older adults also experience age-related cognitive decline, diabetes is uniquely associated with a twofold increased risk of Alzheimer's disease, as described in Chap. 2 of this book (Yoshitake et al, Neurology 45(6):1161-1168, 1995; Leibson et al, Am J Epidemiol 145(4):301-308, 1997; Ott et al. Neurology 53(9):1937-1942, 1999; Ohara et al, Neurology 77(12):1126-1134, 2011). Good glycemic control has been shown to improve cognitive status (Cukierman-et al, Diabetes Care 32(2):221-226, 2009), and the use of insulin sensitizers is correlated with a lower rate of cognitive decline in older adults (Morris JK, Burns JM, Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 12(5):520-527, 2012). At the molecular level, the mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) plays a key role in maintaining energy homeostasis. Nutrient availability and cellular stress information, both extracellular and intracellular, are integrated and transduced through mTOR signaling pathways. Aberrant regulation of mTOR occurs in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease and in numerous tissues of individuals with type 2 diabetes (Mannaa et al, J Mol Med (Berl) 91(10):1167-1175, 2013). Moreover, modulating mTOR activity with a pharmacological inhibitor, rapamycin, provides wide-ranging health benefits, including healthy life span extension in numerous model organisms (Vellai et al, Nature 426(6967):620, 2003; Jia et al, Development 131(16):3897-3906, 2004; Kapahi et al, Curr Biol 14(10):885-890, 2004; Kaeberlein et al, Science 310(5751):1193-1196, 2005; Powers et al, Genes Dev 20(2):174-184, 2006; Harrison et al, Nature 460(7253):392-395, 2009; Selman et al, Science 326(5949):140-144, 2009; Sharp ZD, Strong R, J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 65(6):580-589, 2010), which underscores its importance to overall organismal health and longevity. In this chapter, we discuss the physiological role of mTOR signaling and the consequences of mTOR dysregulation in the brain and peripheral tissues, with emphasis on its relevance to the development of Alzheimer's disease and link to type 2 diabetes.

The dual role of the centrosome in organizing the microtubule network in interphase

Here, we address the regulation of microtubule nucleation during interphase by genetically ablating one, or two, of three major mammalian γ-TuRC-binding factors namely pericentrin, CDK5Rap2, and AKAP450. Unexpectedly, we find that while all of them participate in microtubule nucleation at the Golgi apparatus, they only modestly contribute at the centrosome where CEP192 has a more predominant function. We also show that inhibiting microtubule nucleation at the Golgi does not affect centrosomal activity, whereas manipulating the number of centrosomes with centrinone modifies microtubule nucleation activity of the Golgi apparatus. In centrosome-free cells, inhibition of Golgi-based microtubule nucleation triggers pericentrin-dependent formation of cytoplasmic-nucleating structures. Further depletion of pericentrin under these conditions leads to the generation of individual microtubules in a γ-tubulin-dependent manner. In all cases, a conspicuous MT network forms. Strikingly, centrosome loss increases microtubule number independently of where they were growing from. Our results lead to an unexpected view of the interphase centrosome that would control microtubule network organization not only by nucleating microtubules, but also by modulating the activity of alternative microtubule-organizing centers.

Time zones of pancreatic islet metabolism

Most living beings possess an intrinsic system of circadian oscillators, allowing anticipation of the Earth's rotation around its own axis. The mammalian circadian timing system orchestrates nearly all aspects of physiology and behaviour. Together with systemic signals originating from the central clock that resides in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus, peripheral oscillators orchestrate tissue-specific fluctuations in gene transcription and translation, and posttranslational modifications, driving overt rhythms in physiology and behaviour. There is accumulating evidence of a reciprocal connection between the circadian oscillator and most aspects of physiology and metabolism, in particular as the circadian system plays a critical role in orchestrating body glucose homeostasis. Recent reports imply that circadian clocks operative in the endocrine pancreas regulate insulin secretion, and that islet clock perturbation in rodents leads to the development of overt type 2 diabetes. While whole islet clocks have been extensively studied during the last years, the heterogeneity of islet cell oscillators and the interplay between α- and β-cellular clocks for orchestrating glucagon and insulin secretion have only recently gained attention. Here, we review recent findings on the molecular makeup of the circadian clocks operative in pancreatic islet cells in rodents and in humans, and focus on the physiologically relevant synchronizers that are resetting these time-keepers. Moreover, the implication of islet clock functional outputs in the temporal coordination of metabolism in health and disease will be highlighted.