A new approach to the diagnosis and treatment of atherosclerosis: the era of the liposome

Advances in nanobased platforms for cardiovascular diseases: Early diagnosis, imaging, treatment, and tissue engineering

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) present a significant threat to health, with traditional therapeutics based treatment being hindered by inefficiencies, limited biological effects, and resistance to conventional drug. Addressing these challenges requires advanced approaches for early disease diagnosis and therapy. Nanotechnology and nanomedicine have emerged as promising avenues for personalized CVD diagnosis and treatment through theranostic agents. Nanoparticles serve as nanodevices or nanocarriers, efficiently transporting drugs to injury sites. These nanocarriers offer the potential for precise drug and gene delivery, overcoming issues like bioavailability and solubility. By attaching specific target molecules to nanoparticle surfaces, controlled drug release to targeted areas becomes feasible. In the field of cardiology, nanoplatforms have gained popularity due to their attributes, such as passive or active targeting of cardiac tissues, enhanced sensitivity and specificity, and easy penetration into heart and artery tissues due to their small size. However, concerns persist about the immunogenicity and cytotoxicity of nanomaterials, necessitating careful consideration. Nanoparticles also hold promise for CVD diagnosis and imaging, enabling straightforward diagnostic procedures and real-time tracking during therapy. Nanotechnology has revolutionized cardiovascular imaging, yielding multimodal and multifunctional vehicles that outperform traditional methods. The paper provides an overview of nanomaterial delivery routes, targeting techniques, and recent advances in treating, diagnosing, and engineering tissues for CVDs. It also discusses the future potential of nanomaterials in CVDs, including theranostics, aiming to enhance cardiovascular treatment in clinical practice. Ultimately, refining nanocarriers and delivery methods has the potential to enhance treatment effectiveness, minimize side effects, and improve patients' well-being and outcomes.

DNA methylation and histone post-translational modifications in atherosclerosis and a novel perspective for epigenetic therapy

Atherosclerosis, which is a vascular pathology characterized by inflammation and plaque build-up within arterial vessel walls, acts as the important cause of most cardiovascular diseases. Except for a lipid-depository and chronic inflammatory, increasing evidences propose that epigenetic modifications are increasingly associated with atherosclerosis and are of interest from both therapeutic and biomarker perspectives. The chronic progressive nature of atherosclerosis has highlighted atherosclerosis heterogeneity and the fact that specific cell types in the complex milieu of the plaque are, by far, not the only initiators and drivers of atherosclerosis. Instead, the ubiquitous effects of cell type are tightly controlled and directed by the epigenetic signature, which, in turn, is affected by many proatherogenic stimuli, including low-density lipoprotein, proinflammatory, and physical forces of blood circulation. In this review, we summarize the role of DNA methylation and histone post-translational modifications in atherosclerosis. The future research directions and potential therapy for the management of atherosclerosis are also discussed. Video Abstract.

Sirt6 enhances macrophage lipophagy and improves lipid metabolism disorder by regulating the Wnt1/β-catenin pathway in atherosclerosis

Lipid metabolism disorders are considerably involved in the pathology of atherosclerosis; nevertheless, the fundamental mechanism is still largely unclear. This research sought to examine the function of lipophagy in lipid metabolism disorder-induced atherosclerosis and its fundamental mechanisms. Previously, Sirt6 has been reported to stimulate plaque stability by promoting macrophage autophagy. However, its role in macrophage lipophagy and its relationship with Wnt1 remains to be established. In this study, ApoE-/-: Sirt6-/- and ApoE-/-: Sirt6Tg mice were used and lipid droplets were analysed via transmission electron microscopy and Bodipy 493/503 staining in vitro. Atherosclerotic plaques in ApoE-/-: Sirt6-/- mice showed greater necrotic cores and lower stability score. Reconstitution of Sirt6 in atherosclerotic mice improved lipid metabolism disorder and prevented the progression of atherosclerosis. Furthermore, macrophages with Ac-LDL intervention showed more lipid droplets and increased expression of adipophilin and PLIN2. Reconstitution of Sirt6 recruited using SNF2H suppressed Wnt1 expression and improved lipid metabolism disorder by promoting lipophagy. In addition, downregulation of Sirt6 expression in Ac-LDL-treated macrophages inhibited lipid droplet degradation and stimulated foam cell formation. Innovative discoveries in the research revealed that atherosclerosis is caused by lipid metabolism disorders due to downregulated Sirt6 expression. Thus, modulating Sirt6's function in lipid metabolism might be a useful therapeutic approach for treating atherosclerosis.

Targeting and delivery of microRNA-targeting antisense oligonucleotides in cardiovascular diseases

Discovered three decades ago, microRNAs (miRNAs) are now recognized as key players in the pathophysiology of multiple human diseases, including those affecting the cardiovascular system. As such, miRNAs have emerged as promising therapeutic targets for preventing the onset and/or progression of several cardiovascular diseases. Anti-miRNA antisense oligonucleotides or "antagomirs" precisely block the activity of specific miRNAs and are therefore a promising therapeutic strategy to repress pathological miRNAs. In this review, we describe advancements in antisense oligonucleotide chemistry that have significantly improved efficacy and safety. Moreover, we summarize recent approaches for the targeted delivery of antagomirs to cardiovascular tissues, highlighting major advantages as well as limitations of viral (i.e., adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, and lentivirus) and non-viral (i.e., liposomes, extracellular vesicles, and polymer nanoparticles) delivery systems. We discuss recent preclinical studies that use targeted antagomir delivery systems to treat three major cardiovascular diseases (atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and cardiac hypertrophy, including hypertrophy caused by hypertension), highlighting therapeutic results and discussing challenges that limit clinical applicability.

Diagnostics of atherosclerosis: Overview of the existing methods

Atherosclerosis was and remains an extremely common and serious health problem. Since the elderly are most at risk of cardiovascular risk, and the average life expectancy is increasing, the spread of atherosclerosis and its consequences increases as well. One of the features of atherosclerosis is its asymptomaticity. This factor makes it difficult to make a timely diagnosis. This entails the lack of timely treatment and even prevention. To date, in the arsenal of physicians, there is only a limited set of methods to suspect and fully diagnose atherosclerosis. In this review, we have tried to briefly describe the most common and effective methods for diagnosing atherosclerosis.

Anti-Oxidative, Anti-Apoptotic, and M2 Polarized DSPC Liposome Nanoparticles for Selective Treatment of Atherosclerosis

Purpose

Oxidative stress is one of the main pathogenic factors of atherosclerosis. However, no antioxidants have brought positive effects on the treatment of atherosclerosis. To selectively treat atherosclerosis, various means such as antioxidation, anti-apoptosis, and M2 polarization are used. The ultimate goal is that multiple regulatory pathways can help to treat atherosclerosis.

Patients and Methods

In this study, Simvastatin (SIM) as a model drug, EGCG as an antioxidant agent, and distearyl phosphatidylcholine (DSPC) as major carriers were used to make liposome nanoparticles (SE-LNPs). The cytotoxicity, phagocytosis, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties of nanoparticles were tested in vitro. ApoE-/- atherosclerotic mice were treated with nanoparticles. The changes of aortic Oil red staining, blood lipid, HE, and Masson sections of the aortic root were observed.

Results

SE-LNPs exhibited a sustained release profile, potentially enabling the accumulation of the majority amount of drugs at the atherosclerotic plaque. The phagocytosis effect was stronger in RAW. The anti-oxidative and anti-apoptotic effects of the formulation were verified in vitro. SE-LNPs promoted the polarization of M2 macrophages. The therapeutic effect of SE-LNPs was assessed in the ApoE-/- mice model of atherosclerosis. SE-LNPs reduced reactive oxygen species and lipids in vivo. The results of Oil red staining, blood lipid, HE, and Masson sections of the aortic root showed the recovery of the focus.

Conclusion

Studies have shown that SE-LNPs could resist oxidation, and apoptosis, promote M2 polarization, and reduce blood lipids and lesions, which is a reliable and selective treatment for atherosclerosis.

Radiopaque Iodosilane-Coated Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticle Contrast Agent for Dual-Modality Ultrasound and X-ray Bioimaging

Here, we report the synthesis of robust hybrid iodinated silica-lipid nanoemulsions (HSLNEs) for use as a contrast agent for ultrasound and X-ray applications. We engineered iodinated silica nanoparticles (SNPs), lipid nanoemulsions, and a series of HSLNEs by a low-energy spontaneous nanoemulsification process. The formation of a silica shell requires sonication to hydrolyze and polymerize/condensate the iodomethyltrimethoxysilane at the oil/water interface of the nanoemulsion droplets. The resulting nanoemulsions (NEs) exhibited a homogeneous spherical morphology under transmission electron microscopy. The particles had diameters ranging from 20 to 120 nm with both negative and positive surface charges in the absence and presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), respectively. Unlike CTAB-coated nanoformulations, the CTAB-free NEs showed excellent biocompatibility in murine RAW macrophages and human U87-MG cell lines in vitro. The maximum tolerated dose assessment was evaluated to verify their safety profiles in vivo. In vitro X-ray and ultrasound imaging and in vivo computed tomography were used to monitor both iodinated SNPs and HSLNEs, validating their significant contrast-enhancing properties and suggesting their potential as dual-modality clinical agents in the future.

Killing the Culprit: Pharmacological Solutions to Get Rid of Cholesterol Crystals

Cholesterol crystals (CCs) play a key role in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) via triggering inflammation, plaque formation and subsequently plaque rupture. Although statins can stabilize plaques via calcification and alteration of the lipid composition within plaques, there is still a high residual risk of CVD events among statins users. Several studies have tried to blunt the detrimental effects of cholesterol crystals by pharmacological interventions. Cyclodexterins (CDs) and other nanoformulations, including polymers of CDs and liposomes, have the ability to dissolve CCs in vitro and in vivo. CDs were the first in their class that entered clinical trials and showed promising results, though their ototoxicity outweighed their benefits. Moreover, small molecules with structural similarity to cholesterol may also perturb cholesterol-cholesterol interactions and prevent from expansion of 2D crystalline domains to large 3D CCs. The results from ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid and ursodeoxycholic acid were encouraging and worth further consideration. In this review, the significance of CCs in pathogenesis of CVD is discussed and pharmacological agents with the ability to dissolve CCs or prevent from CCs formation are introduced.

Plaque-Targeted Rapamycin Spherical Nucleic Acids for Synergistic Atherosclerosis Treatment

Atherosclerosis with unstable plaques is the dominant pathological basis of lethal cardio-cerebrovascular diseases, which can cause acute death due to the rupture of plaques. Plaque-targeted drug delivery to achieve promoted treatment remains the main challenge because of the systemic occurrence of atheroma. Herein, a rapamycin (RAP) spherical nucleic acid (SNA) structure, capable of specifically accumulating in plaques for synergistic atherosclerosis treatment is constructed. By designing consecutive phosphorothioate (PS) at 3' terminus of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) strand, multiple hydrophobic RAPs are covalently grafted onto the PS segment to form an amphiphilic drug-grafted DNA (RAP-DNA), which successively self-assembles into micellar SNA (RAP-SNA). Moreover, the phosphodiester-DNA segment constitutes the outer shell of RAP-SNA, enabling further hybridization with functional siRNA (targeting lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1, LOX-1) to obtain the drug codelivered SNA (LOX-1/RAP-SNA). With two active ingredients inside, LOX-1/RAP-SNA can not only induce robust autophagy and decrease the evil apoptosis of the pathological macrophages, but also simultaneously prohibit the LOX-1-mediated formation of damageable foam cells, realizing the effect of synergistic therapy. As a result, the LOX-1/RAP-SNA significantly reduces the progression of atheroma and stabilizes the plaques, providing a new strategy for synergistically targeted atherosclerosis treatment.

Impact of Curcumin on Hepatic Low-Density Lipoprotein Uptake

Elevated levels of plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) are causally related to atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Enhancing the removal of LDL particles from the plasma, mainly by the liver, is the most efficient strategy for reducing LDL-C and the ensuing atherosclerosis. In this context, polyphenolic compounds like curcumin have generated interest owing to their lipid-modifying capacity. The promising effect of curcumin has been studied in attenuating atherosclerosis (in experimental models), and correcting dyslipidemia (in clinical studies). The underlying mechanisms of the effects of curcumin are relatively unknown, and the impact of curcumin on hepatic LDL uptake warrants further investigations. Here, we present a protocol to assess the effects of curcumin on LDL uptake in hepatocytes.

Mitochondria-targeted nanoparticles in treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are a class of heterogeneous diseases that includes Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Mitochondria play an important role in oxidative balance and metabolic activity of neurons; therefore, mitochondrial dysfunction is associated with NDs and mitochondria are considered a potential treatment target for NDs. Several obstacles, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and cell/mitochondrial membranes, reduce the efficiency of drug entry into the target lesions. Therefore, a variety of neuron mitochondrial targeting strategies has been developed. Among them, nanotechnology-based treatments show especially promising results. Owing to their adjustable size, appropriate charge, and lipophilic surface, nanoparticles (NPs) are the ideal theranostic system for crossing the BBB and targeting the neuronal mitochondria. In this review, we discussed the role of dysfunctional mitochondria in ND pathogenesis as well as the physiological barriers to various treatment strategies. We also reviewed the use and advantages of various NPs (including organic, inorganic, and biological membrane-coated NPs) for the treatment and diagnosis of NDs. Finally, we summarized the evidence and possible use for the promising role of NP-based theranostic systems in the treatment of mitochondrial dysfunction-related NDs.

Antiatherogenic Effects of Quercetin in the THP-1 Macrophage Model In Vitro, With Insights Into Its Signaling Mechanisms Using In Silico Analysis

Background: Atherosclerosis (AS), a major risk factor for stroke and brain tissue destruction, is an inflammatory disease of the blood vessels, and the underlying pathology is inflammation mediated by various chemokines and cytokines. Quercetin, a natural flavonol, is reported to have both anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. As such, in the present study, we evaluated the antiatherogenic effects of quercetin in a human THP-1 cell line in vitro and also the signaling mechanisms using in silico analysis.

Materials and Methods: THP-1 macrophages exposed to different concentrations of quercetin (5–100 μM for 24 h) were tested for cytotoxicity. Real-time gene expression assay for intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) was carried out following treatment with quercetin at 15 and 30 μM for 24 h either in the absence or presence of interferon (IFN-γ) for 3 h to induce inflammation. Monocyte migration and cholesterol efflux were also assessed.

Results: Quercetin did not exert any cytotoxic effects on THP-1 cells at the various concentrations tested. The gene expression assay showed a significant decrease in ICAM-1 (by 3.05 and 2.70) and MCP-1 (by 22.71 and 27.03), respectively. Quercetin at 15 µM decreased THP-1 monocyte migration by 33% compared to the MCP-1-treated cells. It also increased cholesterol efflux significantly by1.64-fold and 1.60-fold either alone or in combination with IFN-γ, respectively. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis of the molecular interactions of quercetin identified canonical pathways directly related to lipid uptake and cholesterol efflux. Furthermore, CD36, SR-A, and LXR-α also demonstrated significant increases by 72.16-, 149.10-, and 29.68-fold, respectively.

Conclusion: Our results from both in vitro and in silico studies identified that quercetin inhibited the THP-1 monocyte migration, MCP-1, and ICAM-1 and increased cholesterol efflux probably mediated via the LXR/RXR signaling pathway. Therefore, quercetin will help prevent cell infiltration in atherosclerotic plaques and reduce the risk of stroke or brain destruction.

Phosphatidylserine-containing liposomes: Therapeutic potentials against hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis

Liposomes have been suggested as potential tools for cholesterol deposit mobilization from atherosclerotic lesions. Here, we explored the anti-atherosclerotic effects of phosphatidylserine (PS)-containing liposomes in vivo. High-fat diet-fed New Zealand white rabbits which were divided into groups receiving weekly intravenous injections of PS liposomes, atorvastatin-loaded PS (PSA) liposomes (100 μg phospholipid/kg), or control buffer for four weeks. The size and severity grade of atherosclerotic plaques as well as lipid profile were evaluated at the completion of study. In vitro, the expression and levels of anti/pro-inflammatory genes and proteins, respectively, and macrophage cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC) of nanoliposomes were evaluated. Both PS and PSA lowered serum LDL-C (P = 0.0034, P = 0.0041) and TC (P = 0.029, P = 0.0054) levels but did not alter TG and HDL-C levels. Plaque size and grade were reduced by PS (P = 0.0025, P = 0.0031) and PSA (P = 0.016, P = 0.027) versus control. Moreover, intima-media thickness was significantly reduced in the PS vs. control group (P = 0.01). In cultured cells, ICAM-1 expression in the PS (P = 0.022) and VCAM-1 expression in the PS and PSA groups (P = 0.037, P = 0.004) were suppressed while TGF-β expression was induced by both PS and PSA (P = 0.048, P = 0.046). Moreover, CEC from macrophages to nanoliposomes was enhanced by PSA (P = 0.003). Administration of anionic PS-containing liposomes could improve lipid profile and promote plaque regression through mechanisms that may involve cholesterol efflux and modulation of adhesion molecules.

Selenium nanoparticles inhibit the formation of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E deficient mice by alleviating hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress

Atherosclerosis can cause severe cardiovascular diseases, which is the most common cause of death in the world. It's of great significance to study the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis. Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) has drawn more and more attention due to high biological activity, high bioavailability, strong antioxidant capacity and low toxicity, exhibiting great potential in biomedical application. Thus, this study aimed at explore the anti-atherosclerotic effect of two kinds of SeNPs, bovine serum albumin (BSA) surface-decorated SeNPs and chitosan (CS) surface-decorated SeNPs (CS-SeNPs), in apolipoprotein E deficient (ApoE-/-) mice fed with a high-cholesterol and high-fat diet, and the possible mechanisms. The results demonstrated that both BSA-SeNPs (25, 50 and 100 μg Se/kg body weight/day) and CS-SeNPs (50 μg Se/kg body weight/day) could reduce atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-/- mice after oral administration for 12 weeks. And these effects might mainly attributed to the ability of BSA-SeNPs and CS-SeNPs to inhibit hyperlipidemia by suppressing hepatic cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism, and alleviate oxidative stress by enhancing antioxidant activity. Moreover, the benefits of BSA-SeNPs were dose-dependent and the medium dose of BSA-SeNPs (50 μg Se/kg body weight/day) was optimal. Generally, BSA-SeNPs with mean size 38.5 nm and negative surface charge showed better anti-atherosclerotic effect than CS-SeNPs with mean size 65.8 nm and positive surface charge. These results suggested that SeNPs could significantly alleviate the formation of atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice, possibly by inhibiting hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress, exhibiting a potential to serve as an anti-atherosclerotic agent.

Biological drug and drug delivery-mediated immunotherapy

The initiation and development of major inflammatory diseases, i.e., cancer, vascular inflammation, and some autoimmune diseases are closely linked to the immune system. Biologics-based immunotherapy is exerting a critical role against these diseases, whereas the usage of the immunomodulators is always limited by various factors such as susceptibility to digestion by enzymes in vivo, poor penetration across biological barriers, and rapid clearance by the reticuloendothelial system. Drug delivery strategies are potent to promote their delivery. Herein, we reviewed the potential targets for immunotherapy against the major inflammatory diseases, discussed the biologics and drug delivery systems involved in the immunotherapy, particularly highlighted the approved therapy tactics, and finally offer perspectives in this field.

Recent advances in nanomaterials for therapy and diagnosis for atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease driven by lipid accumulation in arteries, leading to narrowing and thrombosis. It affects the heart, brain, and peripheral vessels and is the leading cause of mortality in the United States. Researchers have strived to design nanomaterials of various functions, ranging from non-invasive imaging contrast agents, targeted therapeutic delivery systems to multifunctional nanoagents able to target, diagnose, and treat atherosclerosis. Therefore, this review aims to summarize recent progress (2017-now) in the development of nanomaterials and their applications to improve atherosclerosis diagnosis and therapy during the preclinical and clinical stages of the disease.

Inflammatory Markers Related to Innate and Adaptive Immunity in Atherosclerosis: Implications for Disease Prediction and Prospective Therapeutics

Several lines of evidence have linked a dysregulated inflammatory setting to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, which is a form of chronic vascular inflammation. Various inflammatory biomarkers have been associated with inflammation and are recognized as potential tools to monitor the progression of atherosclerosis. A well-studied inflammatory marker in the context of cardiovascular diseases is C-reactive protein (CRP) or, more accurately, highly sensitive-CRP (hs-CRP), which has been established as an inflammatory biomarker for atherosclerotic events. In addition, a growing body of investigations has attempted to disclose the potential of inflammatory cytokines, enzymes, and genetic polymorphisms related to innate and adaptive immunity as biomarkers for predicting the development of atherosclerosis. In this review article, we clarify both traditional and novel inflammatory biomarkers related to components of the innate and adaptive immune system that may mirror the progression or phases of atherosclerotic inflammation/lesions. Furthermore, the contribution of the inflammatory biomarkers in developing potential therapeutics against atherosclerotic treatment will be discussed.

Application of targeted therapy strategies with nanomedicine delivery for atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the main pathological cause of coronary heart disease (CHD). Current clinical interventions including statin drugs can effectively reduce acute myocardial infarction and stroke to some extent, but residual risk remains high. The current clinical treatment regimens are relatively effective for early atherosclerotic plaques and can even reverse their progression. However, the effectiveness of these treatments for advanced AS is not ideal, and advanced atherosclerotic plaques-the pathological basis of residual risk-can still cause a recurrence of acute cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events. Recently, nanomedicine-based treatment strategies have been extensively used in antitumor therapy, and also shown great potential in anti-AS therapy. There are many microstructures in late-stage atherosclerotic plaques, such as neovascularization, micro-calcification, and cholesterol crystals, and these have become important foci for targeted nanomedicine delivery. The use of targeted nanoparticles has become an important strategy for the treatment of advanced AS to further reduce the residual risk of cardiovascular events. Furthermore, the feasibility and safety of nanotechnology in clinical treatment have been preliminarily confirmed. In this review, we summarize the application of nanomedicine delivery in the treatment of advanced AS and the clinical value of several promising nanodrugs.

Carotid Intima-Media Thickness, Genetic Risk, and Ischemic Stroke: A Family-Based Study in Rural China

BACKGROUND

Carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) has been associated with an elevated risk of ischemic stroke (IS) in several studies, but the results are inconsistent. We investigated whether the association between cIMT and IS varied across different IS subtypes, and further assessed gene-cIMT interactions' association with IS risk.

METHODS

A total of 1048 IS cases (795 large-artery atherosclerosis (LAA) cases, 103 small-vessel occlusion (SVO) cases, and 150 other subtypes) and 2696 IS-free controls across 2179 families were included in the analysis. Self-reported IS cases were confirmed through medical records' review and head imaging by computed tomography and/or magnetic resonance imaging. The mean values of the common cIMT obtained in bilateral distal and proximal carotid artery segments were used. The genotype information of rs2910164 polymorphism in microRNA-146a (miR-146a) was also collected.

RESULTS

We found that cIMT was significantly associated with a higher risk of IS and LAA subtype but not SVO subtype in the multivariate-adjusted models. The odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) in the highest quartile versus the lowest quartile of cIMT was 2.48 (1.92-3.20) for IS and 2.75 (2.08-3.64) for LAA (both p trend <0.001). The results also showed that there was a significant interaction between cIMT and rs2910164 genotype with the risk of IS (p interaction = 0.03) and LAA (p interaction = 0.02). The associations of cIMT with IS and LAA were strengthened among participants carried rs2910164_GG genotype compared with those with rs2910164_CC genotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that higher cIMT levels were significantly associated with IS and LAA subtype but not SVO subtype, and the relations were modified by rs2910164 polymorphism in miR-146a.

Fucoxanthin: A promising compound for human inflammation-related diseases

Fucoxanthin, a natural product of carotenoids, is a potential drug source obtained from marine algae. The special chemical structure of fucoxanthin has equipped it with a variety of biological activities. Several studies have indicated that fucoxanthin has a potential protective effect on a variety of inflammation-related diseases. This mechanism may be related to fucoxanthin's strong antioxidant capacity and gut microbiota regulation. The key molecules that require consideration include nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, Akt serine/threonine kinase/phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-dependent protein kinase, cAMP response element binding protein, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptorγcoactivator-1α. The study summarizes the recent progress in the research based on the protective effect of fucoxanthin and its related molecular mechanism, in addition to the potential use of fucoxanthin as a promising compound for human inflammation-related diseases.