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Wu J, Mao K, Zhang R, Fu Y. Extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis of neurotropic viruses. Microb Pathog 2024; 195:106901. [PMID: 39218378 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2024.106901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 08/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/27/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Neurotropic viruses, characterized by their capacity to invade the central nervous system, present a considerable challenge to public health and are responsible for a diverse range of neurological disorders. This group includes a diverse array of viruses, such as herpes simplex virus, varicella zoster virus, poliovirus, enterovirus and Japanese encephalitis virus, among others. Some of these viruses exhibit high neuroinvasiveness and neurovirulence, while others demonstrate weaker neuroinvasive and neurovirulent properties. The clinical manifestations of infections caused by neurotropic viruses can vary significantly, ranging from mild symptoms to severe life-threatening conditions. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have garnered considerable attention due to their pivotal role in intracellular communication, which modulates the biological activity of target cells via the transport of biomolecules in both health and disease. Investigating EVs in the context of virus infection is crucial for elucidating their potential role contribution to viral pathogenesis. This is because EVs derived from virus-infected cells frequently transfer viral components to uninfected cells. Importantly, EVs released by virus-infected cells have the capacity to traverse the blood-brain barrier (BBB), thereby impacting neuronal activity and inducing neuroinflammation. In this review, we explore the roles of EVs during neurotropic virus infections in either enhancing or inhibiting viral pathogenesis. We will delve into our current comprehension of the molecular mechanisms that underpin these roles, the potential implications for the infected host, and the prospective diagnostic applications that could arise from this understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyi Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Institutes of Biology and Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, PR China
| | - Kedan Mao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Institutes of Biology and Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, PR China
| | - Rui Zhang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, PR China.
| | - Yuxuan Fu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Institutes of Biology and Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, PR China.
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2
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Zeng Q, He J, Chen X, Yuan Q, Yin L, Liang Y, Zu X, Shen Y. Recent advances in hematopoietic cell kinase in cancer progression: Mechanisms and inhibitors. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 176:116932. [PMID: 38870631 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck), a non-receptor tyrosine kinase belonging to the Src kinase family, is intricately linked to the pathogenesis of numerous human diseases, with a particularly pronounced association with cancer. Hck not only directly impacts the proliferation, migration, and apoptosis of cancer cells but also interacts with JAK/STAT, MEK/ERK, PI3K/AKT, CXCL12/CXCR4, and other pathways. Hck also influences the tumor microenvironment to facilitate the onset and progression of cancer. This paper delves into the functional role and regulatory mechanisms of Hck in various solid tumors. Additionally, it explores the implications of Hck in hematological malignancies. The review culminates with a summary of the current research status of Hck inhibitors, the majority of which are in the pre-clinical phase of investigation. Notably, these inhibitors are predominantly utilized in the therapeutic management of leukemia, with their combinatorial potential indicating promising avenues for future research. In conclusion, this review underscores the significance of the mechanism of Hck in solid tumors. This insight is crucial for comprehending the current research trends regarding Hck: targeted therapy against Hck shows great promise in both diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors. Further investigation into the role of Hck in cancer, coupled with the development of specific inhibitors, has the potential to revolutionize approaches to cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiting Zeng
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China; Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hunan Province Clinical Research Center for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of High-incidence Sexually Transmitted Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Jun He
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Nanhua Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang 421002, China
| | - Xiguang Chen
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Qiong Yuan
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China; Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hunan Province Clinical Research Center for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of High-incidence Sexually Transmitted Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Liyang Yin
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Yuxin Liang
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China; Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Institution of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hunan Province Clinical Research Center for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of High-incidence Sexually Transmitted Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Xuyu Zu
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
| | - Yingying Shen
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
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3
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Habib A, Liang Y, Zhu N. Exosomes multifunctional roles in HIV-1: insight into the immune regulation, vaccine development and current progress in delivery system. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1249133. [PMID: 37965312 PMCID: PMC10642161 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1249133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1) is known to establish a persistent latent infection. The use of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) can effectively reduce the viral load, but the treatment can be costly and may lead to the development of drug resistance and life-shortening side effects. It is important to develop an ideal and safer in vivo target therapy that will effectively block viral replication and expression in the body. Exosomes have recently emerged as a promising drug delivery vehicle due to their low immunogenicity, nanoscale size (30-150nm), high biocompatibility, and stability in the targeted area. Exosomes, which are genetically produced by different types of cells such as dendritic cells, neurons, T and B cells, epithelial cells, tumor cells, and mast cells, are designed for efficient delivery to targeted cells. In this article, we review and highlight recent developments in the strategy and application of exosome-based HIV-1 vaccines. We also discuss the use of exosome-based antigen delivery systems in vaccine development. HIV-1 antigen can be loaded into exosomes, and this modified cargo can be delivered to target cells or tissues through different loading approaches. This review also discusses the immunological prospects of exosomes and their role as biomarkers in disease progression. However, there are significant administrative and technological obstacles that need to be overcome to fully harness the potential of exosome drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arslan Habib
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yulai Liang
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Naishuo Zhu
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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4
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Osna NA, Poluektova LY. Elucidating the role of extracellular vesicles in liver injury induced by HIV. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2023; 17:701-708. [PMID: 37378531 PMCID: PMC10528210 DOI: 10.1080/17474124.2023.2230867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Liver disease is known as one of the leading co-morbidities in HIV infection, with 18% of non-AIDS-related mortality. There is constant crosstalk between liver parenchymal (hepatocytes) and non-parenchymal cells (macrophages, hepatic stellate cells, endothelial cells), and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are one of the most important ways of cell-to-cell communication. AREAS COVERED We briefly cover the role of EVs in liver disease as well as what is known about the role of small EVs, exosomes, in HIV-induced liver disease potentiated by alcohol as one of the second hits. We also touch large EVs, apoptotic bodies (ABs), in HIV-induced liver injury, the mechanisms of their formation and potentiation by second hits, and their role in the progression of liver disease. EXPERT OPINION/COMMENTARY Liver cells are an important source of EVs, which may provide the connection between different organs via secretion into the circulating blood (exosomes) or serve for the communication between the cells within the organ (ABs). Understanding the role of liver EVs in HIV infection and the involvement of second hits in EV generation would provide a new angle for the analysis of HIV-related liver disease pathogenesis and progression to end-stage liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia A. Osna
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE 68105, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, the University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, the University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA
| | - Larisa Y. Poluektova
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, the University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA
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5
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Lee JH. The complex role of extracellular vesicles in HIV infection. BMB Rep 2023; 56:335-340. [PMID: 37291055 PMCID: PMC10315562 DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2023-0073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
During normal physiological and abnormal pathophysiological conditions, all cells release membrane vesicles, termed extracellular vesicles (EVs). Growing evidence has revealed that EVs act as important messengers in intercellular communication. EVs play emerging roles in cellular responses and the modulation of immune responses during virus infection. EVs contribute to triggering antiviral responses to restrict virus infection and replication. Conversely, the role of EVs in the facilitation of virus spread and pathogenesis has been widely documented. Depending on the cell of origin, EVs carry effector functions from one cell to the other by horizontal transfer of their bioactive cargoes, including DNA, RNA, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. The diverse constituents of EVs can reflect the altered states of cells or tissues during virus infection, thereby offering a diagnostic readout. The exchanges of cellular and/or viral components by EVs can inform the therapeutic potential of EVs for infectious diseases. This review discusses recent advances of EVs to explore the complex roles of EVs during virus infection and their therapeutic potential, focusing on HIV-1. [BMB Reports 2023; 56(6): 335-340].
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Hyun Lee
- Department of Life Science, University of Seoul, Seoul 02504, Korea
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6
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Alzheimer's disease protease-containing plasma extracellular vesicles transfer to the hippocampus via the choroid plexus. EBioMedicine 2022; 77:103903. [PMID: 35220044 PMCID: PMC8889140 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.103903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plasma extracellular vesicles (pEV) can harbor a diverse array of factors including active proteases and the amyloid-precursor-protein (APP) cleavage product Aβ, involved in plaque formation in Alzheimer`s diseases (AD). A potential role of such vesicles in AD pathology is unexplored. Methods In a case-control study of randomly selected patients with AD and other neurological diseases (n = 14), and healthy controls (n = 7), we systematically analyzed the content of pEV, using different assay systems. In addition, we determined their entry path into brain tissue, employing animal (mice) injection experiments with ex vivo generated EV that were similar to AD-pEV, followed by multi antigen analysis (MAA) of brain tissue (n = 4 per condition). The results were compared with an IHC staining of human brain tissue in a small cohort of AD patients (n = 3) and controls with no neurodegenerative diseases (n = 3). Findings We show that pEV levels are considerably upregulated in AD patients. Besides numerous inflammatory effectors, AD-pEV contained α-, β- and γ-secretases, able to cleave APP in in target cells. In vitro generated EV with similar characteristics as AD-pEV accumulated in the choroid plexus (CP) of injected animals and reached primarily hippocampal neurons. Corroborating findings were made in human brain samples. An inhibitor of hyaluronic-acid-synthetase (HAS) blocked uploading of proteases and Hyaluronan onto EV in vitro and abolished CP targeting in animal injection experiments. Interpretation We conclude that protease-containing pEV could be part of a communication axis between the periphery and the brain that could be become detrimental depending on pEV concentration and duration of target cell impact.
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Chiozzini C, Ridolfi B, Federico M. Extracellular Vesicles and Their Use as Vehicles of Immunogens. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2504:177-198. [PMID: 35467287 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2341-1_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Healthy cells constitutively release lipid bilayered vesicles of different sizes and recognizing different biogenesis, collectively referred to as extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs can be distinguished in exosomes and microvesicles. Biological and biomedical research on EVs is an emerging field that is rapidly growing. Many EV features including biogenesis, cell uptake, and functions still require unambiguous elucidation. Nevertheless, it has been well established that EVs are involved in communication among cells, tissues, and organs under both healthy and disease conditions by virtue of their ability to deliver macromolecules to target cells. Here, we summarize most recent findings regarding biogenesis, structure, and functions of both exosomes and microvesicles. In addition, the use of EVs as delivery tools to induce CD8+ T cell immunity is addressed compared to current designs exploiting enveloped viral vectors and virus-like particles. Finally, we describe a both safe and original approach conceived for the induction of strong CTL immunity against antigens uploaded in EVs constitutively released by muscle cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Chiozzini
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Rome, Italy.
| | - Barbara Ridolfi
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Federico
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Rome, Italy
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8
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Jacob RA, Edgar CR, Prévost J, Trothen SM, Lurie A, Mumby MJ, Galbraith A, Kirchhoff F, Haeryfar SMM, Finzi A, Dikeakos JD. The HIV-1 accessory protein Nef increases surface expression of the checkpoint receptor Tim-3 in infected CD4 + T cells. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101042. [PMID: 34358561 PMCID: PMC8390549 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Prolonged immune activation drives the upregulation of multiple checkpoint receptors on the surface of virus-specific T cells, inducing their exhaustion. Reversing HIV-1-induced T cell exhaustion is imperative for efficient virus clearance; however, viral mediators of checkpoint receptor upregulation remain largely unknown. The enrichment of checkpoint receptors on T cells upon HIV-1 infection severely constrains the generation of an efficient immune response. Herein, we examined the role of HIV-1 Nef in mediating the upregulation of checkpoint receptors on peripheral blood mononuclear cells. We demonstrate that the HIV-1 accessory protein Nef upregulates cell surface levels of the checkpoint receptor T-cell immunoglobulin mucin domain-3 (Tim-3) and that this is dependent on Nef's dileucine motif LL164/165. Furthermore, we used a bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay to demonstrate that Nef and Tim-3 form a complex within cells that is abrogated upon mutation of the Nef dileucine motif. We also provide evidence that Nef moderately promotes Tim-3 shedding from the cell surface in a dileucine motif–dependent manner. Treating HIV-1-infected CD4+ T cells with a matrix metalloprotease inhibitor enhanced cell surface Tim-3 levels and reduced Tim-3 shedding. Finally, Tim-3-expressing CD4+ T cells displayed a higher propensity to release the proinflammatory cytokine interferon-gamma. Collectively, our findings uncover a novel mechanism by which HIV-1 directly increases the levels of a checkpoint receptor on the surface of infected CD4+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Abraham Jacob
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cassandra R Edgar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jérémie Prévost
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Steven M Trothen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Antony Lurie
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mitchell J Mumby
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alexa Galbraith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, UIm, Germany
| | - S M Mansour Haeryfar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andrés Finzi
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jimmy D Dikeakos
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
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Synergy and allostery in ligand binding by HIV-1 Nef. Biochem J 2021; 478:1525-1545. [PMID: 33787846 PMCID: PMC8079166 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20201002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The Nef protein of human and simian immunodeficiency viruses boosts viral pathogenicity through its interactions with host cell proteins. By combining the polyvalency of its large unstructured regions with the binding selectivity and strength of its folded core domain, Nef can associate with many different host cell proteins, thereby disrupting their functions. For example, the combination of a linear proline-rich motif and hydrophobic core domain surface allows Nef to bind tightly and specifically to SH3 domains of Src family kinases. We investigated whether the interplay between Nef's flexible regions and its core domain could allosterically influence ligand selection. We found that the flexible regions can associate with the core domain in different ways, producing distinct conformational states that alter the way in which Nef selects for SH3 domains and exposes some of its binding motifs. The ensuing crosstalk between ligands might promote functionally coherent Nef-bound protein ensembles by synergizing certain subsets of ligands while excluding others. We also combined proteomic and bioinformatics analyses to identify human proteins that select SH3 domains in the same way as Nef. We found that only 3% of clones from a whole-human fetal library displayed Nef-like SH3 selectivity. However, in most cases, this selectivity appears to be achieved by a canonical linear interaction rather than by a Nef-like ‘tertiary' interaction. Our analysis supports the contention that Nef's mode of hijacking SH3 domains is a virus-specific adaptation with no or very few cellular counterparts. Thus, the Nef tertiary binding surface is a promising virus-specific drug target.
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10
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HIV-1 Nef-Induced Secretion of the Proinflammatory Protease TACE into Extracellular Vesicles Is Mediated by Raf-1 and Can Be Suppressed by Clinical Protein Kinase Inhibitors. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.00180-21. [PMID: 33597213 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00180-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic immune activation is an important driver of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) pathogenesis and has been associated with the presence of tumor necrosis factor-α converting enzyme (TACE) in extracellular vesicles (EVs) circulating in infected individuals. We have recently shown that activation of the Src-family tyrosine kinase hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck) by HIV-1 Nef can trigger the packaging of TACE into EVs via an unconventional protein secretion pathway. Using a panel of HIV-1 Nef mutants and natural HIV-2 and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) Nef alleles, we now show that the capacity to promote TACE secretion depends on the superior ability of HIV-1-like Nef alleles to induce Hck kinase activity, whereas other Nef effector functions are dispensable. Strikingly, among the numerous Src-family downstream effectors, serine/threonine kinase Raf-1 was found to be necessary and alone sufficient to trigger the secretion of TACE into EVs. These data reveal the involvement of Raf-1 in regulation of unconventional protein secretion and highlight the importance of Raf-1 as a cellular effector of Nef, thereby suggesting a novel rationale for testing pharmacological inhibitors of the Raf-MAPK pathway to treat HIV-associated immune activation.IMPORTANCE Chronic immune activation contributes to the immunopathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection and is associated with poor recovery of the immune system despite potent antiretroviral therapy, which is observed in 10% to 40% drug-treated patients depending on the definition of immune reconstitution. We have previously shown that the HIV pathogenicity factor Nef can promote loading of the proinflammatory protease TACE into extracellular vesicles (EVs), and the levels of such TACE-containing EVs circulating in the blood correlate with low CD4 lymphocyte counts in HIV patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. Here, we show that Nef promotes uploading of TACE into EVs by triggering unconventional secretion via activation of the Hck/Raf/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade. We find that several pharmaceutical inhibitors of these kinases that are currently in clinical use for other diseases can potently suppress this pathogenic deregulation and could thus provide a novel strategy for treating HIV-associated immune activation.
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Zhang Y, Li Y, Liu P, Gong D, Zhou H, Li W, Zhang H, Zheng W, Xu J, Cheng H, Zhang X, Ke Y. Phosphatase Shp2 regulates biogenesis of small extracellular vesicles by dephosphorylating Syntenin. J Extracell Vesicles 2021; 10:e12078. [PMID: 33732417 PMCID: PMC7944561 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
As novel mediators of cell‐to‐cell signalling, small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) play a critical role in physiological and pathophysiological processes. To date, the molecular mechanisms that support sEV generation are incompletely understood. Many kinases are reported for their roles in sEV generation or composition, whereas the involvement of phosphatases remains largely unexplored. Here we reveal that pharmacological inhibition and shRNA‐mediated down‐regulation of tyrosine phosphatase Shp2 significantly increases the formation of sEVs. By Co‐immunoprecipitation (Co‐IP) and in vitro dephosphorylation assays, we identified that Shp2 negatively controlled sEV biogenesis by directly dephosphorylating tyrosine 46 of Syntenin, which has been reported as a molecular switch in sEV biogenesis. More importantly, Shp2 dysfunction led to enhanced epithelial sEV generation in vitro and in vivo. The increase of epithelial sEVs caused by shRNA‐mediated down‐regulation of Shp2 promoted macrophage activation, resulting in strengthened inflammation. Our findings highlight the role of Shp2 in regulating sEV‐mediated epithelial‐macrophage crosstalk by controlling sEV biogenesis through dephosphorylation of Syntenin Y46. The present study determines the strengthened inflammatory characteristics of alveolar macrophages elicited by epithelial sEVs transferred intercellularly. These findings provide a basis for understanding the mechanism of sEV formation and relevant function in epithelial‐macrophage crosstalk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuefei Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Respiratory Medicine at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China.,Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems and Precision Medicine Zhejiang University Medical Center Hangzhou 311121 China
| | - Yiqing Li
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Respiratory Medicine at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Pan Liu
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Respiratory Medicine at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Dacheng Gong
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Respiratory Medicine at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Hui Zhou
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Respiratory Medicine at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Wenjuan Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Women's hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Huilun Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Respiratory Medicine at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Wenfang Zheng
- Department of Gastroenterology Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Jiaqi Xu
- Department of Pathology Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Hongqiang Cheng
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Cardiology at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China
| | - Xue Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Respiratory Medicine at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China.,Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems and Precision Medicine Zhejiang University Medical Center Hangzhou 311121 China
| | - Yuehai Ke
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology and Department of Respiratory Medicine at Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou Zhejiang 310058 China.,Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems and Precision Medicine Zhejiang University Medical Center Hangzhou 311121 China
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12
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ADAM15 Participates in Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Replication. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.01926-20. [PMID: 33208450 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01926-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), a major tick-borne viral pathogen of humans, is known to cause neurological diseases such as meningitis, encephalitis, and meningoencephalitis. However, the life cycle and pathogenesis of TBEV are not well understood. Here, we show that the knockdown or knockout of ADAM15 (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 15), a host protein involved in neuroblastoma diseases, leads to TBEV replication and assembly defects. We characterized the disintegrin domain in ADAM15 and found that the ADAM15 subcellular localization was changed following TBEV infection. RNA interference (RNAi) screen analysis confirmed ADAM's nonredundant functions and identified a specific role for ADAM15 in TBEV infection. An RNA-sequencing analysis was also conducted to understand the causal link between TBEV infection and the cellular endomembrane network, namely, the generation of replication organelles promoting viral genome replication and virus production. Our data demonstrated that TBEV infection changes ADAM15 cellular localization, which contributes to membrane reorganization and viral replication.IMPORTANCE Tick populations are increasing, and their geographic ranges are expanding. Increases in tick-borne disease prevalence and transmission are important public health issues. Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) often results in meningitis, encephalitis, and meningoencephalitis. TBEV causes clinical disease in more than 20,000 humans in Europe and Asia per year. An increased incidence of TBE has been noted in Europe and Asia, as a consequence of climate and socioeconomic changes. The need to investigate the mechanism(s) of interaction between the virus and the host factors is apparent, as it will help us to understand the roles of host factors in the life cycle of TBEV. The significance of our research is in identifying the ADAM15 for TBEV replication, which will greatly enhance our understanding of TBEV life cycle and highlight a target for pharmaceutical consideration.
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Yuh Lin A, Cuttica MJ, Ison MG, Gordon LI. Ibrutinib zur Behandlung der chronischen lymphatischen Leukämie im Setting eines respiratorischen Versagens infolge einer schweren COVID-19-Infektion: Fallbericht und Literaturübersicht. KOMPASS ONKOLOGIE 2021. [PMCID: PMC8247809 DOI: 10.1159/000516868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ibrutinib ist ein bekannter Inhibitor der Bruton-Tyrosinkinase (BTK) und der Interleukin-2-induzierbaren T-Zell-Kinase (ITK), der zur Behandlung von B-Zell-Erkrankungen (chronische lymphatische Leukämie [CLL] und verschiedene andere Lymphome) und der chronischen Graft-versus-Host-Erkrankung nach allogener Transplantation von hämatopoetischen Zellen eingesetzt wird. Da es als immunsuppressiv gilt, stellt sich bei Patienten mit einer aktiven Infektion häufig die Frage nach einer Fortführung der Ibrutinib-Therapie, und im Zusammenhang mit der Coronavirus-Erkrankung 2019 (COVID-19) ist diese Entscheidung besonders schwierig. In der vorliegenden Arbeit beschreiben wir einen Patienten mit CLL, der mit Ibrutinib behandelt wurde und im weiteren Verlauf eine schwere COVID-19-Infektion entwickelte, die eine mechanische Beatmung erforderlich machte. Wir beschlossen, die Gabe von Ibrutinib noch am Tag der Intubation fortzusetzen, mit der Argumentation, dass die BTK-Inhibition in myeloischen Immunzellen nachgewiesenermaßen die influenza-vermittelte akute Lungenschädigung verringert oder sogar umkehrt und dass die ITK-Inhibition in T-Zellen mit einer Reduzierung der Virusreplikation korreliert und daher in diesem Setting von Nutzen sein könnte. Darüber hinaus hat sich gezeigt, dass Ibrutinib auch Kinasen der Src-Familie blockiert, was möglicherweise ein verringertes Eindringen der Viren zur Folge hat und zu einer verminderten inflammatorischen Zytokinreaktion in der Lunge führt. Der Patient wurde nach 9 Tagen und einem komplizierten stationären Verlauf extubiert und schließlich unter Raumluftatmung entlassen. Die einzige Möglichkeit, solche Entscheidungen rational zu untermauern und ähnliche potenziell vielversprechende Hinweise in dieser Pandemie zu untersuchen, sind sorgfältig durchgeführte klinische Studien.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Yuh Lin
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Michael J. Cuttica
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Michael G. Ison
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Leo I. Gordon
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- *Leo I. Gordon,
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Lee JH, Eberhardt M, Blume K, Vera J, Baur AS. Evidence for liver and peripheral immune cells secreting tumor-suppressive extracellular vesicles in melanoma patients. EBioMedicine 2020; 62:103119. [PMID: 33242827 PMCID: PMC7695971 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.103119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Before and after surgery melanoma patients harbor elevated levels of extracellular vesicles in plasma (pEV), suppressing tumor cell activity. However, due to technical reasons and lack of cell-specific biomarkers, their cellular origin remains obscure. Methods We mimicked the interaction of tumor cells with liver cells and PBMC in vitro, and compared newly secreted EV-associated miRNAs and protein factors with those detected in melanoma patient`s pEV. Findings Our results suggest that pEV from melanoma patients are secreted in part by residual or relapsing tumor cells, but also by liver and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Our approach identified factors that were seemingly associated either with tumor cell activity, or the counteracting immune system, including liver cells. Notably, the presence/absence of these factors correlated with the clinical stage and tumor relapse. Interpretation Our study may provide new insights into the innate immune defense against tumor cells and implies that residual tumor cells could be more active than previously thought. In addition we provide some preliminary evidence that pEV marker patterns could be used to predict cancer relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Hyun Lee
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Erlangen, Hartmannstr. 14, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Martin Eberhardt
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Erlangen, Hartmannstr. 14, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Katja Blume
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Erlangen, Hartmannstr. 14, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Julio Vera
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Erlangen, Hartmannstr. 14, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andreas S Baur
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Erlangen, Hartmannstr. 14, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
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15
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Lin AY, Cuttica MJ, Ison MG, Gordon LI. Ibrutinib for chronic lymphocytic leukemia in the setting of respiratory failure from severe COVID-19 infection: Case report and literature review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 1:596-600. [PMID: 33043320 PMCID: PMC7537222 DOI: 10.1002/jha2.98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Ibrutinib, a known Burton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) and interleukin‐2 inducible T‐cell kinase (ITK) inhibitor, is used for the treatment of B‐cell disorders (chronic lymphocytic leukemia [CLL] and various other lymphomas) and chronic graft versus host disease following allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Because it is considered an immunosuppressant, continuation of ibrutinib is often debated when patients have an active infection, and this becomes an especially difficult decision in the setting of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Here, we describe a patient with CLL who was on ibrutinib then developed severe COVID‐19 infection requiring mechanical ventilation. We elected to continue ibrutinib the same day he was intubated, reasoning that BTK inhibition in myeloid immune cells has been shown to reduce or even reverse influenza‐mediated acute lung injury and that ITK inhibition in T cells has correlated with reduction in viral replication, and therefore may have an advantage in this setting. Ibrutinib also has been shown to block Src family kinases, which potentially could result in reduction of viral entry and the inflammatory cytokine response in the lungs. The patient was extubated after 9 days with a complex hospital course and eventually discharged on room air. The only way to rationally inform these decisions and explore similar potentially promising leads in this pandemic is to conduct carefully done clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Yuh Lin
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center Chicago Illinois
| | - Michael J Cuttica
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Medicine Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Chicago Illinois
| | - Michael G Ison
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Chicago Illinois
| | - Leo I Gordon
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center Chicago Illinois
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Odegaard KE, Chand S, Wheeler S, Tiwari S, Flores A, Hernandez J, Savine M, Gowen A, Pendyala G, Yelamanchili SV. Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Substance Abuse and HIV-Related Neurological Pathologies. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6765. [PMID: 32942668 PMCID: PMC7554956 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a broad, heterogeneous class of membranous lipid-bilayer vesicles that facilitate intercellular communication throughout the body. As important carriers of various types of cargo, including proteins, lipids, DNA fragments, and a variety of small noncoding RNAs, including miRNAs, mRNAs, and siRNAs, EVs may play an important role in the development of addiction and other neurological pathologies, particularly those related to HIV. In this review, we summarize the findings of EV studies in the context of methamphetamine (METH), cocaine, nicotine, opioid, and alcohol use disorders, highlighting important EV cargoes that may contribute to addiction. Additionally, as HIV and substance abuse are often comorbid, we discuss the potential role of EVs in the intersection of substance abuse and HIV. Taken together, the studies presented in this comprehensive review shed light on the potential role of EVs in the exacerbation of substance use and HIV. As a subject of growing interest, EVs may continue to provide information about mechanisms and pathogenesis in substance use disorders and CNS pathologies, perhaps allowing for exploration into potential therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Sowmya V. Yelamanchili
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; (K.E.O.); (S.C.); (S.W.); (S.T.); (A.F.); (J.H.); (M.S.); (A.G.); (G.P.)
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17
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The Role of Extracellular Vesicles as Allies of HIV, HCV and SARS Viruses. Viruses 2020; 12:v12050571. [PMID: 32456011 PMCID: PMC7291340 DOI: 10.3390/v12050571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-enclosed entities containing proteins and nucleic acids that mediate intercellular communication, in both physiological and pathological conditions. EVs resemble enveloped viruses in both structural and functional aspects. In full analogy with viral biogenesis, some of these vesicles are generated inside cells and, once released into the extracellular milieu, are called “exosomes”. Others bud from the plasma membrane and are generally referred to as “microvesicles”. In this review, we will discuss the state of the art of the current studies on the relationship between EVs and viruses and their involvement in three important viral infections caused by HIV, HCV and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) viruses. HIV and HCV are two well-known pathogens that hijack EVs content and release to create a suitable environment for viral infection. SARS viruses are a new entry in the world of EVs studies, but are equally important in this historical framework. A thorough knowledge of the involvement of the EVs in viral infections could be helpful for the development of new therapeutic strategies to counteract different pathogens.
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18
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Nahand JS, Bokharaei-Salim F, Karimzadeh M, Moghoofei M, Karampoor S, Mirzaei HR, Tbibzadeh A, Jafari A, Ghaderi A, Asemi Z, Mirzaei H, Hamblin MR. MicroRNAs and exosomes: key players in HIV pathogenesis. HIV Med 2020; 21:246-278. [PMID: 31756034 PMCID: PMC7069804 DOI: 10.1111/hiv.12822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES HIV infection is well known to cause impairment of the human immune system, and until recently was a leading cause of death. It has been shown that T lymphocytes are the main targets of HIV. The virus inactivates T lymphocytes by interfering with a wide range of cellular and molecular targets, leading to suppression of the immune system. The objective of this review is to investigate to what extent microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in HIV pathogenesis. METHODS The scientific literature (Pubmed and Google scholar) for the period 1988-2019 was searched. RESULTS Mounting evidence has revealed that miRNAs are involved in viral replication and immune response, whether by direct targeting of viral transcripts or through indirect modulation of virus-related host pathways. In addition, exosomes have been found to act as nanoscale carriers involved in HIV pathogenesis. These nanovehicles target their cargos (i.e. DNA, RNA, viral proteins and miRNAs) leading to alteration of the behaviour of recipient cells. CONCLUSIONS miRNAs and exosomes are important players in HIV pathogenesis. Additionally, there are potential diagnostic applications of miRNAs as biomarkers in HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javid Sadri Nahand
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farah Bokharaei-Salim
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Karimzadeh
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohsen Moghoofei
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Sajad Karampoor
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamid Reza Mirzaei
- Department of Medical Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Tbibzadeh
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Jafari
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Technology in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Ghaderi
- Department of Addiction Studies, School of Medicine, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Zatollah Asemi
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Nutrition in Metabolic Diseases, Institute for Basic Sciences, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, I.R. Iran
| | - Hamed Mirzaei
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Nutrition in Metabolic Diseases, Institute for Basic Sciences, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, I.R. Iran
| | - Michael R. Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 40 Blossom Street, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
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19
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Olivetta E, Chiozzini C, Arenaccio C, Manfredi F, Ferrantelli F, Federico M. Extracellular vesicle-mediated intercellular communication in HIV-1 infection and its role in the reservoir maintenance. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2019; 51:40-48. [PMID: 31926807 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2019.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 infection is efficiently controlled by combination anti-retroviral therapy (cART). However, despite preventing disease progression, cART does not eradicate virus infection which persists in a latent form for an individual's lifetime. The latent reservoir comprises memory CD4+ T lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells; however, for the most part, the reservoir is generated by virus entry into activated CD4+ T lymphocytes committed to return to a resting state, even though resting CD4+ T lymphocytes can be latently infected as well. The HIV-1 reservoir is not recognized by the immune system, is quite stable, and has the potential to re-seed systemic viremia upon cART interruption. Viral rebound can occur even after a long period of cART interruption. This event is most likely a consequence of the extended half-life of the HIV-1 reservoir, the maintenance of which is not clearly understood. Several recent studies have identified extracellular vesicles (EVs) as a driving force contributing to HIV-1 reservoir preservation. In this review, we discuss recent findings in the field of EV/HIV-1 interplay, and then propose a mechanism through which EVs may contribute to HIV-1 persistence despite cART. Understanding the basis of the HIV-1 reservoir maintenance continues to be a matter of great relevance in view of the limitations of current strategies aimed at HIV-1 eradication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Olivetta
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Chiara Chiozzini
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Claudia Arenaccio
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesco Manfredi
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Flavia Ferrantelli
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Maurizio Federico
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
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20
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Chelvanambi S, Bogatcheva NV, Bednorz M, Agarwal S, Maier B, Alves NJ, Li W, Syed F, Saber MM, Dahl N, Lu H, Day RB, Smith P, Jolicoeur P, Yu Q, Dhillon NK, Weissmann N, Twigg Iii HL, Clauss M. HIV-Nef Protein Persists in the Lungs of Aviremic Patients with HIV and Induces Endothelial Cell Death. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2019; 60:357-366. [PMID: 30321057 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2018-0089oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
It remains a mystery why HIV-associated end-organ pathologies persist in the era of combined antiretroviral therapy (ART). One possible mechanism is the continued production of HIV-encoded proteins in latently HIV-infected T cells and macrophages. The proapoptotic protein HIV-Nef persists in the blood of ART-treated patients within extracellular vesicles (EVs) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Here we demonstrate that HIV-Nef is present in cells and EVs isolated from BAL of patients on ART. We hypothesize that HIV-Nef persistence in the lung induces endothelial apoptosis leading to endothelial dysfunction and further pulmonary vascular pathologies. The presence of HIV-Nef in patients with HIV correlates with the surface expression of the proapoptotic endothelial-monocyte-activating polypeptide II (EMAPII), which was implicated in progression of pulmonary emphysema via mechanisms involving endothelial cell death. HIV-Nef protein induces EMAPII surface expression in human embryonic kidney 293T cells, T cells, and human and mouse lung endothelial cells. HIV-Nef packages itself into EVs and increases the amount of EVs secreted from Nef-expressing T cells and Nef-transfected human embryonic kidney 293T cells. EVs from BAL of HIV+ patients and Nef-transfected cells induce apoptosis in lung microvascular endothelial cells by upregulating EMAPII surface expression in a PAK2-dependent fashion. Transgenic expression of HIV-Nef in vascular endothelial-cadherin+ endothelial cells leads to lung rarefaction, characterized by reduced alveoli and overall increase in lung inspiratory capacity. These changes occur concomitantly with lung endothelial cell apoptosis. Together, these data suggest that HIV-Nef induces endothelial cell apoptosis via an EMAPII-dependent mechanism that is sufficient to cause pulmonary vascular pathologies even in the absence of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarvesh Chelvanambi
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana.,2 R. L. Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Natalia V Bogatcheva
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana.,2 R. L. Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Mariola Bednorz
- 3 Excellence Cluster Cardiopulmonary System, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center, member of Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Stuti Agarwal
- 4 Department of Medicine, Kansas University Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Bernhard Maier
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Nathan J Alves
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Wei Li
- 5 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Farooq Syed
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Manal M Saber
- 6 Clinical Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Minia University, Minia, Egypt; and
| | - Noelle Dahl
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana.,2 R. L. Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Hongyan Lu
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana.,2 R. L. Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Richard B Day
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Patricia Smith
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Paul Jolicoeur
- 7 Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montreal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Qigui Yu
- 5 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Navneet K Dhillon
- 4 Department of Medicine, Kansas University Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Norbert Weissmann
- 3 Excellence Cluster Cardiopulmonary System, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center, member of Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Homer L Twigg Iii
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Matthias Clauss
- 1 Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana.,2 R. L. Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
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Multifunctional Roles of the N-Terminal Region of HIV-1 SF2Nef Are Mediated by Three Independent Protein Interaction Sites. J Virol 2019; 94:JVI.01398-19. [PMID: 31597760 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01398-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 Nef promotes virus spread and disease progression by altering host cell transport and signaling processes through interaction with multiple host cell proteins. The N-terminal region in HIV-1 Nef encompassing residues 12 to 39 has been implicated in many Nef activities, including disruption of CD4 T lymphocyte polarization and homing to lymph nodes, antagonism of SERINC5 restriction to virion infectivity, downregulation of cell surface CD4 and major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I), release of Nef-containing extracellular vesicles, and phosphorylation of Nef by recruitment of the Nef-associated kinase complex (NAKC). How this region mediates these pleiotropic functions is unclear. Characterization of a panel of alanine mutants spanning the N-terminal region to identify specific functional determinants revealed this region to be dispensable for effects of Nef from HIV-1 strain SF2 (HIV-1SF2Nef) on T cell actin organization and chemotaxis, retargeting of the host cell kinase Lck to the trans-Golgi network, and incorporation of Nef into extracellular vesicles. MHC-I downmodulation was specific to residue M20, and inhibition of T cell polarization by Nef required the integrity of the entire region. In contrast, downmodulation of cell surface CD4 and SERINC5 antagonism were mediated by a specific motif encompassing residues 32 to 39 that was also essential for efficient HIV replication in primary CD4 T lymphocytes. Finally, Nef phosphorylation via association with the NAKC was mediated by two EP repeats within residues 24 to 29 but was dispensable for other functions. These results identify the N-terminal region as a multifunctional interaction module for at least three different host cell ligands that mediate independent functions of HIV-1SF2Nef to facilitate immune evasion and virus spread.IMPORTANCE HIV-1 Nef critically determines virus spread and disease progression in infected individuals by acting as a protein interaction adaptor via incompletely defined mechanisms and ligands. Residues 12 to 39 near the N terminus of Nef have been described as an interaction platform for the Nef-associated kinase complex (NAKC) and were recently identified as essential determinants for a broad range of Nef activities. Here, we report a systematic mapping of this amino acid stretch that revealed the presence of three independent interaction motifs with specific ligands and activities. While downmodulation of cell surface MHC-I depends on M20, two EP repeats are the minimal binding site for the NAKC, and residues 32 to 39 mediate antagonism of the host cell restriction factor SERINC5 as well as downmodulation of cell surface CD4. These results reveal that the N-terminal region of HIV-1SF2Nef is a versatile and multifunctional protein interaction module that exerts essential functions of the pathogenicity factor via independent mechanisms.
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22
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Chelvanambi S, Gupta SK, Chen X, Ellis BW, Maier BF, Colbert TM, Kuriakose J, Zorlutuna P, Jolicoeur P, Obukhov AG, Clauss M. HIV-Nef Protein Transfer to Endothelial Cells Requires Rac1 Activation and Leads to Endothelial Dysfunction Implications for Statin Treatment in HIV Patients. Circ Res 2019; 125:805-820. [PMID: 31451038 PMCID: PMC7009312 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.119.315082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Even in antiretroviral therapy-treated patients, HIV continues to play a pathogenic role in cardiovascular diseases. A possible cofactor may be persistence of the early HIV response gene Nef, which we have demonstrated recently to persist in the lungs of HIV+ patients on antiretroviral therapy. Previously, we have reported that HIV strains with Nef, but not Nef-deleted HIV strains, cause endothelial proinflammatory activation and apoptosis. OBJECTIVE To characterize mechanisms through which HIV-Nef leads to the development of cardiovascular diseases using ex vivo tissue culture approaches as well as interventional experiments in transgenic murine models. METHODS AND RESULTS Extracellular vesicles derived from both peripheral blood mononuclear cells and plasma from HIV+ patient blood samples induced human coronary artery endothelial cells dysfunction. Plasma-derived extracellular vesicles from antiretroviral therapy+ patients who were HIV-Nef+ induced significantly greater endothelial apoptosis compared with HIV-Nef-plasma extracellular vesicles. Both HIV-Nef expressing T cells and HIV-Nef-induced extracellular vesicles increased transfer of cytosol and Nef protein to endothelial monolayers in a Rac1-dependent manner, consequently leading to endothelial adhesion protein upregulation and apoptosis. HIV-Nef induced Rac1 activation also led to dsDNA breaks in endothelial colony forming cells, thereby resulting in endothelial colony forming cell premature senescence and endothelial nitric oxide synthase downregulation. These Rac1-dependent activities were characterized by NOX2-mediated reactive oxygen species production. Statin treatment equally inhibited Rac1 inhibition in preventing or reversing all HIV-Nef-induction abnormalities assessed. This was likely because of the ability of statins to block Rac1 prenylation as geranylgeranyl transferase inhibitors were effective in inhibiting HIV-Nef-induced reactive oxygen species formation. Finally, transgenic expression of HIV-Nef in endothelial cells in a murine model impaired endothelium-mediated aortic ring dilation, which was then reversed by 3-week treatment with 5 mg/kg atorvastatin. CONCLUSIONS These studies establish a mechanism by which HIV-Nef persistence despite antiretroviral therapy could contribute to ongoing HIV-related vascular dysfunction, which may then be ameliorated by statin treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xingjuan Chen
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202
| | | | | | | | - Jithin Kuriakose
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202
- Ulster University, Ulster, Northern Ireland, UK
| | | | - Paul Jolicoeur
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montreal, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Matthias Clauss
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202
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23
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De Martini W, Rahman R, Ojegba E, Jungwirth E, Macias J, Ackerly F, Fowler M, Cottrell J, Chu T, Chang SL. Kinases: Understanding Their Role in HIV Infection. WORLD JOURNAL OF AIDS 2019; 9:142-160. [PMID: 32257606 PMCID: PMC7118713 DOI: 10.4236/wja.2019.93011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Antiviral drugs currently on the market primarily target proteins encoded by specific viruses. The drawback of these drugs is that they lack antiviral mechanisms that account for resistance or viral mutation. Thus, there is a pressing need for researchers to explore and investigate new therapeutic agents with other antiviral strategies. Viruses such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) alter canonical signaling pathways to create a favorable biochemical environment for infectivity. We used Qiagen Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) software to review the function of several cellular kinases and the resulting perturbed signaling pathways during HIV infection such as NF-κB signaling. These host cellular kinases such as ADK, PKR, MAP3K11 are involved during HIV infection at various stages of the life cycle. Additionally IPA analysis indicated that these modified host cellular kinases are known to have interactions with each other especially AKT1, a serine/threonine kinase involved in multiple pathways. We present a list of cellular host kinases and other proteins that interact with these kinases. This approach to understanding the relationship between HIV infection and kinase activity may introduce new drug targets to arrest HIV infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- William De Martini
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Roksana Rahman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Eduvie Ojegba
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Emily Jungwirth
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Jasmine Macias
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Frederick Ackerly
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Mia Fowler
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Jessica Cottrell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Tinchun Chu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Sulie L. Chang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
- Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, South Orange, NJ, USA
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24
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Klinker S, Stindt S, Gremer L, Bode JG, Gertzen CGW, Gohlke H, Weiergräber OH, Hoffmann S, Willbold D. Phosphorylated tyrosine 93 of hepatitis C virus nonstructural protein 5A is essential for interaction with host c-Src and efficient viral replication. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:7388-7402. [PMID: 30862675 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.007656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis C virus (HCV) nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A) plays a key role in viral replication and virion assembly, and the regulation of the assembly process critically depends on phosphorylation of both serine and threonine residues in NS5A. We previously identified SRC proto-oncogene, nonreceptor tyrosine kinase (c-Src), as an essential host component of the HCV replication complex consisting of NS5A, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase NS5B, and c-Src. Pulldown assays revealed an interaction between NS5A and the Src homology 2 (SH2) domain of c-Src; however, the precise binding mode remains undefined. In this study, using a variety of biochemical and biophysical techniques, along with molecular dynamics simulations, we demonstrate that the interaction between NS5A and the c-Src SH2 domain strictly depends on an intact phosphotyrosine-binding competent SH2 domain and on tyrosine phosphorylation within NS5A. Detailed analysis of c-Src SH2 domain binding to a panel of phosphorylation-deficient NS5A variants revealed that phosphorylation of Tyr-93 located within domain 1 of NS5A, but not of any other tyrosine residue, is crucial for complex formation. In line with these findings, effective replication of subgenomic HCV replicons as well as production of infectious virus particles in mammalian cell culture models were clearly dependent on the presence of tyrosine at position 93 of NS5A. These findings indicate that phosphorylated Tyr-93 in NS5A plays an important role during viral replication by facilitating NS5A's interaction with the SH2 domain of c-Src.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Klinker
- From the Institut für Physikalische Biologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40204 Düsseldorf
| | - Sabine Stindt
- the Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectiology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf
| | - Lothar Gremer
- From the Institut für Physikalische Biologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40204 Düsseldorf.,the Institute of Complex Systems: Structural Biochemistry (ICS-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich
| | - Johannes G Bode
- the Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectiology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf
| | - Christoph G W Gertzen
- the Institute of Complex Systems: Structural Biochemistry (ICS-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich.,the John von Neumann Institute for Computing (NIC) and Jülich Supercomputing Centre (JSC), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, and.,the Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Holger Gohlke
- the Institute of Complex Systems: Structural Biochemistry (ICS-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich.,the John von Neumann Institute for Computing (NIC) and Jülich Supercomputing Centre (JSC), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, and.,the Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Oliver H Weiergräber
- the Institute of Complex Systems: Structural Biochemistry (ICS-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich
| | - Silke Hoffmann
- the Institute of Complex Systems: Structural Biochemistry (ICS-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich
| | - Dieter Willbold
- From the Institut für Physikalische Biologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40204 Düsseldorf, .,the Institute of Complex Systems: Structural Biochemistry (ICS-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich
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25
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Zhao Z, Kesti T, Uğurlu H, Baur AS, Fagerlund R, Saksela K. Tyrosine phosphorylation directs TACE into extracellular vesicles via unconventional secretion. Traffic 2019; 20:202-212. [PMID: 30569492 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
When studying how HIV-1 Nef can promote packaging of the proinflammatory transmembrane protease TACE (tumor necrosis factor-α converting enzyme) into extracellular vesicles (EVs) we have revealed a novel tyrosine kinase-regulated unconventional protein secretion (UPS) pathway for TACE. When TACE was expressed without its trafficking cofactor iRhom allosteric Hck activation by Nef triggered translocation of TACE into EVs. This process was insensitive to blocking of classical secretion by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to Golgi transport, and involved a distinct form of TACE devoid of normal glycosylation and incompletely processed for prodomain removal. Like most other examples of UPS this process was Golgi reassembly stacking protein (GRASP)-dependent but was not associated with ER stress. These data indicate that Hck-activated UPS provides an alternative pathway for TACE secretion that can bypass iRhom-dependent ER to Golgi transfer, and suggest that tyrosine phosphorylation might have a more general role in regulating UPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhao
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tapio Kesti
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hasan Uğurlu
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Andreas S Baur
- Department of Dermatology, Translational Research Center, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Riku Fagerlund
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kalle Saksela
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
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26
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Dias MVS, Costa CS, daSilva LLP. The Ambiguous Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in HIV Replication and Pathogenesis. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2411. [PMID: 30364166 PMCID: PMC6191503 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells from all kingdoms of life can release membrane-enclosed vesicles to the extracellular milieu. These extracellular vesicles (EVs) may function as mediators of intercellular communication, allowing the transfer of biologically active molecules between cells and organisms. It has become clear that HIV particles and certain types of EVs, such as exosomes, share many similarities regarding morphology, composition, and biogenesis. This review presents a summary of the literature describing the intricate relationship between HIV and EVs biogenesis. Also, we discuss the latest progress toward understanding the mechanisms by which EVs influence HIV pathogenesis, as well as, how HIV modulates EVs composition in infected cells to facilitate viral spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos V S Dias
- Center for Virus Research, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Cristina S Costa
- Center for Virus Research, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Luis L P daSilva
- Center for Virus Research, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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