Radiolytic degradation of atrazine aqueous solution containing humic substances

Synergetic degradation of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in soil using electrical resistance heating induced persulfate activation

Due to wastes from production of fluorinated materials and use of aqueous fire-fighting foams (AFFF), soils contaminated with perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is of concern. However, current PFOA-contaminated soil disposal techniques have relatively low degradation efficiencies and are not suitable for on-site remediation. In this study, an electrical resistance heating (ERH) device and a box experimental device were used to study whether ERH induced persulfate activation (ERH/PS) could degrade PFOA in the soil. The results indicated that single ERH and single PS addition could not effectively degrade PFOA (with approximately 0.3 % and 3.9 % degradation after 9 h, respectively), while the degradation efficiency of PFOA with coupled ERH/PS could reach 87.3 % after 9 h of reaction. Moreover, effects of PS content, heating temperature, and soil organic matter on the degradation of PFOA were explored. During the ERH/PS process, PFOA was gradually transformed into short chain perfluorinated compounds and finally mineralized to fluoride ions. Finally, using a box experimental device, PS was effectively transported to the target contaminated area through electrokinetic (EK)-assisted delivery. After activating PS through ERH, the degradation rate of PFOA could reach 95.5 %. This is a novel study demonstrating the feasibility of ERH induced PS activation to degrade PFOA in soil, which provides a potential on-site strategy for remediation of PFOA-contaminated soil.

Electron beam treatment for the removal of 1,4-dioxane in water and wastewater

Electron beam (e-beam) treatment uses accelerated electrons to form oxidizing and reducing radicals when applied to water without the use of external chemicals. In this study, electron beam treatment was used to degrade 1,4-dioxane in several water matrices. Removal improved in the progressively cleaner water matrices and removals as high as 94% to 99% were observed at a dose of 2.3 kGy in secondary effluent. 1,4-dioxane removal was confirmed to be primarily through hydroxyl radical oxidation. The calculated electrical energy per order was found to be 0.53, 0.26, and 0.08 kWh/m³/order for secondary effluent (Avg. total organic carbon (TOC) 9.25 mg/L), granular activated carbon effluent (TOC 3.46 mg/L), and ultrapure water, respectively, with a 70% generation and transfer efficiency applied.

Real-Time Monitoring of the Atrazine Degradation by Liquid Chromatography and High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry: Effect of Fenton Process and Ultrasound Treatment

High resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) was coupled with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (uHPLC) to monitor atrazine (ATZ) degradation process of Fenton/ultrasound (US) treatment in real time. Samples were automatically taken through a peristaltic pump, and then analysed by HPLC-HRMS. The injection in the mass spectrometer was performed every 4 min for 2 h. ATZ and its degradation metabolites were sampled and identified. Online Fenton experiments in different equivalents of Fenton reagents, online US experiments with/without Fe²⁺ and offline Fenton experiments were conducted. Higher equivalents of Fenton reagents promoted the degradation rate of ATZ and the generation of the late-products such as Ammeline (AM). Besides, adding Fe²⁺ accelerated ATZ degradation in US treatment. In offline Fenton, the degradation rate of ATZ was higher than that of online Fenton, suggesting the offline samples were still reacting in the vial. The online analysis precisely controls the effect of reagents over time through automatic sampling and rapid detection, which greatly improves the measurement accuracy. The experimental set up proposed here both prevents the degradation of potentially unstable metabolites and provides a good way to track each metabolite.

Degradation of Residual Herbicide Atrazine in Agri-Food and Washing Water

Atrazine, an herbicide used to control grassy and broadleaf weed, has become an essential part of agricultural crop protection tools. It is widely sprayed on corn, sorghum and sugar cane, with the attendant problems of its residues in agri-food and washing water. If ingested into humans, this residual atrazine can cause reproductive harm, developmental toxicity and carcinogenicity. It is therefore important to find clean and economical degradation processes for atrazine. In recent years, many physical, chemical and biological methods have been proposed to remove atrazine from the aquatic environment. This review introduces the research works of atrazine degradation in aqueous solutions by method classification. These methods are then compared by their advantages, disadvantages, and different degradation pathways of atrazine. Moreover, the existing toxicological experimental data for atrazine and its metabolites are summarized. Finally, the review concludes with directions for future research and major challenges to be addressed.

Degradation of Selected Antidepressants Sertraline and Citalopram in Ultrapure Water and Surface Water Using Gamma Radiation

Gamma radiation was applied to degradation selected antidepressants in ultrapure water and surface water. Additionally, the influence of typical radical scavengers like carbonate, nitrate and humic acid was determined. The cytotoxicity towards liver cells HepG2 and colon cells Caco2 were measured during the radiation process. It was found that radiation technology, specifically ionizing radiation, can achieve satisfactory degradation efficiency with both SER and CIT. It was shown that the process of decomposition of the tested antidepressants with the highest efficiency occurs in the reaction with the hydroxyl radical.

Persistent organic pollutants: The trade-off between potential risks and sustainable remediation methods

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) have become a very serious issue for the environment because of their toxicity, resistance to conventional degradation mechanisms, and capacity to bioconcentrate, bioaccumulate and biomagnify. In this review article, the safety, regulatory, and remediation aspects of POPs including aromatic, chlorinated, pesticides, brominated, and fluorinated compounds, are discussed. Industrial and agricultural activities are identified as the main sources of these harmful chemicals, which are released to air, soil and water, impacting on social and economic development of society at a global scale. The main types of POPs are presented, illustrating their effects on wildlife and human beings, as well as the ways in which they contaminate the food chain. Some of the most promising and innovative technologies developed for the removal of POPs from water are discussed, contrasting their advantages and disadvantages with those of more conventional treatment processes. The promising methods presented in this work include bioremediation, advanced oxidation, ionizing radiation, and nanotechnology. Finally, some alternatives to define more efficient approaches to overcome the impacts that POPs cause in the hydric sources are pointed out. These alternatives include the formulation of policies, regulations and custom-made legislation for controlling the use of these pollutants.

Study on the efficacy and mechanism of Fe-TiO2 visible heterogeneous Fenton catalytic degradation of atrazine

In order to improve the catalytic activity and recycling performance of heterogeneous Fenton catalyst, a heterogeneous Fenton catalyst Fe/TiO₂ based on TiO₂ supported visible light response was prepared by a simple method using TiO₂ synthesized by sol-gel method as carrier and ferric nitrate as Fe source. It was characterized by SEM, EDX, XRD, UV-vis instruments. The influencing factors of catalytic degradation of atrazine by visible light heterogeneous Fenton of Fe/TiO₂ were studied and the reaction kinetics were fitted. The mineralization degree of atrazine was reflected by the removal rate of TOC. The intermediate products by the degradation of the catalytic system was analyzed and the reaction mechanism of Fe/TiO₂-H₂O₂ visible light system was discussed. The XRD results showed that Fe was highly dispersed on the surface of TiO₂ in the form of α-Fe₂O₃. The Fe/TiO₂ catalyst with heterogeneous Fenton and visible light photocatalytic activity was successfully optimized, forbidden bandwidth of Fe/TiO₂ after Fe supported was narrower, the scope of light absorption red-shifted, the electron-hole pairs were more generated, and there was a significant synergistic effect between the carrier TiO₂ and the supported Fe, which exhibited good oxidation capacity for degradation of 10 mg L^-1 atrazine in pH of 3, the concentration of H₂O₂ was 1.6 mM, and the catalyst was added at 1 g L^-1, achieving over 95% removal efficiency within 30 min, and, in the range of pH 3-7, the degradation rate of the reaction for 30 min can be maintained above 75%, which greatly broadened the range of pH application and had good recycling performance. The degradation process conformed to the quasi-first-order kinetic model. Through LC-MS analyzed, 12 intermediate products were formed during the degradation of atrazine, the final products were all cyanuric acid, and then the triazine ring was mineralized into inorganic substances such as CO₂, H₂O and NO₃^- by oxidation of ·OH, and the possible degradation pathways were inferred.

Comparative study of atrazine degradation by magnetic clay activated persulfate and H2O2

To effectively remove the endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in water, Fe3O4 was loaded on the surface of modified sepiolite clay by the method of co-precipitation to catalyze potassium persulfate (K2S2O8) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) respectively to generate SO4˙- and ·OH for atrazine (ATZ) removal. The magnetic clay catalyst was characterized by XRD, SEM, N2 adsorption-desorption and isoelectric point. The degradation efficiency of ATZ in the two systems was systematically compared in terms of initial pH, oxidant dosage and oxidant utilization rate. The results revealed that, after 90 minutes, systems with K2S2O8 and H2O2 can remove 65.7% and 57.8% of the ATZ under the given conditions (30 °C, catalyst load: 1 g L-1, initial pH: 5, [ATZ]0: 10 mg L-1, [H2O2]0: 46 mmol L-1, [PDS]0: 46 mmol L-1). The magnetic clay catalyst still maintained good catalytic activity and stability during the four consecutive runs. Based on the quenching experiments, it was demonstrated that the dominant radical species in the two systems were SO4˙-/·OH and ·OH, respectively. However, the degradation efficiency of the two systems presented different responses toward the condition variations; the system with K2S2O8 was relatively more sensitive to solution pH, the oxidant efficiency was generally higher than that of the H2O2 system (except 184 mmol L-1).

Atrazine degradation using Fe3O4-sepiolite catalyzed persulfate: Reactivity, mechanism and stability

In this study, with sepiolite as a support, a novel magnetic Fe₃O₄-sepiolite composite was fabricated by coprecipitation method. The characterization results reveal that the sepiolite support could anchor Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles with good dispersion. The composite was used as a catalyst to activate persulfate (PS) for atrazine (ATZ) degradation. 71.6% of ATZ and 20.9% of solution TOC could be removed after 60 min with 92 mmol/L of PS ([ATZ]₀ = 10 mmol/L). Due to the good adsorption capacity of Fe₃O₄-sepiolite composite toward ATZ, the degradation was considered to be facilitated by an adsorption process, since the adsorbed ATZ can be more easily transported to the active sites and be degraded in situ. Operation factors, including PS dose and solution pH, were investigated and found to be influential for the ATZ removal. The Fe₃O₄-sepiolite composite maintained its catalytic activity and structural stability with negligible Fe leaching during the recycling batch experiments. The intermediate products were further identified and the possible transformation pathway was then proposed based on the results. The findings of this research promote the application of Fe₃O₄-sepiolite composite as efficient and recyclable heterogeneous catalyst for organic degradation, and provide insights into the development of alternative catalysts with good adsorptive properties.

Transformation of atrazine by photolysis and radiolysis: kinetic parameters, intermediates and economic consideration

Four techniques, UV_{254 nm} photolysis, vacuum ultraviolet (VUV_{172 nm}) photolysis, combined UV_{254 nm}/VUV_{185 nm} photolysis and gamma (γ) radiolysis were used to induce the transformation of atrazine in aqueous solution. The effects of dissolved oxygen (atrazine concentration 1 × 10^-4 mol L^-1 and 4.6 × 10^-7 mol L^-1) and matrix (high purity water/purified wastewater, atrazine concentration 4.6 × 10^-7 mol L^-1) and the electric energy requirements were investigated. The calculation of the energy input in cases of the photolyses was based on the lamp's power. In radiolysis, the absorbed dose (J kg^-1) was the basis. In UV photolysis, atrazine transforms to atrazine-2-hydroxy; this product practically does not degrade during UV photolysis; due to this reason, the mineralisation is very slow. This and some other products of atrazine decomposition degrade only in radical reactions. Dissolved oxygen usually slightly enhances the degradation rate. At 10^-7 mol L^-1 concentration level, the matrix, high purity water/purified wastewater, has not much influence on the degradation rates in UV photolysis and radiolysis. In the VUV and UV/VUV systems, considerable matrix effects were observed. Comparing the electric energy requirements of the four degradation processes, radiolysis was found to be the economically most feasible method, requiring 1-2 orders of magnitude less electric energy than UV/VUV, VUV and UV photolysis.

Enhanced mineralization of atrazine by surface induced hydroxyl radicals over light-weight granular mixed-quartz sands with ozone

A light-weight granular mixed-quartz sand (denoted as L-GQS) combined with stirring-assisted bubble column reactor was firstly applied in catalytic ozonation of atrazine. The L-GQS, with a density of 2.36 g cm^-3 and average diameter of ca. of 4 mm, was readily churned up and uniformly distributed within the solution in the reactor. The introduction of L-GQS was found to exhibit enhanced catalytic ozonation of atrazine, with the increase in degradation rate and the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal being more than 2-fold for the catalytic process (L-GQS dosage = 5 g L^-1, [atrazine]₀ = 50 μM, [O₃] = 25 mg L^-1, gas flow = 0.2 L min^-1, at pH 7.0 and 293 K). The L-GQS settled at the bottom of the reactor after experimentation, allowing its easy separation from the solution. A complete characterization of the material (XRD, XPS, FTIR, FE-SEM/EDS, BET and pH_pzc) revealed that L-GQS consisted of α-quartz, β-cristobalite, anorthoclase and small amount of iron oxy-hydroxides. Hydroxyl groups, Bronsted acid sites and Lewis acid sites on the surface of L-GQS all contributed to the atrazine adsorption, ozone decomposition and ·OH generation. The L-GQS catalyzed ozonation exhibited superior atrazine degradation and mineralization rates in a wide range of pH (3.0-9.0) and reaction temperatures (278 K-293 K). Also, an enhancement of DOC abatement was observed both in presence of natural organic matter isolates and natural water matrices (river water) when L-GQS was used. Finally, the degradation mechanism was proposed, based on the intermediates and by-products formation analyzed by LC-QTOF-MS/MS and ionic chromatography. Our results indicate that the L-GQS combined with stirring-assisted bubble column reactor could be utilized as an enhancement of ozone-based advanced oxidation processes.

Decomposition of antibiotic ornidazole by gamma irradiation in aqueous solution: kinetics and its removal mechanism

An efficient gamma radiolytic decomposition of one of the extensively used pharmaceutical ornidazole (ORZ) was explored under different experimental conditions by varying initial concentrations, solution pHs, and doses and concentrations of inorganic ([Formula: see text]) and organic (t-BuOH) additives. The results showed that low ORZ concentrations could be efficiently decomposed using gamma irradiation. The decomposition was followed by pseudo first-order reaction kinetics with rate constant values of 2.34, 1.48, 1.11, and 0.80 kGy^-1 for the following initial concentrations: 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg L^-1 with their corresponding (G(-ORZ)) values of 1.004, 1.683, 2.237, and 2.273, respectively. Decomposition rate of ORZ was remarkably improved under acidic condition when compared to neutral or alkaline medium. It was also observed that the decomposition was primarily caused by the reaction of ORZ with radiolytically generated reactive HO^• radicals. The addition of H₂O₂ had a synergistic effect on the decomposition and mineralization extent of ORZ. However, the removal of total organic carbon (TOC) was not as effective as the decomposition of ORZ. Finally, the quantum chemical calculations were employed to optimize the geometry structure of ORZ and liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) was used to identify the decomposition intermediates. On the basis of Gaussian calculations and analysis of LC-QTOF-MS, it can be inferred that ORZ radiolytic decomposition was mainly attributed to oxidative HO^• radicals and the direct cleavage of ORZ molecules. Possible pathways for ORZ decomposition using gamma irradiation in aqueous medium were proposed.

Photodegradation of atrazine in the presence of indole-3-acetic acid and natural montmorillonite clay minerals

Atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-s-triazine) is a commonly used agricultural herbicide that, as a result, is frequently detected in surface and ground water. In this study, we provide evidence of the photo-oxidation of atrazine under environmentally relevant conditions, specifically, in the presence of natural montmorillonite clay and the ubiquitous phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). The reaction is initiated by the generation of hydrated electrons from the photo-ionization of IAA. These electrons react with protons and dissolved oxygen to form hydroxyl radicals, which promote the further degradation of atrazine. Montmorillonite strongly enhances the yield of hydrated electrons and prolongs their lifetime, by stabilizing radical cations through electrostatic attraction by the negative charges embedded in the clay. Moreover, by providing a confined space, montmorillonite markedly increases the probability of contact between atrazine and the active radicals. Other factors strongly influencing the degradation process are the solution pH, the type of exchangeable cations present in the clay interlayer, and the hydration status of montmorillonite. Since both IAA and montmorillonite clay are widely distributed in the environment, the proposed reaction is predicted to play an important role in the degradation of atrazine and perhaps other potentially persistent organic contaminants.

Advanced oxidation processes for the removal of natural organic matter from drinking water sources: A comprehensive review

Natural organic matter (NOM), a key component in aquatic environments, is a complex matrix of organic substances characterized by its fluctuating amounts in water and variable molecular and chemical properties, leading to various interaction schemes with the biogeosphere and hydrologic cycle. These factors, along with the increasing amounts of NOM in surface and ground waters, make the effort of removing naturally-occurring organics from drinking water supplies, and also from municipal wastewater effluents, a challenging task requiring the development of highly efficient and versatile water treatment technologies. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) received an increasing amount of attention from researchers around the world, especially during the last decade. The related processes were frequently reported to be among the most suitable water treatment technologies to remove NOM from drinking water supplies and mitigate the formation of disinfection by products (DBPs). Thus, the present work overviews recent research and development studies conducted on the application of AOPs to degrade NOM including UV and/or ozone-based applications, different Fenton processes and various heterogeneous catalytic and photocatalytic oxidative processes. Other non-conventional AOPs such as ultrasonication, ionizing radiation and plasma technologies were also reported. Furthermore, since AOPs are unlikely to achieve complete oxidation of NOM, integration schemes with other water treatment technologies were presented including membrane filtration, adsorption and others processes.

Analytical, toxicological and kinetic investigation of decomposition of the drug diclofenac in waters and wastes using gamma radiation

The radiolytic decomposition of the drug diclofenac (DCF), and in limited extent, also two other widely used drugs, ibuprofen and carbamazepine, was examined using liquid chromatography (LC) methods. The efficiency of DCF decomposition was examined in function of the absorbed dose of gamma radiation, and also in the presence of selected scavengers of radicals, which are commonly present in natural waters and wastes. Three different tests were employed for the monitoring of toxicity changes in the irradiated DCF solutions. The LC/mass spectrometry (MS) was used for the determination of products of DCF radiolysis. Using pulse-radiolysis method with the spectrophotometric detection, the rate constant values were determined for reactions of DCF with the main products of water radiolysis: hydroxyl radicals (1.24 ± 0.02) × 10(10) M(-1) s(-1) and hydrated electrons (3.1 ± 0.2) × 10(9) M(-1) s(-1). Their values indicate that both oxidative and reductive processes in radiolytic decomposition of DCF can take place in irradiated diluted aqueous solutions of DCF. The possibility of decomposition of all examined analytes was investigated in samples of river water and hospital waste. Compared to the previous studies, the conducted measurements in real samples were carried out at the concentration levels, which are close to those reported earlier in environmental samples. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Radiolytic decomposition of ciprofloxacin using γ irradiation in aqueous solution

Gamma irradiation-induced decomposition of ciprofloxacin (CIP) was elucidated with different additives, such as CO3 (2-), NO3 (-), NO2 (-), humic acid, methanol, 2-propanol, and tert-butanol. The results show that low initial concentration and acidic condition were favorable for CIP removal during γ irradiation. By contrast, radiolytic decomposition of CIP was inhibited with the addition of anions and organic additives. As a strong carcinogen, Cr(6+) was especially mixed with CIP to produce combined pollution. It is noteworthy that the removal of the mixture of CIP and Cr(6+) presented a synergistic effect; the degradation efficiency of the two pollutants was markedly improved compared to that of the single pollutant during γ irradiation. Based on the results of quantum chemical calculations and LC-MS analysis, we determined seven kinds of degradation intermediates and presented the CIP degradation pathways, which were mainly attributed to the oxidation process of hydroxyl radicals OH· and the direct decomposition of CIP molecules.

Role of eaq⁻, ·OH and H· in radiolytic degradation of atrazine: a kinetic and mechanistic approach

The degradation of atrazine was investigated in aqueous solution by gamma-ray irradiation. 8.11 μM initial atrazine concentration could be completely removed in N₂ saturated solution by applying 3500 Gy radiation dose at a dose rate of 296 Gy h(-1). Significant removal of atrazine (i.e., 39.4%) was observed at an absorbed dose of 1184 Gy in air saturated solution and the removal efficiency was promoted to 50.5 and 65.4% in the presence of N₂O and N₂ gases, respectively. The relative contributions of hydrated electron, hydroxyl radical and hydrogen radical toward atrazine degradation were determined as ratio of observed dose constant (kobs) and found to be 5: 3: 1 for keaq(-): k·OH: kH·, respectively. The degradation efficiency of atrazine was 69.5, 55.6 and 37.3% at pH 12.1, 1.7 and 5.7, respectively. A degradation mechanism was proposed based on the identified degradation by-products by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Taking the relative contributions of oxidative and reductive species to atrazine degradation into account, reductive pathway proved to be a better approach for the radiolytic treatment of atrazine contaminated water.

Kinetic and mechanism investigation on the gamma irradiation induced degradation of endosulfan sulfate

The gamma irradiation was investigated for potential removal of endosulfan sulfate, an emerging water pollutant and central nervous system disruptor. A removal efficiency of 99.5% of initially 1.30 μM endosulfan sulfate was observed at an absorbed dose of 1020 Gy. Aqueous electron (eaq(-)) was found to play primary role in the removal of endosulfan sulfate which was possibly due to greater reactivity of eaq(-) with endosulfan sulfate, considering the second-order rate constant of 8.1×10(9) and 3.4×10(10) M(-1) s(-1) for hydroxyl radical (·OH) and eaq(-), respectively, with endosulfan sulfate. The removal efficiency of endosulfan sulfate was affected by the pH of aqueous solution, with observed removal efficiency of 99.5%, 98.3% and 31.3% at pH 6.2, pH 10.0, and pH 2.6, respectively. The efficiency was also influenced by inorganic anions and humic acid in the order of nitrate>nitrite>bicarbonate>carbonate ≃ humic acid. The initial degradation rate increased while degradation constant decreased with increasing initial concentrations of endosulfan sulfate. The degradation pathways showed that oxidative pathway was initiated at the SO2 bond while reductive pathways at the chlorine attached to the ring of endosulfan sulfate. The mass balance showed removal of 98% chloride and 72% sulfate ions from endosulfan sulfate at an absorbed dose of 1020 Gy. The removal of endosulfan sulfate followed by subsequent loss of by-products under extended treatment showed that gamma irradiation is potential technique for the remediation of organic pollutants from a water environment.

Role of aqueous electron and hydroxyl radical in the removal of endosulfan from aqueous solution using gamma irradiation

The removal of endosulfan, an emerging water pollutant, from water was investigated using gamma irradiation based advanced oxidation and reduction processes (AORPs). A significant removal, 97% of initially 1.0 μM endosulfan was achieved at an absorbed dose of 1020 Gy. The removal of endosulfan by gamma-rays irradiation was influenced by an absorbed dose and significantly increased in the presence of aqueous electron (eaq(-)). However, efficiency of the process was inhibited in the presence of eaq(-) scavengers, such as N2O, NO3(-), acid, and Fe(3+). The observed dose constant decreased while radiation yield (G-value) increased with increasing initial concentrations of the target contaminant and decreasing dose-rate. The removal efficiency of endosulfan II was lower than endosulfan I. The degradation mechanism of endosulfan by the AORPs was proposed showing that reductive pathways involving eaq(-) started at the chlorine attached to the ring while oxidative pathway was initiated due to attack of hydroxyl radical at the SO bond. The mass balance showed 95% loss of chloride from endosulfan at an absorbed dose of 1020 Gy. The formation of chloride and acetate suggest that gamma irradiation based AORPs are potential methods for the removal of endosulfan and its by-products from contaminated water.

Determination of carbamate and organophosphorus pesticides in vegetable samples and the efficiency of gamma-radiation in their removal

In the present study, the residual pesticide levels were determined in eggplants (Solanum melongena) (n = 16), purchased from four different markets in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The carbamate and organophosphorus pesticide residual levels were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the efficiency of gamma radiation on pesticide removal in three different types of vegetables was also studied. Many (50%) of the samples contained pesticides, and three samples had residual levels above the maximum residue levels determined by the World Health Organisation. Three carbamates (carbaryl, carbofuran, and pirimicarb) and six organophosphates (phenthoate, diazinon, parathion, dimethoate, phosphamidon, and pirimiphos-methyl) were detected in eggplant samples; the highest carbofuran level detected was 1.86 mg/kg, while phenthoate was detected at 0.311 mg/kg. Gamma radiation decreased pesticide levels proportionately with increasing radiation doses. Diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and phosphamidon were reduced by 40–48%, 35–43%, and 30–45%, respectively, when a radiation strength of 0.5 kGy was utilized. However, when the radiation dose was increased to 1.0 kGy, the levels of the pesticides were reduced to 85–90%, 80–91%, and 90–95%, respectively. In summary, our study revealed that pesticide residues are present at high amounts in vegetable samples and that gamma radiation at 1.0 kGy can remove 80–95% of some pesticides.

Advanced oxidation for the treatment of chlorpyrifos in aqueous solution

Chlorpyrifos is an organophosphate pesticide and is significant because of its extensive use, persistence in the environment, wide distribution, and its toxicity may lead to lung and central nervous system damage, developmental and autoimmune disorders and vomiting. In the present study, the irradiation of chlorpyrifos in aqueous solution by (60)Co γ-rays was conducted on a laboratory scale and the removal efficiency of chlorpyrifos was investigated. The SPME-GC-ECD method was used for analysis of chlorpyrifos. Aqueous solutions of different concentrations of target compound (200-1000 μg L(-1)) were irradiated through 30-575 Gy. Gamma irradiation showed 100% degradation for a 500 μg L(-1) solution at an absorbed dose of 575 Gy (the dose rate was 300 Gy h(-1)). The radiolysis of chlorpyrifos was pseudo-first order (decay) with respect to dose. The dose constants determined in this study ranged from 8.2×10(-3) to 2.6×10(-2) Gy(-1), and decreased with an increase in the initial concentration of chlorpyrifos, while the radiation chemical yield (G-value) for the loss of chlorpyrifos was found to decrease with increasing absorbed dose. The effect of saturated solutions of N2 and N2O, and radical scavengers tert-butanol, iso-propanol, H2O2, NaNO3 and NaNO2 on the degradation of chlorpyrifos were also studied. The results showed that the oxidative OH was the most important in the degradation of chlorpyrifos, while the reductive radicals, aqueous electron and H, were of less importance for the degradation of chlorpyrifos. The inorganic by-products Cl(-), SO4(2-) and PO4(3-) were quantitatively determined by IC.

Comparative study of the photodegradation of bisphenol A by HO(•), SO4(•-) and CO3(•-)/HCO3 radicals in aqueous phase

The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of oxidation processes based on UV radiation (UV, UV/H2O2, UV/K2S2O8, and UV/Na2CO3) to remove bisphenol A (BPA) from aqueous solution. Results showed that UV radiation was not effective to remove BPA from the medium. The addition of radical promoters such as H2O2, K2S2O8, or Na2CO3 markedly increased the effectiveness of UV radiation through the generation of HO(•), SO4(•-), or CO3(•-)/HCO3(•) radicals, respectively. The reaction rate constants between BPA and HO(•), SO4(•-), and CO3(•-)/HCO3(•) radicals were k(HO(•)BPA)=1.70±0.21×10(10)M(-1)s(-1), k(SO4(•-)BPA)=1.37±0.15×10(9)M(-1)s(-1) and k(CO3(•-)/HCO3(•)BPA)=3.89±0.09×10(6)M(-1)s(-1), respectively. The solution pH had a major effect on BPA degradation with the UV/H2O2 system, followed by UV/K2S2O8, and UV/Na2CO3 systems. All oxidation systems in this study showed 100% effectiveness to remove BPA from wastewater, due to its large content of natural organic matter (NOM), which can absorb UV radiation and generate excited triplet states ((3)NOM*) and various reactive oxygen species. With all three systems, the total organic carbon in the medium was markedly decreased after 5 min of treatment. The toxicity of byproducts was higher than that of BPA when using UV/H2O2, similar to that of BPA with the UV/Na2CO3 system, and lower than that of BPA after 40 min of treatment with the UV/K2S2O8 system.

Gamma radiolysis of alachlor aqueous solutions in the presence of hydrogen peroxide

The enhanced effect of gamma irradiation with hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) for alachlor degradation in an aqueous solution was first investigated in this study. The combination of gamma irradiation and H(2)O(2) led to an enhanced effect, which remarkably increased the degradation efficiency of alachlor and the total organic carbon (TOC) removal. At a dose of 200 Gy, the degradation degree of the alachlor solution reached 81.7 and 99.2% under H(2)O(2) concentrations of 0 and 0.1 μM, respectively. In addition, the TOC removal efficiencies of the alachlor under initial H(2)O(2) concentrations of 0, 0.5 and 1.0 μM were 59.5, 74.8 and 83.8%, respectively, at an absorbed dose of 20 k Gy. However, for higher H(2)O(2) concentrations (greater than 1 μM), the alachlor degradation was reduced because OH radicals were scavenged by the H(2)O(2). The biodegradability of alachlor solutions prior to and after treatment by gamma irradiation was also assessed using the Closed Bottle Test (CBT). The results showed enhanced biodegradability of alachlor with increasing absorbed doses.