The relationship of cytotoxic and genotoxic damage with blood aluminum levels and oxidative stress induced by this metal in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) erythrocytes

In vitro evaluation of the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of Al and Mn in ambient concentrations detected in groundwater intended for human consumption

Environmental exposure to metals can induce cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in cells and affect the health of the exposed population. To investigate the effects of aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn), we evaluated their cytogenotoxicity using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) exposed to these metals at previously quantified concentrations in groundwater intended for human consumption. The cell viability, membrane integrity, nuclear division index (NDI), oxidative stress, cell death, cell cycle, and DNA damage were analyzed in PBMCs exposed to Al (0.2, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/L) and Mn (0.1, 0.3, 1.0, and 1.5 for 48 h. We found that Al induced late apoptosis; decreased cell viability, NDI, membrane integrity; and increased DNA damage. However, no significant alterations in the early apoptosis, cell cycle, and reactive oxygen species levels were observed. In contrast, exposure to Mn altered all evaluated parameters related to cytogenotoxicity. Our data show that even concentrations allowed by the Brazilian legislation for Al and Mn in groundwater intended for human consumption cause cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in PBMCs. Therefore, in view of the results found, a comprehensive approach through in vivo investigations is needed to give robustness and validity to the results obtained, thus broadening the understanding of the impacts of metals on the health of environmentally exposed people.

In vivo assessment of genotoxic effects in Cyprinus carpio L., 1758 (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) exposed to selected metal(oid)s

Heavy metals and metalloids originating from industrial, agricultural, and urban wastes and increasing in aquatic ecosystems cause genotoxic damage to fish species. This study aimed to determine the potential genotoxic effects of mixtures of aluminum, arsenic, and manganese in Cyprinus carpio. The effects of the mixtures on erythrocyte cells of C. carpio were examined using the comet assay, micronucleus test, and erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities in two groups after exposure to three doses of the mixtures (Group A; Dose 1: 0.3 + 0.1 + 0.02 mg/L, Dose 2: 0.6 + 0.2 + 0.04 mg/L, Dose 3: 0.9 + 0.3 + 0.06 mg/L and Group B; Dose 1: 1 + 3 +0.1 mg/L, Dose 2: 2 + 6 + 0.2 mg/L, Dose 3: 3 + 9 + 0.3 mg/L). Experimental groups were formed according to the permissible limits specified in the Turkish Surface Water Quality Regulation (TSWQR). The results of comet assay parameters such as tail DNA %, tail moment, and olive tail moment confirmed the genotoxic effect of metal(oid)s mixtures on erythrocyte cells compared with control groups and showed that DNA damage increased with increasing the concentrations. The micronucleus and other nuclear abnormalities such as blebbed nuclei, notched nuclei, eightshaped nuclei, lobed nuclei, and binucleated cells were detected in the erythrocyte cells exposed to the mixtures. Consequently, it was found that the frequency of micronucleus and erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities significantly increased in the erythrocyte cells exposed to metal(oid) concentrations compared to control groups. These results show the existence of potential genotoxicity in C. carpio even at the minimum values specified in the TSWQR after exposure to the mixtures.

Bioaccumulation and oxidative stress caused by aluminium nanoparticles and the integrated biomarker responses in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

The use of nanoparticles (NPs) in various industries has experienced significant growth due to the advantages they offer, so the increase in their use has generated the continuous discharge of these products in numerous water bodies, which can affect the organisms that inhabit them. Previous studies have shown that Al is capable of producing oxidative stress in aquatic organisms; however, so far the impact of AlNP on hydrobionts is limited. Therefore, the objective of this work was to determine the oxidative stress produced by AlNP in liver, gill and blood of Cyprinus carpio, as well as their bioconcentration factor (BCF) in various tissues. For this purpose, the organisms were exposed to 50 μg L^-1 AlNP for 12-96 h. Subsequently, the tissues were obtained and the activity of antioxidant enzymes, oxidative damage to lipids and proteins were determined, and the BCF was calculated for liver, brain, gill and muscle. The results showed alterations in the activity of antioxidant enzymes and increased levels of lipoperoxidation, hydroperoxides and oxidized proteins. When establishing the integrated biomarker response, it was observed that the liver is the most affected organ and these effects are related to the Al content in the tissue. Finally, it was observed that muscle and gills presented a higher BCF, compared to brain and liver. These findings show that AlNP are capable of generating oxidative stress in carp, affecting tissue function and accumulating, which represents an important risk for the health of fish such as common carp.

Protective effect of mitophagy against aluminum-induced MC3T3-E1 cells dysfunction

Aluminum (Al) is a ubiquitous environmental metal toxicant that causes osteoblast (OB) damage which leads to Al-related bone diseases. Mitochondrial damage plays a key role in Al-related bone diseases, and while mitophagy can clear damaged mitochondria and improve OB function, the relationship between mitophagy and Al-induced OB dysfunction is unknown. To explore the role of mitophagy in Al-induced OB dysfunction in vitro, we used 2 μM carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) and 0.4 μM Cyclosporin A (CsA) to activate and inhibit mitophagy, respectively. MC3T3-E1 cells were treated with 0 mM AlCl₃ (control group); 2 mM AlCl₃ (Al group); 2 μM CCCP (CCCP group); 2 μM CCCP and 2 mM AlCl₃ (CCCP + Al group); 0.4 μM CsA (CsA group); 0.4 μM CsA and 2 mM AlCl₃ (CsA + Al group). The results showed that Al induced ultrastructural and functional impairment of MC3T3-E1 cells. Compared to the Al group, mitophagy activation caused mitochondrial membrane potentials to collapse, up-regulated PINK1, Parkin, and LC3 expression, down-regulated p62 expression, and increased mitophagosome numbers. Mitophagy activation also reduced Al-induced oxidative stress and MC3T3-E1 cell functional damage, as seen in improvement in cell viability, cellular calcium and phosphorus contents, and collagen I, osteocalcin, and bone alkaline phosphatase gene expression. Mitophagy inhibition had the opposite effects on activation. Overall, these results show that mitophagy can protect against Al-induced OB dysfunction.

Long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of ibuprofen and aluminum alters oxidative stress status on Danio rerio

Despite the ubiquitous presence of multiple pollutants in aqueous environments have been extensively demonstrated, the ecological impact of chemical cocktails has not been studied in depth. In recent years, environmental studies have mainly focused on the risk assessment of individual chemical substances neglecting the effects of complex mixtures even though it has been demonstrated that combined effects exerted by pollutants might represent a greater hazard to the biocenosis. The current study evaluates the effects on the oxidative stress status induced by individual forms and binary mixtures of ibuprofen (IBU) and aluminum (Al) on brain, gills, liver and gut tissues of Danio rerio after long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations (0.1-11 μg L^-1 and 0.05 mg L^-1- 6 mg L^-1, respectively). Lipid peroxidation (LPO), Protein carbonyl content (PCC) and activity of Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT), and Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX) were evaluated. Moreover, concentrations of both toxicants and the metabolite 2-OH-IBU were quantified on test water and tissues. Results show that ibuprofen (IBU) and aluminum (Al) singly promote the production of radical species and alters the oxidative stress status in all evaluated tissues of zebrafish, nevertheless, higher effects were elicited by mixtures as different interactions take place.

Changes of DNA Damage Effect of T-2 or Deoxynivalenol Toxins during Three Weeks Exposure in Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) Revealed by LORD-Q PCR

The present study aimed to adapt a Long-run Real-time DNA Damage Quantification (LORD-Q) qPCR-based method for the analysis of the mitochondrial genome of Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) and detect the DNA damaging effect of T-2 (4.11 mg kg⁻¹) and deoxynivalenol (5.96 mg kg⁻¹) mycotoxins in a 3-week feeding period. One-year-old Common carp were treated in groups (control, T-2 and DON). The mycotoxins were sprayed over the complete pelleted feed, and samples were taken weekly. Following the adaptation of LORD-Q PCR method for the Common carp species, the number of lesions were calculated to determine the amount of DNA damage. In the first and second weeks, the T-2 and the DON treated groups differed significantly from each other; however these differences disappeared in the third week. There was a significant difference in the DNA lesion values between weeks 1 and 3 in the deoxynivalenol-contaminated groups. While in the T-2 treated groups, the DNA lesion values were significantly reduced on weeks 2 and 3 compared to week 1. The results suggested that the trichothecene mycotoxins have a relevant DNA damaging effect.

Aluminum bioconcentration in female Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (Perciformes: Cichlidae) and the effects on pituitary gonadotropins

In this study, we measured aluminum (Al) bioconcentration in the brain, ovaries, and liver of Oreochromis niloticus females, and analyzed the effects of exposure to Al and acidic pH on the gene expression of follicle-stimulating hormone (βfsh) and luteinizing hormone (βlh) in these animals. Mature females were divided into 4 groups, thus being maintained for 96 h in one of the following conditions: control at neutral pH (Ctr); Al at neutral pH (Al); acidic pH (Ac), and Al at acidic pH (Al-Ac). pH alone did not influence Al bioconcentration in the brain. The animals from the Al-Ac group bioconcentrated more Al in the ovaries than those from the Al group, while no differences were observed in the liver. Aluminum bioconcentration was higher in the brain than in the liver and ovaries in Al-exposed animals (Al and Al-Ac), and higher in the brain than in the ovaries in the Ctr and Ac groups. The liver bioconcentrates more Al than the ovaries in the females from the Ctr and Ac groups. Aluminum and/or acidic pH did not alter βfsh gene expression, while βlh gene expression decreased in females from the Al group. Aluminum acted as an endocrine disruptor, suggesting deleterious effects in reproduction that could result in ovulation failure. Aluminum can act directly and/or indirectly in the pituitary, affecting ovarian steroidogenesis and altering the reproductive endocrine axis of mature O. niloticus females in an acute period of exposure.

The relationship between cyto-genotoxic damage and oxidative stress produced by emerging pollutants on a bioindicator organism (Allium cepa): The carbamazepine case

The carbamazepine (CBZ) is one of the most frequently detected anticonvulsant drugs in water bodies. Although there are reports of its ecotoxicological effects in the scientific literature, toxicity studies have not focused on establishing the mechanism by which CBZ produces its effect at environmentally relevant concentrations. The objective of this work was to evaluate cyto-genotoxicity and its relationship with oxidative stress produced by carbamazepine in the Allium cepa model. The cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, as well as the biomarkers of oxidative stress were analyzed in the roots of A. cepa, exposed to 1 and 31.36 μg L^-1 after 2, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h. The results show that genotoxic capacity of this drug in the roots of A. cepa is related to the generation of oxidative stress, in particular with production of hydroperoxides and oxidized proteins. Also, the cytotoxic effect has a high correlation with DNA damage. The results of the present study clearly indicate that bioassays with sensitive plants such as A. cepa are useful and complementary tools to evaluate the environmental impact of emerging contaminants.

Genotoxic and cytotoxic alterations induced by environmentally-relevant concentrations of amoxicillin in blood cells of Cyprinus carpio

Amoxicillin (AMX) is a pharmaceutical widely employed in human and veterinary medicine worldwide. Its wide production and use has led to this pharmaceutical being released into the environment in concentrations that range from ng L^-1 to μg L^-1. Previous studies have demonstrated that this antibiotic generates toxic effects, amongst which alterations to embryonic development and oxidative stress in aquatic organisms, is noteworthy. Nonetheless, it is necessary to characterize the risks that this pharmaceutical represents for species of economic interest such as Cyprinus carpio, in a more precise manner. The aim of this work was to demonstrate if AMX, at environmentally-relevant concentrations, is capable of inducing genotoxic/cytotoxic alterations in C. carpio. In order to evaluate genotoxicity, the comet assay and micronucleus test were used; in order to determine cytotoxic effects, caspase-3 activity and the TUNEL assay were carried out. The results showed that the effects of the biomarkers had their maximum at 72 h; considering the DNA damage in the comet assay, 0.039 μg L^-1 resulted in a 29% increase compared to control, and 1.67 μg L^-1 caused a 40% increase; micronucleus frequency increased by 205% in C1 and by 311% in C2 when compared to control; compared to control, caspase-3 activity increased 262% in C1 and 787% in C2; for the TUNEL assay, DNA fragmentation increased by 86% in C1 and 120% in C2 compared to control. The results showed that environmentally-relevant concentrations, AMX was capable of generating DNA damage and cytotoxic effects in blood cells of the common carp.

Alterations to DNA, apoptosis and oxidative damage induced by sucralose in blood cells of Cyprinus carpio

Sucralose (SUC) is an organochlorine that is used as a common sweetener in different dietary products around the world. Its extended use and production have led to this product is released into the environment in concentrations ranging from ng L^-1 to μg L^-1 in surface waters, groundwaters, wastewater treatment plants and ocean waters. A previous study carried out by our research team demonstrated that SUC is capable of inducing oxidative stress in Cyprinus carpio at environmentally-relevant concentrations. The aim of this study was to evaluate if SUC was capable of inducing alterations to DNA, apoptosis, and oxidative damage in the blood cells of C. carpio. Carps were exposed to two environmentally-relevant concentrations (0.05 and 155 μg L^-1) of SUC, and the following biomarkers were determined: comet assay, micronucleus test (MN), caspase-3 activity, TUNEL assay, hydroperoxide content, lipid peroxidation level, protein carbonyl content and superoxide dismutase and catalase activities. Results obtained showed that SUC is capable of inducing DNA damage. A maximum increase of 35% and 23% were observed for c1 and c2, respectively in the comet assay; increases of 586% and 507.7% for c1 and c2, respectively, were found at 72 h through the MN test. The activity of caspase-3 showed a greater response for c1 and c2 at 96 h, with 271% and 493.5%, respectively. TUNEL assay also showed the highest response at 96 h, with 51.8 for c1 and 72.9 for c2; c1 y c2 were able to induce oxidative stress with the highest expression at 72 h. A correlation between DNA damage biomarkers, apoptosis and plasma levels of SUC in both concentrations were observed. With the data obtained, we can conclude that SUC, at environmentally-relevant concentrations, was capable of generating DNA alterations, apoptosis and oxidative stress in blood cells in common carp.

Alterations to embryonic development and teratogenic effects induced by a hospital effluent on Cyprinus carpio oocytes

Hospital functioning generates a great quantity of contaminants, among which organic materials, heavy metals, and diverse pharmaceuticals are noteworthy that can affect organisms if they are not properly removed from the effluents. The hospital effluent evaluated in the present study came from IMSS (Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social) Clinic 221 in downtown Toluca, State of Mexico, a secondary care facility. The contaminants identified in hospitals have been associated with deleterious effects on aquatic organisms; however, it is necessary to continue with more studies in order to be able to regulate the production of said contaminants which are generally dumped into the city sewage system. The present study had the purpose of evaluating the alterations to embryonic development and teratogenic effects on oocytes Cyprinus carpio after exposure to different proportions of hospital effluent. For said purpose, the physicochemical properties of the effluent were determined. Concentrations of the main microcontaminants were also determined. An embryolethality study out and the determination of the main alterations to embryonic development and teratogenic effects produced, due to exposure of C. carpio at different proportions of the effluent, were carried out. The results showed that the physicochemical properties were within the values permitted by Mexican regulation; however, the presence of contaminants such as NaClO, metals, anti-biotics, anti-diabetics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, hormones and beta-blockers, was detected. Lethal concentration 50 was 5.65% and the effective concentration for malformations was 3.85%, with a teratogenic index of 1.46. The main teratogenic alterations were yolk deformation, scoliosis, modified chorda structure, tail malformation, fin deformity and mouth hyperplasia. A high rate of hatching delay was observed. The results suggest that the hospital effluent under study is capable of inducing embryotoxicity and teratogenicity in oocytes of C. carpio.

Water temperature and acid pH influence the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of aluminum in the freshwater teleost Astyanax altiparanae (Teleostei: Characidae)

The toxicity of metals, including aluminum (Al), can be potentiated by temperature and acid pH, a concern in view of the current global warming scenario. The aim of this study was to evaluate the bioconcentration of Al in the testes and semen of Astyanax altiparanae and the potential of this metal, at different environmental temperatures and acid pH, to cause cytotoxicity and genotocixity in erythrocytes and spermatozoa. A. altiparanae males were divided into nine experimental groups: at each of three different water temperatures (20, 25 and 30 °C), the fish were exposed to a neutral pH, an acid pH and acidic water containing Al (0.5 mg.L^-1). The fish were subjected to subacute, semi-static exposure and sampled at 24 and 96 h. After each exposure period the comet assay (blood and semen) and micronucleus test (blood) were performed. Bioconcentration of Al was evaluated in the testes and semen. Exposure time and temperature influenced the Al bioconcentration pattern in the testes. Al concentration in the semen was higher in fish exposed at 20 and 25 °C (24 h). The DNA fragmentation score for the semen and blood was higher in fish exposed to Al at 20 (24 h) and 30 °C (96 h). The frequency of nuclear abnormalities in erythrocytes was higher in the group exposed to Al at 30 °C (96 h). It was concluded that Al bioconcentrates in the testes and semen of A. altiparanae at different temperatures and is potentially cytotoxic and genotoxic to erythrocytes and spermatozoa in this species.

Evaluation of naproxen-induced oxidative stress, hepatotoxicity and in-vivo genotoxicity in male Wistar rats

Naproxen (NP), a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), is used for the treatment of common pain, inflammation and tissue damage. Genotoxicity testing of NP is of prime importance as it represents the largest group of drugs to which humans are exposed. Not many genotoxic studies are reported on NP; therefore, the present study investigated the detailed genotoxic and oxidative stress properties of NP. Male Wistar rats were administered NP orally at the doses of 38.91 and 65.78 mg/kg body weight for 14 days. Reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) activities/levels were measured in the liver, kidney and brain tissues. The aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities, and total bilirubin (TBIL) levels were measured in the liver tissues. Micronucleus frequency (micronucleus test MNT) and DNA damage (comet assay) were performed in the bone marrow cells and leukocytes, respectively. The results showed that NP treatment decreased the GSH levels and increased the SOD, CAT, LPO, ALT, AST, ALP and TBIL activities/levels compared to the control (p < 0.05). Results of MNT showed an increased micronucleus induction and comet assay showed a significant increase in DNA damage in the NP treated animals (p < 0.05). Treatment of NP resulted in the biochemical imbalance and induced oxidative stress that deteriorated the integrity of the cells, which caused significant damage to the genetic material and affected liver function in male Wistar rats. Therefore, NP is a potential genotoxic agent that induces genotoxicity and oxidative stress.

Environmental pollution and toxic substances: Cellular apoptosis as a key parameter in a sensible model like fish

The industrial wastes, sewage effluents, agricultural run-off and decomposition of biological waste may cause high environmental concentration of chemicals that can interfere with the cell cycle activating the programmed process of cells death (apoptosis). In order to provide a detailed understanding of environmental pollutants-induced apoptosis, here we reviewed the current knowledge on the interactions of environmental chemicals and programmed cell death. Metals (aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, zinc, copper, mercury and silver) as well as other chemicals including bleached kraft pulp mill effluent (BKME), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and pesticides (organo-phosphated, organo-chlorinated, carbamates, phyretroids and biopesticides) were evaluated in relation to apoptotic pathways, heat shock proteins and metallothioneins. Although research performed over the past decades has improved our understanding of processes involved in apoptosis in fish, yet there is lack of knowledge on associations between environmental pollutants and apoptosis. Thus, this review could be useful tool to study the cytotoxic/apoptotic effects of different pollutants in fish species.

Determination of potential oxidative damage, hepatotoxicity, and cytogenotoxicity in male Wistar rats: Role of indomethacin

The present study demonstrated the indomethacin (INDO) induced oxidative stress, hepatotoxicity, and genotoxicity in male Wistar rats. Animals were orally administrated INDO at doses of 0.302 and 0.605 (mg/kg b.w.) for 2 weeks. Reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and lipid peroxidation (LPO) activities/levels were measured in the liver, kidney, and brain tissues. The aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities, total bilirubin (TBIL) levels, and histopathological changes were determined in the liver tissues. Micronucleus frequency (micronucleus test) and DNA damage (comet assay) tests were performed in the bone marrow cells and leukocytes, respectively. Results show that INDO treatment decreased the GSH, SOD, and CAT levels/activities and increased the LPO, ALT, AST, ALP, and TBIL activities/levels. INDO induced significant hepatic injury and micronucleus and DNA damage. Thus, the current investigations confirm the oxidative stress, hepatotoxic, and genotoxic properties of INDO in the male Wistar rats.

DNA damage and cytotoxicity induced on common carp by pollutants in water from an urban reservoir. Madín reservoir, a case study

Madín Reservoir provides a substantial amount of drinking water to two municipalities close to Mexico City metropolitan area. However, it receives untreated wastewater discharges from domestic sources in the towns of Nuevo Madín and others, as well as diverse pollutants which are hauled by the Río Tlalnepantla from its upper reaches, so that the xenobiotics in the reservoir are highly diverse in terms of type and quantity. Previous studies showed that MR is contaminated with xenobiotics such as Al, Hg and Fe, as well as NSAIDs, at concentrations exceeding the limits established for aquatic life protection. These pollutants have been shown to induce oxidative stress on Cyprinus carpio and may therefore also damage the genetic material of exposed organisms, eliciting cytotoxicity as well. The present study aimed to determine the genotoxicity and cytotoxicity induced on blood, liver and gill of C. carpio by the pollutants present in MR water. Specimens were exposed to water from five sampling sites and the following biomarkers were evaluated: DNA damage by comet assay, frequency of micronuclei, apoptosis by TUNEL assay and caspase-3 activity. Significant increases relative to the control group (P < 0.05) were found with all biomarkers in all tissues evaluated, with the level of damage differing between sampling sites. In conclusion, pollutants present in MR water are genotoxic and cytotoxic to C. carpio, and this sentinel species, coupled with the biomarkers evaluated herein, is a reliable tool for assessing the health risk to wildlife posed by exposure to pollutants in freshwater bodies.

Dietary Lactobacillus plantarum supplementation enhances growth performance and alleviates aluminum toxicity in tilapia

We investigated the protection offered by the probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum CCFM639 against waterborne Al exposure in tilapia. Fish were allocated to control, CCFM639-only, Al-only or Al plus CCFM639 groups. The fish were exposed to 2.73mg/L Al ions for 4 weeks. The probiotic was incorporated into the fish diet at 10⁸ CFU/g and provided twice daily. Our results showed that L. plantarum CCFM639 significantly enhanced feed utilization, growth performance and antioxidant ability in the absence of waterborne Al exposure. When fish were exposed to Al, dietary supplementation with the strain effectively decreased the death rate and accumulation of Al in tissues, and enhanced growth performance. Moreover, Al-induced changes in hematobiochemical parameters and hepatic oxidative stress and histopathology were also alleviated. Therefore, L. plantarum CCFM639 may be a novel dietary supplement for fish to enhance growth performance and prevent aquaculture and food safety problems induced by Al pollution.

Accumulation of Metals in Juvenile Carp (Cyprinus carpio) Exposed to Sublethal Levels of Iron and Manganese: Survival, Body Weight and Tissue

Many oxbows are contaminated by Fe and Mn as a consequence of the elemental concentration of sediment and water originating from the Upper Tisza Region of Hungary. The phenomenon is partly caused by anthropogenic activities and mainly due to the geochemical characteristics of the region. The effects of Fe and Mn on the aquatic ecosystem of these wetlands were investigated in a model experiments in this study. Survival, individual body weight and the elemental concentrations of organs were determined in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) juveniles reared in Fe and Mn contaminated media (treatment 1: Fe 0.57 mg L^-1, Mn 0.29 mg L^-1, treatment 2: Fe 0.57 mg L^-1, Mn 0.625 mg L^-1, treatment 3: Fe 1.50 mg L^-1, Mn 0.29 mg L^-1, treatment 4: Fe 1.50 mg L^-1, Mn 0.625 mg L^-1 and control: Fe 0.005 mg L^-1, Mn 0.003 mg L^-1), for rearing time of 49 days. The treatment with Fe and Mn did not have any effect on the survival data and individual body weight in the levels tested. The highest concentration of Fe and Mn was found in the liver and brain of carp juveniles, while the lowest concentration of these elements occurred in the muscular tissue and gills. The treatment where Fe and Mn were applied in the highest concentrations resulted in a statistically higher level of these elements in the brain, grills and muscle tissues. The treatment where only Mn was present in the highest concentration caused increased level of Mn only in the liver. We found metal accumulation in almost every organ; however, the applied concentrations and exposure time did not affect the survival and average body weight of carp juveniles.

Geno- and cytotoxicity induced on Cyprinus carpio by aluminum, iron, mercury and mixture thereof

Metals such as Al, Fe and Hg are used in diverse anthropogenic activities. Their presence in water bodies is due mainly to domestic, agricultural and industrial wastewater discharges and constitutes a hazard for the organisms inhabiting these environments. The present study aimed to evaluate geno- and cytotoxicity induced by Al, Fe, Hg and the mixture of these metals on blood of the common carp Cyprinus carpio. Specimens were exposed to the permissible limits in water for human use and consumption according to the pertinent official Mexican norm [official Mexican norm NOM-127-SSA1-1994] Al (0.2mgL^-1), Fe (0.3mgL^-1), Hg (0.001mgL^-1) and their mixture for 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96h. Biomarkers of genotoxicity (comet assay and micronucleus test) and cytotoxicity (caspase-3 activity and TUNEL assay) were evaluated. Significant increases relative to the control group (p<0.05) were observed in all biomarkers at all exposure times in all test systems; however, damage was greater when the metals were present as a mixture. Furthermore, correlations between metal concentrations and biomarkers of geno- and cytotoxicity were found only at certain exposure times. In conclusion, Al, Fe, Hg and the mixture of these metals induce geno- and cytotoxicity on blood of C. carpio.

Toxicological hazard induced by sucralose to environmentally relevant concentrations in common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Sucralose (SUC) is an artificial sweetener that is now widely used in North American and Europe; it has been detected in a wide variety of aquatic environments. It is considered safe for human consumption but its effects in the ecosystem have not yet been studied in depth, since limited ecotoxicological data are available in the peer-reviewed literature. This study aimed to evaluate potential SUC-induced toxicological hazard in the blood, brain, gill, liver and muscle of Cyprinus carpio using oxidative stress biomarkers. Carps were exposed to two different environmentally relevant concentrations (0.05 and 155μgL^-1) for different exposure times (12, 24, 48, 72 and 96h). The following biomarkers were evaluated: lipid peroxidation (LPX), hydroperoxide content (HPC) and protein carbonyl content (PCC), as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). SUC was determined by high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry techniques (HPLC)-MS/MS. Results show a statically significant increase in LPX, HPC, PCC (P<0.05) especially in gill, brain and muscle, as well as significant changes in the activity of antioxidant enzymes in gill and muscle. Furthermore, the biomarkers employed in this study are useful in the assessment of the environmental impact of this agent on aquatic species.

The Greenland shark: A new challenge for the oxidative stress theory of ageing?

The free radical theory of ageing predicts that long-lived species should be more resistant to oxidative damage than short-lived species. Although many studies support this theory, recent studies found notable exceptions that challenge the generality of this theory. In this study, we have analysed the oxidative status of the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus), which has recently been found as the longest living vertebrate animal known to science with a lifespan of at least 272years. As compared to other species, the Greenland shark had body mass-corrected values of muscle glutathione peroxidase and red blood cells protein carbonyls (metric of protein oxidative damage) above 75 percentile and below 25 percentile, respectively. None of the biochemical metrics of oxidative status measured in either skeletal muscle or red blood cells were correlated with maximum lifespan of species. We propose that the values of metrics of oxidative status we measured might be linked to ecological features (e.g., adaptation to cold waters and deep dives) of this shark species rather to its lifespan.

Biomarkers of Cytotoxic, Genotoxic and Apoptotic Effects in Cyprinus carpio Exposed to Complex Mixture of Contaminants from Hospital Effluents

Hospital wastewater is an important source of emerging contaminants. Recent studies emphasize the importance of assessing the effects of mixtures of contaminants rather than environmental risk of their individual components, as well as the determination of intrinsic toxicity of wastewater. Mixtures of pollutants has possible interactions that have notable environmental side effects. The aim of this study is an attempt to characterize biomarkers in Cyprinus carpio related to the exposure to a complex mixture of contaminants found in hospital wastewater. Results of a particular hospital effluent show the presence of traces of heavy metals, high chlorine concentration and emerging contaminants such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. The LC50 was of 5.49 % at 96 h. The cytotoxic, genotoxic and apoptotic biomarkers increase when fishes were exposed to wastewater (1/10 CL50) from hospital wastewater. This study emphasizes the importance of identifying and quantifying the effects of contaminants as pharmaceuticals, disinfectants and surfactants in order to design and implement an ecotoxicological plan.

Flooding modifies the genotoxic effects of pollution on a worm, a mussel and two fish species from the Sava River

Extreme hydrological events, such as water scarcity and flooding, can modify the effect of other stressors present in aquatic environment, which could result in the significant changes in the ecosystem functioning. Presence and interaction of various stressors (genotoxic pollutants) in the environment can influence the integrity of DNA molecules in aquatic organisms which can be negatively reflected on the individual, population and community levels. Therefore, in this study we have investigated the impact of flooding, in terms of genotoxicity, on organisms belonging to different trophic levels. The study was carried out on the site situated in the lower stretch of the Sava River which faced devastating effects of severe flooding in May 2014. The flooding occurred during our field experiment and this event provided a unique opportunity to assess its influence to the environment. The in situ effects of this specific situation were monitored by measuring physical, chemical and microbiological parameters of water, and by comparing the level of DNA damage in coelomocytes and haemocytes of freshwater worms Branchiura sowerbyi, haemocytes of freshwater mussels Unio tumidus and blood cells of freshwater fish Abramis bjoerkna/Abramis sapa, by means of the comet assay. Our study indicated that the flooding had a significant impact on water quality by decreasing the amount and discharge rate of urban wastewaters but simultaneously introducing contaminants from the nearby fly ash disposal field into river by runoff, which had diverse effects on the level of DNA damage in the studied organisms. This indicates that the assessment of genotoxic pollution in situ is strongly affected by the choice of the bioindicator organism.

NSAID-manufacturing plant effluent induces geno- and cytotoxicity in common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

The pharmaceutical industry generates wastewater discharges of varying characteristics and contaminant concentrations depending on the nature of the production process. The main chemicals present in these effluents are solvents, detergents, disinfectants - such as sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) - and pharmaceutical products, all of which are potentially ecotoxic. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the geno- and cytotoxicity induced in the common carp Cyprinus carpio by the effluent emanating from a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-manufacturing plant. Carp were exposed to the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL, 0.1173%) for 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, and biomarkers of genotoxicity (comet assay and micronucleus test) and cytotoxicity (caspase-3 activity and TUNEL assay) were evaluated. A significant increase with respect to the control group (p<0.05) occurred with all biomarkers from 24h on. Significant positive correlations were found between NSAID concentrations and biomarkers of geno- and cytotoxicity, as well as among geno- and cytotoxicity biomarkers. In conclusion, exposure to this industrial effluent induces geno- and cytotoxicity in blood of C. carpio.

Cadmium induces liver cell apoptosis through caspase-3A activation in purse red common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Caspase-3, the essential effector caspase, plays a pivotal role during caspase-dependent apoptosis. In this study, we isolated and characterized caspase-3A gene from common carp. The common carp caspase-3A comprising 273 amino acids showed 71.8% sequence similarity and 59.3% sequence identity to human caspase-3. It exhibited an evolutionarily conserved structure of mammalian caspase-3 genes, including a pro-domain, a large subunit, a small subunit and other motifs such as the pentapeptide active-site motif (QACRG) and the putative cleavage sites at the aspartic acids. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that common carp caspase-3A formed a clade with cyprinid fish caspase-3. To assess whether caspase-3A is involved in cadmium (Cd)-induced cell apoptosis in common carp, a Cd exposure experiment was performed. TUNEL analysis showed that Cd triggered liver cell apoptosis; caspase-3A activity was markedly increased; its proenzyme level was significantly decreased, and the levels of its cleaved forms were markedly increased. However, real-time quantitative PCR analysis revealed that the mRNA transcript level of caspase-3A was not significantly elevated. Immunoreactivities were observed in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes by immunohistochemical detection. The findings indicates that Cd can trigger liver cell apoptosis through the activation of caspase-3A. Caspase-3A may play an essential role in Cd-induced apoptosis.