In vitro model for predicting the access and distribution of drugs in the brain using hCMEC/D3 cells

Neurons enhance blood-brain barrier function via upregulating claudin-5 and VE-cadherin expression due to glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor secretion

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents neurotoxins from entering central nervous system. We aimed to establish and characterize an in vitro triple co-culture BBB model consisting of brain endothelial cells hCMEC/D3, astrocytoma U251 cells, and neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Co-culture of SH-SY5Y and U251 cells markedly enhanced claudin-5 and VE-cadherin expression in hCMEC/D3 cells, accompanied by increased transendothelial electrical resistance and decreased permeability. Conditioned medium (CM) from SH-SY5Y cells (S-CM), U251 cells (U-CM), and co-culture of SH-SY5Y and U251 cells (US-CM) also promoted claudin-5 and VE-cadherin expression. Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) levels in S-CM and US-CM were significantly higher than CMs from hCMEC/D3 and U-CM. Both GDNF and US-CM upregulated claudin-5 and VE-cadherin expression, which were attenuated by anti-GDNF antibody and GDNF signaling inhibitors. GDNF increased claudin-5 expression via the PI3K/AKT/FOXO1 and MAPK/ERK pathways. Meanwhile, GDNF promoted VE-cadherin expression by activating PI3K/AKT/ETS1 and MAPK/ERK/ETS1 signaling. The roles of GDNF in BBB integrity were validated using brain-specific Gdnf silencing mice. The developed triple co-culture BBB model was successfully applied to predict BBB permeability. In conclusion, neurons enhance BBB integrity by upregulating claudin-5 and VE-cadherin expression through GDNF secretion and established triple co-culture BBB model may be used to predict drugs' BBB permeability.

Scutellarein derivatives with histamine H3 receptor antagonism and cholinesterase inhibitory potency as multi target-directed ligands for possible Alzheimer's disease therapy

A series of scutellarein 7-l-amino acid carbamate-4'-cycloalkylamine propyl ether conjugates were designed and synthesized for the first time as multifunctional agents for Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapy. The designed compounds exhibited more balanced and effective multi-target potency. Among them, compound 11l, l-Valine carbamate derivative of scutellarein cycloheptylamine ether, exhibited the most potent inhibition of electric eel AChE enzymes and human AChE enzymes, with an IC50 values of 7.04 μM and 9.73 μM, respectively. Moreover, 11l exhibited more potent H3R antagonistic activities than clobenpropit, with an IC50 value of 1.09 nM. Compound 11l not only displayed excellent inhibition of self- and Cu2+-induced Aβ1-42 aggregation (95.48 % and 88.63 % inhibition, respectively) but also induced the disassembly of self- and Cu2+-induced Aβ fibrils (80.16 % and 89.30 % disaggregation, respectively). Moreover, 11l significantly reduced tau protein hyperphosphorylation induced by Aβ25-35. It exhibited effective antioxidant activity and neuroprotective potency, and inhibited RSL3-induced PC12 cell ferroptosis. Assays of hCMEC/D3 and hPepT1-MDCK cell line permeability indicated that 11l would have optimal blood-brain barrier permeability and intestinal absorption characteristics. In addition, in vivo studies revealed that compound 11l significantly attenuated learning and memory impairment in an AD mouse model. Finally, a pharmacokinetic characterization of 11l indicated favorable druggability and pharmacokinetic properties. Taken together, our results suggest that 11l is a potential candidate for AD treatment and merits further investigation.

CYP2J2-mediated metabolism of arachidonic acid in heart: A review of its kinetics, inhibition and role in heart rhythm control

Cytochrome P450 2 J2 (CYP2J2) is primarily expressed extrahepatically and is the predominant epoxygenase in human cardiac tissues. This highlights its key role in the metabolism of endogenous substrates. Significant scientific interest lies in cardiac CYP2J2 metabolism of arachidonic acid (AA), an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid, to regioisomeric bioactive epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET) metabolites that show cardioprotective effects including regulation of cardiac electrophysiology. From an in vitro perspective, the accurate characterization of the kinetics of CYP2J2 metabolism of AA including its inhibition and inactivation by drugs could be useful in facilitating in vitro-in vivo extrapolations to predict drug-AA interactions in drug discovery and development. In this review, background information on the structure, regulation and expression of CYP2J2 in human heart is presented alongside AA and EETs as its endogenous substrate and metabolites. The in vitro and in vivo implications of the kinetics of this endogenous metabolic pathway as well as its perturbation via inhibition and inactivation by drugs are elaborated. Additionally, the role of CYP2J2-mediated metabolism of AA to EETs in cardiac electrophysiology will be expounded.

Recent advances in cell-based in vitro models for predicting drug permeability across brain, intestinal, and pulmonary barriers

INTRODUCTION

Recent years have witnessed remarkable progress in the development of cell-based in vitro models aimed at predicting drug permeability, particularly focusing on replicating the barrier properties of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), intestinal epithelium, and lung epithelium.

AREA COVERED

This review provides an overview of 2D in vitro platforms, including monocultures and co-culture systems, highlighting their respective advantages and limitations. Additionally, it discusses tools and techniques utilized to overcome these limitations, paving the way for more accurate predictions of drug permeability. Furthermore, this review delves into emerging technologies, particularly microphysiological systems (MPS), encompassing static platforms such as organoids and dynamic platforms like microfluidic devices. Literature searches were performed using PubMed and Google Scholar. We focus on key terms such as in vitro permeability models, MPS, organoids, intestine, BBB, and lungs.

EXPERT OPINION

The potential of these MPS to mimic physiological conditions more closely offers promising avenues for drug permeability assessment. However, transitioning these advanced models from bench to industry requires rigorous validation against regulatory standards. Thus, there is a pressing need to validate MPS to industry and regulatory agency standards to exploit their potential in drug permeability prediction fully. This review underscores the importance of such validation processes to facilitate the translation of these innovative technologies into routine pharmaceutical practice.

Temperature Dependence of Membrane Permeability Parameters for Five Cell Types Using Nonideal Thermodynamic Assumptions to Mathematically Model Cryopreservation Protocols

Cryopreservation is the process of preserving biological matter at subzero temperatures for long-term storage. During cryopreservation, cells are susceptible to various injuries that can be mitigated by controlling the cooling and warming profiles and cryoprotective agent (CPA) addition and removal procedures. Mathematical modeling of the changing cell volume at different temperatures can greatly reduce the experiments needed to optimize cryopreservation protocols. Such mathematical modeling requires as inputs the cell membrane permeabilities to water and CPA and the osmotically inactive fraction of the cell. Since the intra- and extracellular solutions are generally thermodynamically nonideal, our group has been incorporating the osmotic virial equation to model the solution thermodynamics that underlie the cell volume change equations, adding the second and third osmotic virial coefficients of the grouped intracellular solute to the cell osmotic parameters that must be measured. In our previous work, we reported methods to obtain cell osmotic parameters at room temperature by fitting experimental cell volume kinetic data with equations that incorporated nonideal solution thermodynamics assumptions. Since the relevant cell volume excursions occur at different temperatures, the temperature dependence of the osmotic parameters plays an important role. In this work, we present a new two-part fitting method to obtain five cell-type-specific parameters (water permeability, dimethyl sulfoxide permeability, osmotically inactive fraction, and the second and third osmotic virial coefficients of the intracellular solution) from experimental measurements of equilibrium cell volume and cell volume as a function of time at room temperature and 0 °C for five cell types, namely, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), H9c2 rat myoblasts, porcine corneal endothelial cells (PCECs), the Jurkat T-lymphocyte cell line, and human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells (hCMECs/D3 cell line). The fitting method in this work is based on both equilibrium and kinetic cell volume data, enabling us to solve some technical challenges and expand our previously reported measurement technique to 0 °C. Finally, we use the measured parameters to model the cell volume changes for a HUVEC cryopreservation protocol to demonstrate the impact of the nonideal thermodynamic assumptions on predicting the changing cell volume during freezing and thawing.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of new multi-target scutellarein hybrids for treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Scutellarein hybrids were designed, synthesized and evaluated as multifunctional therapeutic agents for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Compounds 11a-i, containing a 2-hydroxymethyl-3,5,6-trimethylpyrazine fragment at the 7-position of scutellarein, were found to have balanced and effective multi-target potencies against AD. Among them, compound 11e exhibited the most potent inhibition of electric eel and human acetylcholinesterase enzymes with IC50 values of 6.72 ± 0.09 and 8.91 ± 0.08 μM, respectively. In addition, compound 11e displayed not only excellent inhibition of self- and Cu2+-induced Aβ1-42 aggregation (91.85% and 85.62%, respectively) but also induced disassembly of self- and Cu2+-induced Aβ fibrils (84.54% and 83.49% disaggregation, respectively). Moreover, 11e significantly reduced tau protein hyperphosphorylation induced by Aβ25-35, and also exhibited good inhibition of platelet aggregation. A neuroprotective assay demonstrated that pre-treatment of PC12 cells with 11e significantly decreased lactate dehydrogenase levels, increased cell viability, enhanced expression of relevant apoptotic proteins (Bcl-2, Bax and caspase-3) and inhibited RSL3-induced PC12 cell ferroptosis. Furthermore, hCMEC/D3 and hPepT1-MDCK cell line permeability assays indicated that 11e would have optimal blood-brain barrier and intestinal absorption characteristics. In addition, in vivo studies revealed that compound 11e significantly attenuated learning and memory impairment in an AD mice model. Toxicity experiments with the compound did not reveal any safety concerns. Notably, 11e significantly reduced β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and β-site APP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE-1) protein expression in brain tissue of scopolamine-treated mice. Taken together, these outstanding properties qualified compound 11e as a promising multi-target candidate for AD therapy, worthy of further studies.

Application of In vitro transcytosis models to brain targeted biologics

The blood brain barrier (BBB) efficiently limits the penetration of biologics drugs from blood to brain. Establishment of an in vitro BBB model can facilitate screening of central nervous system (CNS) drug candidates and accelerate CNS drug development. Despite many established in vitro models, their application to biologics drug selection has been limited. Here, we report the evaluation of in vitro transcytosis of anti-human transferrin receptor (TfR) antibodies across human, cynomolgus and mouse species. We first evaluated human models including human cerebral microvascular endothelial cell line hCMEC/D3 and human colon epithelial cell line Caco-2 models. hCMEC/D3 model displayed low trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER), strong paracellular transport, and similar transcytosis of anti-TfR and control antibodies. In contrast, the Caco-2 model displayed high TEER value and low paracellular transport. Anti-hTfR antibodies demonstrated up to 70-fold better transcytosis compared to control IgG. Transcytosis of anti-hTfR.B1 antibody in Caco-2 model was dose-dependent and saturated at 3 μg/mL. Enhanced transcytosis of anti-hTfR.B1 was also observed in a monkey brain endothelial cell based (MBT) model. Importantly, anti-hTfR.B1 showed relatively high brain radioactivity concentration in a non-human primate positron emission tomography study indicating that the in vitro transcytosis from both Caco-2 and MBT models aligns with in vivo brain exposure. Typically, brain exposure of CNS targeted biologics is evaluated in mice. However, antibodies, such as the anti-human TfR antibodies, do not cross-react with the mouse target. Therefore, validation of a mouse in vitro transcytosis model is needed to better understand the in vitro in vivo correlation. Here, we performed transcytosis of anti-mouse TfR antibodies in mouse brain endothelial cell-based models, bEnd3 and the murine intestinal epithelial cell line mIEC. There is a good correlation between in vitro transcytosis of anti-mTfR antibodies and bispecifics in mIEC model and their mouse brain uptake. These data strengthen our confidence in the predictive power of the in vitro transcytosis models. Both mouse and human in vitro models will serve as important screening assays for brain targeted biologics selection in CNS drug development.

Establishment and Validation of a New Co-Culture for the Evaluation of the Permeability through the Blood-Brain Barrier in Patients with Glioblastoma

Currently, the mechanisms involved in drug access to the central nervous system (CNS) are not completely elucidated, and research efforts to understand the behaviour of the therapeutic agents to access the blood-brain barrier continue with the utmost importance. The aim of this work was the creation and validation of a new in vitro model capable of predicting the in vivo permeability across the blood-brain barrier in the presence of glioblastoma. The selected in vitro method was a cell co-culture model of epithelial cell lines (MDCK and MDCK-MDR1) with a glioblastoma cell line (U87-MG). Several drugs were tested (letrozole, gemcitabine, methotrexate and ganciclovir). Comparison of the proposed in vitro model, MDCK and MDCK-MDR1 co-cultured with U87-MG, and in vivo studies showed a great predictability for each cell line, with R2 values of 0.8917 and 0.8296, respectively. Therefore, both cells lines (MDCK and MDCK-MDR1) are valid for predicting the access of drugs to the CNS in the presence of glioblastoma.

Access to the CNS: Strategies to overcome the BBB

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) limits the access of substances to the central nervous system (CNS) which hinders the treatment of pathologies affecting the brain and the spinal cord. Nowadays, research is focus on new strategies to overcome the BBB and can treat the pathologies affecting the CNS are needed. In this review, the different strategies that allow and increase the access of substances to the CNS are analysed and extended commented, not only invasive strategies but also non-invasive ones. The invasive techniques include the direct injection into the brain parenchyma or the CSF and the therapeutic opening of the BBB, while the non-invasive techniques include the use of alternative routes of administration (nose-to-brain route), the inhibition of efflux transporters (as it is important to prevent the drug efflux from the brain and enhance the therapeutic efficiency), the chemical modification of the molecules (prodrugs and chemical drug delivery systems (CDDS)) and the use of nanocarriers. In the future, knowledge about nanocarriers to treat CNS diseases will continue to increase, but the use of other strategies such as drug repurposing or drug reprofiling, which are cheaper and less time consuming, may limit its transfer to society. The main conclusion is that the combination of different strategies may be the most interesting approach to increase the access of substances to the CNS.

Exploring a Bioequivalence Failure for Silodosin Products Due to Disintegrant Excipients

Some years ago, excipients were considered inert substances irrelevant in the absorption process. However, years of study have demonstrated that this belief is not always true. In this study, the reasons for a bioequivalence failure between two formulations of silodosin are investigated. Silodosin is a class III drug according to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System, which has been experimentally proven by means of solubility and permeability experiments. Dissolution tests have been performed to identify conditions concordant with the non-bioequivalent result obtained from the human bioequivalence study and it has been observed that paddles at 50 rpm are able to detect inconsistent differences between formulations at pH 4.5 and pH 6.8 (which baskets at 100 rpm are not able to do), whereas the GIS detects differences at the acidic pH of the stomach. It has also been observed that the differences in excipients between products did not affect the disintegration process, but disintegrants did alter the permeability of silodosin through the gastrointestinal barrier. Crospovidone and povidone, both derivatives of PVP, are used as disintegrants in the test product, instead of the pregelatinized corn starch used in the reference product. Permeability experiments show that PVP increases the absorption of silodosin-an increase that would explain the greater C_max observed for the test product in the bioequivalence study.

Multi-target neuroprotective effects of herbal medicines for Alzheimer's disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia, but its treatment options remain few and ineffective. To find new therapeutic strategies, natural products have gained interest due to their neuroprotective potential, being able to target different pathological hallmarks associated with this disorder. Several plant species are traditionally used due to their empirical neuroprotective effects and it is worth to explore their mechanism of action.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study intended to explore the neuroprotective potential of seven traditional medicinal plants, namely Scutellaria baicalensis, Ginkgo biloba, Hypericum perforatum, Curcuma longa, Lavandula angustifolia, Trigonella foenum-graecum and Rosmarinus officinalis. The safety assessment with reference to pesticides residues was also aimed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Decoctions prepared from these species were chemically characterized by HPLC-DAD and screened for their ability to scavenge four different free radicals (DPPH^•, ABTS^•+, O₂^•‒ and ^•NO) and to inhibit enzymes related to neurodegeneration (cholinesterases and glycogen synthase kinase-3β). Cell viability through MTT assay was also evaluated in two different brain cell lines, namely non-tumorigenic D3 human brain endothelial cells (hCMEC/D3) and NSC-34 motor neurons. Furthermore, and using GC, 21 pesticides residues were screened.

RESULTS

Regarding chemical composition, chromatographic analysis revealed the presence of several flavonoids, phenolic acids, curcuminoids, phenolic diterpenoids, one alkaloid and one naphthodianthrone in the seven decoctions. All extracts were able to scavenge free radicals and were moderate glycogen synthase kinase-3β inhibitors; however, they displayed weak to moderate acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibition. G. biloba and L. angustifolia decoctions were the less cytotoxic to hCMEC/D3 and NSC-34 cell lines. No pesticides residues were detected.

CONCLUSIONS

The results extend the knowledge on the potential use of plant extracts to combat multifactorial disorders, giving new insights into therapeutic avenues for Alzheimer's disease.

Design, synthesis and evaluation of novel scutellarin and scutellarein-N,N-bis-substituted carbamate-l-amino acid derivatives as potential multifunctional therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease

In this study, we designed, synthesized and evaluated a series of scutellarin and scutellarein-N,N-bis-substituted carbamate-l-amino acid derivatives as multifunctional therapeutic agents for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Compounds containing scutellarein as the parent nucleus (6a-l) had good inhibitory activity against acetyl cholinesterase (AChE), with compound 6 h exhibiting the most potent inhibition of electric eel AChE and human AChE enzymes with IC₅₀ values of 6.01 ± 1.66 and 7.91 ± 0.49 μM, respectively. In addition, compound 6 h displayed not only excellent inhibition of self- and Cu²⁺-induced Aβ_1-42 aggregation (89.17% and 86.19% inhibition) but also induced disassembly of self- and Cu²⁺-induced Aβ fibrils (84.25% and 78.73% disaggregation). Moreover, a neuroprotective assay demonstrated that pre-treatment of PC12 cells with 6 h significantly decreased lactate dehydrogenase levels, increased cell viability, enhanced expression of relevant apoptotic proteins (Bcl-2, Bax, and caspase-3) and inhibited RSL3 induced PC12 cell ferroptosis. Furthermore, hCMEC/D3 and hPepT1-MDCK cell line permeability assays indicated that 6 h would have optimal blood-brain barrier and intestinal absorption characteristics. The in vivo experimental data suggested that 6 h ameliorated learning and memory impairment in mice by decreasing AChE activity, increasing ACh levels and alleviating pathological damage of hippocampal tissue cells. These multifunctional properties highlight compound 6 h as a promising candidate for development as a multifunctional drug against AD.

New In Vitro Methodology for Kinetics Distribution Prediction in the Brain. An Additional Step towards an Animal-Free Approach

Simple Summary

The prevalence of neurological disorders in humans is rising year after year. This fact necessitates the development of new drugs for treating these pathologies. Traditionally, drugs have been tested in animals prior to use in human experiments; however, the use of animals in experimentation must be controlled and as low as possible. Because of that, here we proposed a new in vitro approach with which the access and distribution of drugs into the brain can be evaluated without using/killing any animals.

Abstract

The development of new drugs or formulations for central nervous system (CNS) diseases is a complex pharmacologic and pharmacokinetic process; it is important to evaluate their access to the CNS through the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and their distribution once they have acceded to the brain. The gold standard tool for obtaining this information is the animal microdialysis technique; however, according to 3Rs principles, it would be better to have an “animal-free” alternative technique. Because of that, the purpose of this work was to develop a new formulation to substitute the brain homogenate in the in vitro tests used for the prediction of a drug’s distribution in the brain. Fresh eggs have been used to prepare an emulsion with the same proportion in proteins and lipids as a human brain; this emulsion has proved to be able to predict both the unbound fraction of drug in the brain (f_u,brain) and the apparent volume of distribution in the brain (V_u,brain) when tested in in vitro permeability tests. The new formulation could be used as a screening tool; only the drugs with a proper in vitro distribution would pass to microdialysis studies, contributing to the refinement, reduction and replacement of animals in research.

Modified cyclodextrin-based nanoparticles mediated delivery of siRNA for huntingtin gene silencing across an in vitro BBB model

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a mutation in the huntingtin (HTT) gene, leading to a toxic version of the HTT protein. There are currently no disease-modifying therapies available. In this scenario, gene-based treatments for HD aimed at lowering HTT levels have become one of the most promising emerging therapeutic options. To date, however, promising results have only been achieved following direct intrathecal or intracranial injections designed to circumvent the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Consequently, efforts to develop less invasive delivery platforms are highly desirable. Here, we described a novel delivery system based on modified cyclodextrin nanoparticles (CDs) loaded with small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) targeting HTT andcomplexed with the rabies virus glycoprotein(RVG), a BBB-shuttle peptide. Results using an in vitro BBB model, indicate the formulation successfully crosses the brain endothelial cells, releases the encapsulated siRNAs into the cytoplasm of neuronal cells, and mediates downregulation of HTT. In conclusion, the CD platform is a promising option for delivery of siRNA-based therapeutics for HD with wider potential to treat other diseases with a genetically validated target in the central nervous system.

Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion Impairs Blood-Brain Barrier Partly Due to Release of Arginase From Injured Liver

Aim: Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion (HIR) induces remote organs injury, including the brain. The homeostasis of the brain is maintained by the blood-brain barrier (BBB); thus, we aimed to investigate whether HIR impaired BBB and attempted to elucidate its underlying mechanism.

Methods: Cell viability of human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells (hCMEC/D3) was measured following 24 h incubation with a serum of HIR rat undergoing 1 h ischemia and 4 h reperfusion, liver homogenate, or lysate of primary hepatocytes of the rat. The liver homogenate was precipitated using (NH₄)₂SO₄ followed by separation on three columns and electrophoresis to identify the toxic molecule. Cell activity, apoptosis, proliferation, cell cycle, and expressions of proteins related to cell cycle were measured in hCMEC/D3 cells incubated with identified toxic molecules. HIR rats undergoing 1 h ischemia and 24 h reperfusion were developed to determine the release of an identified toxic molecule. BBB function was indexed as permeability to fluorescein and brain water. Endothelial cell proliferation and expressions of proteins related to the cell cycle in cerebral microvessels were measured by immunofluorescence and western blot.

Results: Toxic molecule to BBB in the liver was identified to be arginase. Arginase inhibitor nor-NOHA efficiently attenuated hCMEC/D3 damage caused by liver homogenate and serum of HIR rats. Both arginase and serum of HIR rats significantly lowered arginine (Arg) in the culture medium. Arg addition efficiently attenuated the impairment of hCMEC/D3 caused by arginase or Arg deficiency, demonstrating that arginase impaired hCMEC/D3 via depriving Arg. Both arginase and Arg deficiency damaged hCMEC/D3 cells by inhibiting cell proliferation, retarding the cell cycle to G1 phase, and downregulating expressions of cyclin A, cyclin D, CDK2, and CDK4. HIR notably increased plasma arginase activity and lowered Arg level, increased the BBB permeability accompanied with enhanced brain water, and decreased the proliferative cells (marked by Ki67) in cerebral microvessels (marked by CD31) and protein expressions of cyclin A, cyclin D, CDK2 and CDK4 in isolated brain microvessels. Oral supplement of Arg remarkably attenuated these HIR-induced alterations.

Conclusion: HIR leads to substantial release of arginase from the injured liver and then deprives systemic Arg. The Arg deficiency further impairs BBB via inhibiting the proliferation of brain microvascular endothelial cells by cell cycle arrest.

Facile synthesis of lactoferrin conjugated ultra small large pore silica nanoparticles for the treatment of glioblastoma

The blood brain barrier (BBB) and blood tumour barrier (BTB) remain a major roadblock for delivering therapies to treat brain cancer. Amongst brain cancers, glioblastoma (GBM) is notoriously difficult to treat due to the challenge of delivering chemotherapeutic drugs across the BBB and into the tumour microenvironment. Consequently, GBM has high rates of tumour recurrence. Currently, limited numbers of chemotherapies are available that can cross the BBB to treat GBM. Nanomedicine is an attractive solution for treating GBM as it can augment drug penetration across the BBB and into the heterogeneous tumour site. However, very few nanomedicines exist that can easily overcome both the BBB and BTB owing to difficulty in synthesizing nanoparticles that meet the small size and surface functionality restrictions. In this study, we have developed for the first-time, a room temperature protocol to synthesise ultra-small size with large pore silica nanoparticles (USLP, size ∼30 nm, pore size >7 nm) with the ability to load high concentrations of chemotherapeutic drugs and conjugate a targeting moiety to their surface. The nanoparticles were conjugated with lactoferrin (>80 kDa), whose receptors are overexpressed by both the BBB and GBM, to achieve additional active targeting. Lactoferrin conjugated USLP (USLP-Lf) were loaded with doxorubicin - a chemotherapy agent that is known to be highly effective against GBM in vitro but cannot permeate the BBB. USLP-Lf were able to selectively permeate the BBB in vitro, and were effectively taken up by glioblastoma U87 cells. When compared to the uncoated USLP-NPs, the coating with lactoferrin significantly improved penetration of USLP into U87 tumour spheroids (after 12 hours at 100 μm distance, RFU value 19.58 vs. 49.16 respectively). Moreover, this USLP-Lf based delivery platform improved the efficacy of doxorubicin-mediated apoptosis of GBM cells in both 2D and 3D models. Collectively, our new nano-platform has the potential to overcome both the BBB and BTB to treat GBM more effectively.

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Modeling for Predicting Brain Levels of Drug in Rat

One of the main obstacles in neurological disease treatment is the presence of the blood-brain barrier. New predictive high-throughput screening tools are essential to avoid costly failures in the advanced phases of development and to contribute to the 3 Rs policy. The objective of this work was to jointly develop a new in vitro system coupled with a physiological-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model able to predict brain concentration levels of different drugs in rats. Data from in vitro tests with three different cells lines (MDCK, MDCK-MDR1 and hCMEC/D3) were used together with PK parameters and three scaling factors for adjusting the model predictions to the brain and plasma profiles of six model drugs. Later, preliminary quantitative structure-property relationships (QSPRs) were constructed between the scaling factors and the lipophilicity of drugs. The predictability of the model was evaluated by internal validation. It was concluded that the PBPK model, incorporating the barrier resistance to transport, the disposition within the brain and the drug-brain binding combined with MDCK data, provided the best predictions for passive diffusion and carrier-mediated transported drugs, while in the other cell lines, active transport influence can bias predictions.