Lipid based formulations as supersaturating oral delivery systems: From current to future industrial applications

Dynamic changes in the distribution equilibrium of drugs in microemulsions associated with drug absorption facilitate the absorption improvement for drugs with low water-solubility by self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS)

Mechanisms for absorption improvement of drugs with low water-solubility by self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) are still controversial except for solubility improvement. We attempted to clarify the mechanisms by utilizing model drugs classified as biopharmaceutics classification system class II. In the in-vitro transport study for microemulsions (MEs) formed from SMEDDS, the permeation clearance (CLperm,freeSMEDDS) calculated based on free drug concentrations in MEs, was significantly larger than the CLpermsoln for aqueous solution. However, pretreatment of intestinal mucosa with drug-free MEs did not change CLpermsoln so much. The contribution of endocytosis to drug absorption from MEs was negligible. Instead, our novel egg phosphatidylcholine-monolayer-chloroform partition study revealed that drugs were continuously released from ME droplets, and that the distribution equilibrium of drugs in ME dynamically shifted from ME droplets to aqueous phase associated with their partitioning into chloroform phase (i.e. drug absorption). CLperm,freeSMEDDS did not reflect the continuous drug release or the much larger amount of drugs available for absorption than revealed as free concentrations and thereby overestimated the permeation clearance. The absorption improvement by SMEDDS could be attributed to the dynamic changes in the distribution equilibrium of drugs in MEs associated with drug absorption, i.e., the continuous drug release from ME droplets.

Abiraterone acetate fixed-dosed combinations with ibuprofen-based therapeutic eutectic and deep eutectic solvents

In recent years, deep eutectic solvents (DESs) with their outstanding solubilization properties have emerged as strong candidates for oral enabling formulations of poorly soluble drugs. This study explores the use of drug-based therapeutic DESs (THEDESs) to solubilize a poorly soluble compound with the aim of providing a fixed-dose combination of two complementary therapeutic agents. Specifically, potential anticancer effects of ibuprofen (IBU) are harnessed in a novel type of THEDES to dissolve higher amounts of abiraterone acetate (AbAc), an antitumor agent. Four IBU-based combinations were studied: 1:4 M ratio with octanoic acid (OctA), 1:5 with nonanoic acid (NonA), 1:3 with decanoic acid (DeA) or 1:2 with dodecanoic acid (DoA). Fatty acids of different chain lengths were analyzed and discussed considering surface charge densities obtained via quantum chemistry. The THEDESs listed could apparently dissolve AbAc amounts up to 1311.0 ± 125.4 mg/g in IBU:OctA THEDES, 1151.7 ± 22.2 mg/g in IBU:NonA, 1160.4 ± 33.5 mg/g in IBU:DeA, and 231.3 ± 10.7 mg/g in IBU:DoA. In vitro dissolution of the simultaneously released drugs reached 37.8 ± 9.0 % to 64.2 ± 1.0 % for IBU and 5.0 ± 3.3 % to 19.4 ± 0.1 % for AbAc. This increased to between 60.4 ± 2.8 % and 79.4 ± 5.0 % of released IBU, and 23.6 ± 1.0 % to 57.3 ± 5.8 % of released AbAc, with 20 % (w/w) Tween 80 added to the formulations. This showed the significant potential of drug-containing THEDESs as solubilizing agents for poorly soluble drugs, in the form of fixed-dose combinations of synergistic APIs.

New series of 3-pyridyl-1,3-thiazoles: In vitro and in vivo anti-Trypanosomatidae profile, in vitro and in silico mechanism of action approach

Trypanosomatidae diseases, such as Chagas disease and leishmaniasis, are caused by protozoan parasites of the Trypanosomatidae family, namely Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania species, respectively. There is an urgent need for new therapies. Both pyridine and thiazole rings are recognized as important scaffolds in medicinal chemistry. This study reports the synthesis of 3-pyridyl-1,3-thiazole derivatives (1-18) and their evaluation through in vitro and in vivo assays. In vitro tests were conducted against T. cruzi, L. amazonensis, and L. infantum, with cytotoxicity assessed using L929 fibroblasts and RAW 264.7 macrophages. Mode of action studies included in vitro assays and in silico simulations. Fourteen compounds exhibited trypanocidal activity with IC50 values ranging from 0.2 to 3.9 μM, outperforming benznidazole (4.2 μM). Compound 7 displayed an IC50 of 0.4 μM and a selectivity index of 530.8. However, the compounds were inactive in vivo assays at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day. Compounds 1, 7, 8, and 10 demonstrated trypanostatic effects, mitochondrial disruption, apoptosis induction, and parasite membrane damage. These compounds also modulated nitric oxide, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF production. In silico analysis indicated strong interactions with cruzain and favorable bioavailability, drug-likeness, and stability profiles. The leishmanicidal activity was negligible or absent. Despite promising in vitro trypanocidal activity, further structural optimization or formulation strategies are required to enhance oral stability and bioavailability, providing a foundation for the development of new therapeutic agents.

Influence of polymer and surfactant-based precipitation inhibitors on supersaturation-driven absorption of Ibrutinib from high-dose lipid-based formulations

There is a growing pharmaceutical interest in supersaturated lipid-based formulations (Super-LbF) as an innovative strategy to enhance drug loading capacities while simultaneously reducing pill burden. This approach involves increasing the drug concentration above its equilibrium solubility in a lipid solution, achieved through temperature-induced supersaturation or the dissolution of lipophilic ionic salts. However, the physical instability and potential drug precipitation upon the dispersion of LbF remain critical. The focus of this work was to assess the impact of polymer and surfactant as precipitation inhibitors (PIs) in Super-LbF and investigate whether PIs can effectively address the aforementioned challenges. Ibrutinib (Ibr) was selected as a model drug due to its limited solubility and dissolution characteristics. The optimized formulations were characterized with a focus on dispersibility, lipolysis-permeation, and physical stability during storage. The inclusion of PIs in Super-LbF significantly enhanced physical stability by increasing viscosity and reducing the degree of supersaturation through elevated equilibrium solubility. During the dispersion and digestion study, varying levels of transient supersaturation were observed for both Super-LbF and PI-loaded Super-LbF. A noteworthy 2.5 to 3-fold increase in the solubilization ratio was observed for PI-loaded Super-LbF in comparison to Super-LbF without PI. This increase indicates a significant rise in transient drug supersaturation through kinetic and thermodynamic precipitation inhibition mechanisms. Moreover, lipolysis-permeation studies revealed increased flux values with enhanced solubilization, except in the case of Pluronic® F68, which exhibited a reduced free drug concentration near the Permeapad® barrier. Further, the in vivo absorption study confirmed that prolonged supersaturation, facilitated by PIs, contributed to enhancement in drug exposure in rats. PI-loaded Super-LbFs demonstrated a significant improvement (5.1 to 8.9-fold) in the absorption profile compared to Super-LbF without PI (p < 0.001). The study results indicate that incorporating PIs into Super-LbF enhances physical stability and maintains transient drug supersaturation under digestive conditions. Overall, this formulation approach shows promise for expanding the application of LbF to enable the successful oral delivery of high-dose regimen drugs.

Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (SEDDS): Transition from Liquid to Solid-A Comprehensive Review of Formulation, Characterization, Applications, and Future Trends

Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) represent an innovative approach to improving the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs, addressing significant challenges associated with oral drug delivery. This review highlights the advancements and applications of SEDDS, including their transition from liquid to solid forms, while addressing the formulation strategies, characterization techniques, and future prospects in pharmaceutical sciences. The review systematically analyzes existing studies on SEDDS, focusing on their classification into liquid and solid forms and their preparation methods, including spray drying, hot-melt extrusion, and adsorption onto carriers. Characterization techniques such as droplet size analysis, dissolution studies, and solid-state evaluations are detailed. Additionally, emerging trends, including 3D printing, hybrid systems, and supersaturable SEDDS (Su-SEDDS), are explored. Liquid SEDDS (L-SEDDS) enhance drug solubility and absorption by forming emulsions upon contact with gastrointestinal fluids. However, they suffer from stability and leakage issues. Transitioning to solid SEDDS (S-SEDDS) has resolved these limitations, offering enhanced stability, scalability, and patient compliance. Innovations such as personalized 3D-printed SEDDS, biologics delivery, and targeted systems demonstrate their potential for diverse therapeutic applications. Computational modeling and in silico approaches further accelerate formulation optimization. SEDDS have revolutionized drug delivery by improving bioavailability and enabling precise, patient-centric therapies. While challenges such as scalability and excipient toxicity persist, emerging technologies and multidisciplinary collaborations are paving the way for next-generation SEDDS. Their adaptability and potential for personalized medicine solidify their role as a cornerstone in modern pharmaceutical development.

Ketoconazole-Fumaric Acid Pharmaceutical Cocrystal: From Formulation Design for Bioavailability Improvement to Biocompatibility Testing and Antifungal Efficacy Evaluation

Development of cocrystals through crystal engineering is a viable strategy to formulate poorly water-soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients as stable crystalline solid forms with enhanced bioavailability. This study presents a controlled cocrystallization process by cooling for the 1:1 cocrystal of Ketoconazole, an antifungal class II drug with the Fumaric acid coformer. This was successfully set up following the meta-stable zone width determination in acetone-water 4:6 (V/V) and pure ethanol. Considering the optimal crystallization data, laboratory scale-up processes were carried out at 1 g batch size, efficiently delivering the cocrystal in high yields up to 90% pure and single phase as revealed by powder X-ray diffraction. Biological assays in vitro showed improved viability and oxidative damage of the cocrystal over Ketoconazole on human dermal fibroblasts and hepatocarcinoma cells; in vivo, on Wistar rats, the cocrystal increased oral Ketoconazole bioavailability with transient minor biochemical transaminases increases and without histological liver alterations. Locally on Balb C mice, it induced no epicutaneuous sensitization. A molecular docking study conducted on sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) enzyme from the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans revealed that the cocrystal interacts more efficiently with the enzyme compared to Ketoconazole, indicating that the coformer enhances the binding affinity of the active ingredient.

Alahmari A, A. Alqabbani A, Aldayel AM. Exploring the landscape of Lipid Nanoparticles (LNPs): A comprehensive review of LNPs types and biological sources of lipids

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as promising carriers for delivering therapeutic agents, including mRNA-based immunotherapies, in various biomedical applications. The use of LNPs allows for efficient delivery of drugs, resulting in enhanced targeted delivery to specific tissues or cells. These LNPs can be categorized into several types, including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles. The preparation of LNPs involves the manipulation of their structural, dimensional, compositional, and physical characteristics via the use of different methods in the industry. Lipids used to construct LNPs can also be derived from various biological sources, such as natural lipids extracted from plants, animals, or microorganisms. This review dives into the different types of LNPs and their preparation methods. More importantly, it discusses all possible biological sources that are known to supply lipids for the creation of LNPs. Natural lipid reservoirs have surfaced as promising sources for generating LNPs. The use of LNPs in drug delivery is expected to increase significantly in the coming years. Herein, we suggest some environmentally friendly and biocompatible sources that can produce lipids for future LNPs production.

Pharmaceutical approaches for enhancing solubility and oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs

High solubility in water and physiological fluids is an indispensable requirement for the pharmacological efficacy of an active pharmaceutical ingredient. Indeed, it is well established that pharmaceutical substances exhibiting limited solubility in water are inclined towards diminished and inconsistent absorption following oral administration, consequently resulting in variability in therapeutic outcomes. The current advancements in combinatorial chemistry and pharmaceutical design have facilitated the creation of drug candidates characterized by increased lipophilicity, elevated molecular size, and reduced aqueous solubility. Undoubtedly, the issue of poorly water-soluble medications has been progressively escalating over recent years. Indeed, 40% of the top 200 oral medications marketed in the United States, 33% of drugs listed in the US pharmacopoeia, 75% of compounds under development and 90% of new chemical entities are insufficiently water-soluble compounds. In order to address this obstacle, formulation scientists employ a variety of approaches, encompassing both physical and chemical methods such as prodrug synthesis, salt formation, solid dispersions formation, hydrotropic substances utilization, solubilizing agents incorporation, cosolvent addition, polymorphism exploration, cocrystal creation, cyclodextrins complexation, lipid formulations, particle size reduction and nanoformulation techniques. Despite the utilization of these diverse approaches, the primary reason for the failure in new drug development persists as the poor aqueous solubility of pharmaceutical compounds. This paper, therefore, delves into the foundational principles that underpin the implementation of various formulation strategies, along with a discussion on the respective advantages and drawbacks associated with each approach. Additionally, a discourse is provided regarding methodological frameworks for making informed decisions on selecting an appropriate formulation strategy to effectively tackle the key challenges posed during the development of a poorly water-soluble drug candidate.

Contrasting the pharmacokinetic performance and gut microbiota effects of an amorphous solid dispersion and lipid nanoemulsion for a poorly water-soluble anti-psychotic

Increasing attention is being afforded to understanding the bidirectional relationship that exists between oral drugs and the gut microbiota. Often overlooked, however, is the impact that pharmaceutical excipients exert on the gut microbiota. Subsequently, in this study, we contrasted the pharmacokinetic performance and gut microbiota interactions between two commonly employed formulations for poorly soluble compounds, namely 1) an amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) stabilised by poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) K-30, and 2) a lipid nanoemulsion (LNE) comprised of medium chain glycerides and lecithin. The poorly soluble antipsychotic, lurasidone, was formulated with ASD and LNE due to its rate-limiting dissolution, poor oral bioavailability, and significant food effect. Both the ASD and LNE were shown to facilitate lurasidone supersaturation within in vitro dissolution studies simulating the gastrointestinal environment. This translated into profound improvements in oral pharmacokinetics in rats, with the ASD and LNE exerting comparable ∼ 2.5-fold improvements in lurasidone bioavailability, compared to the pure drug. The oral formulations imparted contrasting effects on the gut microbiota, with the LNE depleting the richness and abundance of the microbial ecosystem, as evidenced through reductions in alpha diversity (Chao1 index) and operational taxonomical units (OTUs). In contrast, the ASD exerted a 'gut neutral' effect, whereby a mild enrichment of alpha diversity and OTUs was observed. Importantly, this suggests that ASDs are effective solubility-enhancing formulations that can be used without comprising the integrity of the gut microbiota - an integral consideration in the treatment of mental health disorders, such as schizophrenia, due to the role of the gut microbiota in regulating mood and cognition.

Thermally-Induced Supersaturation Approach for Optimizing Drug Loading and Biopharmaceutical Properties of Supersaturated Lipid-Based Formulations: Case Studies with Ibrutinib and Enzalutamide

Lipid-based formulations (LbFs) have demonstrated success in pharmaceutical applications; however, challenges persist in dissolving entire doses of the drug into defined liquid volumes. In this study, the temperature-induced supersaturation method was employed in LbF to address drug loading and pill burden issues. Supersaturated LbFs (super-LbF) were prepared using the temperature-induced supersaturation method, where the drug load is above its equilibrium solubility. Further, the influence of the drug's physicochemical and thermal characteristics on drug loading and their relevance with an apparent degree of supersaturation (aDS) was studied using two model drugs, ibrutinib and enzalutamide. All the prepared LbFs were evaluated in terms of physical stability, dispersion, and solubilization capacity, as well as pharmacokinetic assessments. Drug re-crystallization was observed in the lipid solution on long-term storage at higher aDS values of 2-2.5. Furthermore, high-throughput lipolysis studies demonstrated a significant decrease in drug concentration across all LbFs (regardless of drug loading) due to a decline in the formulation solvation capacity and subsequent generation of in-situ supersaturation. Further, the in vivo results demonstrated comparable pharmacokinetic parameters between conventional LbF and super-LbF. The short duration of the thermodynamic metastable state limits the potential absorption benefits. However, super-LbFs of Ibr and Enz showed superior profiles, with 1.7-fold and 5.2-fold increased drug exposure compared to their respective crystalline suspensions. In summary, this study emphasizes the potential of temperature-induced supersaturation in LbF for enhancing drug loading and highlights the intricate interplay between drug properties, formulation characteristics, and in vivo performance.

Rationalizing Counterion Selection for the Development of Lipophilic Salts: A Case Study with Venetoclax

The use of lipid-based formulations (LBFs) can be hindered by low dose loading due to solubility limitations of candidate drugs in lipid vehicles. Formation of lipophilic salts through pairing these drugs with a lipophilic counterion has been demonstrated as a potential means to enhance dose loading in LBFs. This study investigated the screening of appropriate counterions to form lipophilic salts of the BCS class IV drug venetoclax. The physical properties, lipid solubility, and in vitro performance of the salts were analyzed. This study illustrated the versatility of alkyl sulfates and sulfonates as suitable counterions in lipophilic salt synthesis with up to ∼9-fold higher solubility in medium- and long-chain LBFs when compared to that of the free base form of venetoclax. All salts formulated as LBFs displayed superior in vitro performance when compared to the free base form of the drug due to the higher initial drug loadings in LBFs and increased affinity for colloidal species. Further, in vitro studies confirmed that venetoclax lipophilic salt forms using alkyl chain counterions demonstrated comparable in vitro performance to venetoclax docusate, thus reducing the potential for laxative effects related to docusate administration. High levels of the initial dose loading of venetoclax lipophilic salts were retained in a molecularly dispersed state during dispersion and digestion of the formulation, while also demonstrating increased levels of saturation in biorelevant media. The findings of this study suggest that alkyl chain sulfates and sulfonates can act as a suitable alternative counterion to docusate, facilitating the selection of counterions that can unlock the potential to formulate venetoclax as an LBF.

Lipid-based systems with precipitation inhibitors as formulation approach to improve the drug bioavailability and/or lower its dose: a review

Lipid-based systems, such as self-microemulsifying systems (SMEDDS) are attracting strong attention as a formulation approach to improve the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. By applying the "spring and parachute" strategy in designing supersaturable SMEDDS, it is possible to maintain the drug in the supersaturated state long enough to allow absorption of the complete dose, thus improving the drug's bio-availability. As such an approach allows the incorporation of larger amounts of the drug in equal or even lower volumes of SMEDDS, it also enables the production of smaller final dosage forms as well as decreased gastrointestinal irritation, being of particular importance when formulating dosage forms for children or the elderly. In this review, the technological approaches used to prolong the drug supersaturation are discussed regarding the type and concentration of polymers used in liquid and solid SMEDDS formulation. The addition of hypromellose derivatives, vinyl polymers, polyethylene glycol, polyoxyethylene, or polymetacrylate copolymers proved to be effective in inhibiting drug precipitation. Regarding the available literature, hypromellose has been the most commonly used polymeric precipitation inhibitor, added in a concentration of 5 % (m/m). However, the inhibiting ability is mainly governed not only by the physicochemical properties of the polymer but also by the API, therefore the choice of optimal precipitation inhibitor is recommended to be evaluated on an individual basis.

Absorption of cinnarizine from type II lipid-based formulations: Impact of lipid chain length, supersaturation, digestion, and precipitation inhibition

Lipid-based formulations (LBFs) are an enabling-formulation approach for lipophilic poorly water-soluble compounds. In LBFs, drugs are commonly pre-dissolved in lipids, and/or surfactants/cosolvents, hereby avoiding the rate-limiting dissolution step. According to the Lipid formulation classification system, proposed by Pouton in 2006, in type II LBFs a surfactant with an HLB-value lower than 12 is added to the lipids. If high drug doses are required, e.g. for preclinical toxicity studies, supersaturated LBFs prepared at elevated temperatures may be a possibility to increase drug exposure. In the present study, the impact of digestion on drug absorption in rats was studied by pre-dosing of the lipase inhibitor orlistat. The lipid chain length of the type II LBFs was varied by administration of a medium-chain- (MC) and a long-chain (LC)-based formulation. Different drug doses, both non-supersaturated and supersaturated, were applied. Due to an inherent precipitation tendency of cinnarizine in supersaturated LBFs, the effect of the addition of the precipitation inhibitor Soluplus® was also investigated. The pharmacokinetic results were also evaluated by multiple linear regression. In most cases LC-based LBFs did not perform better in vivo, in terms of a higher area under the curve (AUC0-24 h) and maximal plasma concentration (Cmax), than MC-based LBFs. The administration of supersaturated LBFs resulted in increased AUC0-24 h (1.5 - 3.2-fold) and Cmax (1.1 - 2.6-fold)-values when compared to the non-supersaturated equivalents. Lipase inhibition led to a decreased drug exposure in most cases, especially for LC formulations (AUC0-24 h reduced to 47 - 67%, Cmax to 46 - 62%). The addition of Soluplus® showed a benefit to drug absorption from supersaturated type II LBFs (1.2 - 1.7-fold AUC0-24 h), due to an increased solubility of cinnarizine in the formulation. Upon dose-normalization of the pharmacokinetic parameters, no beneficial effect of Soluplus® could be demonstrated.

Combination of co-amorphization with SNEDDS outperforms Ofev® in the oral absorption of nintedanib

Nintedanib (NTD), approved for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and advanced non-small cell lung cancer, is one of brick dusts with high melting point. Although NTD has been marketed as Ofev®, a soft capsule of NTD ethanesulfonate (NTD-ESA) suspended in oil components, the oral bioavailability is quite low and highly variable. To improve the oral absorption behavior of NTD, we prepared SNEDDS formulation containing NTD-(+)-10-camphorsulfonic acid (CSA) complex with 2% HPMCP-50. CSA disrupted the high crystallinity of NTD-ESA and the formed complex, NTD-CSA, was found to be amorphous by DSC and XRPD. NTD-CSA provided solubilities in various vehicles much higher than NTD-ESA. Under the gastric luminal condition, NTD-CSA SNEDDS with or without 2% HPMCP-50 and NTD-CSA powder indicated very good dissolution of NTD from early time periods, while NTD was gradually dissolved until around 60 min from NTD-ESA and Ofev®. Under the small intestinal luminal condition, in contrast, both NTD-CSA SNEDDS formulations almost completely dissolved NTD throughout the experiments, while Ofev®, NTD-CSA, and NTD-ESA exhibited a very poor dissolution of NTD. In the in vivo absorption study, NTD-CSA SNEDDS with 2% HPMCP-50 significantly improved NTD absorption and reduced the inter-individual variation in oral absorption behavior compared with Ofev®.

Enabling superior drug loading in lipid-based formulations with lipophilic salts for a brick dust molecule: Exploration of lipophilic counterions and in vitro-in vivo evaluation

Lipid-based formulations (LbFs) are an extensively used approach for oral delivery of poorly soluble drug compounds in the form of lipid suspension and lipid solution. However, the high target dose and inadequate lipid solubility limit the potential of brick dust molecules to be formulated as LbFs. Thus, the complexation of such molecules with a lipophilic counterion can be a plausible approach to improve the solubility in lipid-based solutions via reducing drug crystallinity and polar surface area. The study aimed to enhance drug loading in lipid solution for Nilotinib (Nil) through complexation or salt formation with different lipophilic counterions. We synthesized different lipophilic salts/ complexes via metathesis reactions and confirmed their formation by 1H NMR and FTIR. Docusate-based lipophilic salt showed improved solubility in medium-chain triglycerides (∼7 to 7.5-fold) and long-chain triglycerides (∼30 to 35-fold) based lipids compared to unformulated crystalline Nil. The increased lipid solubility could be attributed to the reduction in drug crystallinity which was further confirmed by the PXRD and DSC. Prototype LbFs were prepared to evaluate drug loading and their physicochemical characteristics. The findings suggested that structural features of counterion including chain length and lipophilicity affect the drug loading in LbF. In addition, physical stability testing of formulations was performed, inferring that aliphatic sulfate-based LbFs were stable with no sign of drug precipitation or salt disproportionation. An in vitro lipolysis-permeation study revealed that the primary driver of absorptive flux is the solubilization of the drug and reduced amount of lipid. Further, the in vivo characterization was conducted to measure the influence of increased drug load on oral bioavailability. Overall, the results revealed enhanced absorption of lipophilic salt-based LbF over unformulated crystalline Nil and conventional LbF (drug load equivalent to equilibrium solubility) which supports the idea that lipophilic salt-based LbF enhances drug loading, and supersaturation-mediated drug solubilization, unlocking the full potential of LbF.

Phospholipid Complex Formulation Technology for Improved Drug Delivery in Oncological Settings: a Comprehensive Review

Addressing poor solubility and permeability issues associated with synthetic drugs and naturally occurring active compounds is crucial for improving bioavailability. This review explores the potential of phospholipid complex formulation technology to overcome these challenges. Phospholipids, as endogenous molecules, offer a viable solution, with drugs complexed with phospholipids demonstrating a similar absorption mechanism. The non-toxic and biodegradable nature of the phospholipid complex positions it as an ideal candidate for drug delivery. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of the mechanisms underlying phospholipid complexes. Special emphasis is placed on the solvent evaporation method, with meticulous scrutiny of formulation aspects such as the phospholipid ratio to the drug and solvent. Characterization techniques are employed to understand structural and functional attributes. Highlighting the adaptability of the phospholipid complex, the review discusses the loading of various nanoformulations and emulsion systems. These strategies aim to enhance drug delivery and efficacy in various malignancies, including breast, liver, lung, cervical, and pancreatic cancers. The broader application of the drug phospholipid complex is showcased, emphasizing its adaptability in diverse oncological settings. The review not only explores the mechanisms and formulation aspects of phospholipid complexes but also provides an overview of key clinical studies and patents. These insights contribute to the intellectual and translational advancements in drug phospholipid complexes.

Repaglinide-Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in Chitosan Patches for Transdermal Application: Box-Behnken Design, Characterization, and In Vivo Evaluation

Background

Repaglinide (REP) is an antidiabetic drug with limited oral bioavailability attributable to its low solubility and considerable first-pass hepatic breakdown. This study aimed to develop a biodegradable chitosan-based system loaded with REP-solid lipid nanoparticles (REP-SLNs) for controlled release and bioavailability enhancement via transdermal delivery.

Methods

REP-SLNs were fabricated by ultrasonic hot-melt emulsification. A Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to explore and optimize the impacts of processing variables (lipid content, surfactant concentration, and sonication amplitude) on particle size (PS), and entrapment efficiency (EE). The optimized REP-SLN formulation was then incorporated within a chitosan solution to develop a transdermal delivery system (REP-SLN-TDDS) and evaluated for physicochemical properties, drug release, and ex vivo permeation profiles. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics were assessed using experimental rats.

Results

The optimized REP-SLNs had a PS of 249±9.8 nm and EE of 78%±2.3%. The developed REP-SLN-TDDS demonstrated acceptable characteristics without significant aggregation of REP-SLNs throughout the casting and drying processes. The REP-SLN-TDDS exhibited a biphasic release pattern, where around 36% of the drug load was released during the first 2 h, then the drug release was sustained at around 80% at 24 h. The computed flux across rat skin for the REP-SLN-TDDS was 2.481±0.22 μg/cm2/h in comparison to 0.696±0.07 μg/cm2/h for the unprocessed REP, with an enhancement ratio of 3.56. The REP-SLN-TDDS was capable of sustaining greater REP plasma levels over a 24 h period (p<0.05). The REP-SLN-TDDS also reduced blood glucose levels compared to unprocessed REP and commercial tablets (p<0.05) in experimental rats.

Conclusion

Our REP-SLN-TDDS can be considered an efficient therapeutic option for REP administration.