Measurement and health risk assessment of PM2.5, flame retardants, carbonyls and black carbon in indoor and outdoor air in kindergartens in Hong Kong

Health risks and sources of trace elements and black carbon in PM2.5 from 2019 to 2021 in Beijing

A comprehensive health risk assessment of PM2.5 is meaningful to understand the current status and directions regarding further improving air quality from the perspective of human health. In this study, we evaluated the health risks of PM2.5 as well as highly toxic inorganic components, including heavy metals (HMs) and black carbon (BC) based on long-term observations in Beijing from 2019 to 2021. Our results showed that the relative risks of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, acute lower respiratory tract infection, ischemic heart disease, and stroke decreased by 4.07%-9.30% in 2020 and 2.12%-6.70% in 2021 compared with 2019. However, they were still at high levels ranging from 1.26 to 1.77, in particular, stroke showed the highest value in 2021. Mn had the highest hazard quotient (HQ, from 2.18 to 2.56) for adults from 2019 to 2021, while Ni, Cr, Pb, As, and BC showed high carcinogenic risks (CR > 1.0×10-6) for adults. The HQ values of Mn and As and the CR values of Pb and As showed constant or slight upwards trends during our observations, which is in contrast to the downward trends of other HMs and PM2.5. Mn, Cr, and BC are crucial toxicants in PM2.5. A significant shrink of southern region sourcesof HMs and BCshrank suggests the increased importance of local sources. Industry, dust, and biomass burning are the major contributors to the non-carcinogenic risks, while traffic emissions and industry are the dominant contributors to the carcinogenic risks in Beijing.

Health risk assessment from inhalation exposure to indoor formaldehyde: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis investigated studies on formaldehyde (FA) inhalation exposure in indoor environments and related carcinogenic (CR) and non-carcinogenic (HQ) risk. Studies were obtained from Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, Medline, and Embase databases without time limitation until November 21, 2023. Studies not meeting the criteria of Population, Exposure, Comparator, and Outcomes (PECO) were excluded. The 45 articles included belonged to the 5 types of sites: dwelling environments, educational centers, kindergartens, vehicle cabins, and other indoor environments. A meta-analysis determined the average effect size (ES) between indoor FA concentrations, CR, and HQ values in each type of indoor environment. FA concentrations ranged from 0.01 to 1620 μg/m3. The highest FA concentrations were stated in water pipe cafés and the lowest in residential environments. In more than 90% of the studies uncertain (1.00 ×10-6 1.00 ×10-4) due to FA inhalation exposure was reported and non-carcinogenic risk was stated acceptable. The meta-analysis revealed the highest CR values due to inhalation of indoor FA in high-income countries. As 90% of the time is spent indoors, it is crucial to adopt effective strategies to reduce FA concentrations, especially in kindergartens and schools, with regular monitoring of indoor air quality.

Indoor pollution control based on surrogate model for residential buildings

Individuals typically spend most of their lives indoors, predominantly in spaces like offices and residences. Consequently, prolonged indoor exposure underscores the critical significance of maintaining optimal indoor air quality (IAQ) to safeguard one's health. The primary impediment to attaining efficient regulation of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is the challenge of monitoring the IAQ parameters, particularly within the immediate vicinity of an individual's breathing space. Current heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems lack the ability to rapidly predict and optimize the quality of indoor air. The objective of this study is to acquire the distribution features of indoor pollutants and precise indoor environment data in order to efficiently forecast and enhance the IAQ. To achieve this objective, a proposed surrogate model was developed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Notably, the Kriging surrogate model can rapidly predict IAQ while using a limited number of CFD runs. CFD are widely used as numerical simulation methods to obtain the accurate information. Surrogate models can rapidly forecast indoor environmental conditions using CFD simulation data simultaneously. Optimization algorithms can efficiently achieve desirable indoor ambient conditions, offering highly effective and intelligent control techniques for indoor atmospheric ventilation.

Species profile of volatile organic compounds emission and health risk assessment from typical indoor events in daycare centers

Daycare centers (DCCs) play an instrumental role in early childhood development, making them a significant indoor environment for a large number of children globally. Amidst routine DCC activities, young children are exposed to a myriad of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), potentially impacting their health. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the VOC emissions during typical DCCs activities and evaluate respective health risk assessments. Employing a full-scale experimental setup within a well-controlled climate chamber, research was conducted into VOC emissions during three typical DCC events: arts-and-crafts (painting, gluing, modeling), cleaning, and sleeping activities tied to mattresses. The research identified 96 distinct VOCs, grouped into twelve categories, from 20 different events examined. Each event exhibited a unique VOC fingerprint, pinpointing potential source tracers. Also, significant variations in VOC emissions from different events were demonstrated. For instance, under cool & dry conditions, acrylic painting recorded high total VOC concentrations of 808 μg/m3, whereas poster painting showed only 58 μg/m3. Given these disparities, the study emphasizes the critical need for carefully selecting arts-and-crafts materials and cleaning agents in DCCs to effectively reduce VOC exposure. It suggests ventilating new mattresses before use and regular mattress check-ups to mitigate VOCs exposure during naps. Importantly, it revealed that certain events resulted in VOC levels exceeding the 10-5 cancer risk thresholds for younger children. Specifically, tetrachloroethylene and styrene from used mattresses in cool & dry conditions, ethylene oxide from new mattresses in warm & humid conditions, and styrene, during sand modeling in both conditions, were the key compounds contributing to this risk. These findings highlight the critical need for age-specific health risk assessments in DCCs. This study highlights the significance of understanding the profiles of VOC emissions from indoor events in DCCs, emphasizing potential health implications and laying a solid foundation for future investigations in this field.

Health risk assessment of PM2.5 and PM2.5-bound trace elements in Pretoria, South Africa

Exposure to outdoor air pollutants poses a risk for both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic respiratory disease outcomes. A standardized health risk assessment (US EPA) utilizes air quality data, body mass and breathing rates to determine potential risk. This health risk assessment study assesses the hazard quotient (HQ) for total PM_2.5 and trace elemental constituents (Br, Cl, K, Ni, S, Si, Ti and U) exposure in Pretoria, South Africa. The World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guideline (5 µg m^-3) and the yearly South African National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) (20 µg m^-3) were the references dosages for total PM_2.5. A total of 350 days was sampled in Pretoria, South Africa. The mean total PM_2.5 concentration during the 34-month study period was 23.2 µg m^-3 (0.7-139 µg m^-3). The HQ for total PM_2.5 was 1.17, 3.47 and 3.78 for adults, children and infants. Non-carcinogenic risks for trace elements K, Cl, S and Si were above 1 for adults. Seasonally, Si was the highest during autumn for adults (1.9) and during spring for S (5.5). The HQ values for K and Cl were highest during winter. The exposure to Ni posed a risk for cancer throughout the year and for As during winters.

Occurrence of organic contaminants bonded to the particulate matter from outdoor air influenced by industrial activities

This paper discusses the occurrence of organic contaminants bonded to particulate matter (PM) in ambient air. We describe the presence and concentration levels of contaminants mainly reported in atmospheres close to factories or at locations influenced by them, and the relationship between factory emissions and the type of organic contaminants found in PM samples from the surrounding air. Many organic contaminants have been found in these types of samples, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Their sources, fates and distributions in the ambient atmosphere are therefore well known. However, in addition to these most studied compounds, others are also of concern nowadays due to their detection and toxic effects on the environment. The continuous updating of regulations on these contaminants and the appearance of new air pollutants make it important to be aware of their occurrence. This will help to either establish new guidelines for the newer contaminants or reassess existing limitations for known ones. Moreover, if we know their occurrence, we can analyse their sources, destinations and distributions in the outdoor air.

Laboratory evaluation of low-cost air quality monitors and single sensors for monitoring typical indoor emission events in Dutch daycare centers

Daycare centers (DCCs) are where infants and toddlers (0-4 years old) spend the most time besides their homes. Given their higher susceptibility to the effects of air pollutants, as compared to older children and adults, indoor air quality (IAQ) is regarded as an essential parameter to monitor in DCCs. Recent advances in IAQ monitoring technologies have enabled the deployment of low-cost air quality monitors (LCMs) and single sensors (LCSs) to continuously monitor various indoor environments, and their performance testing should also be performed in the intended indoor applications. To our knowledge, there is no study evaluating the application of LCMs/LCSs in DCCs scenarios yet. Therefore, this study is aimed to assess the response of five types of LCMs (previously not tested) and five LCSs to typical DCCs emission activities in detecting multiple IAQ parameters, i.e., particulate matter, carbon dioxide, total volatile organic compounds, temperature, and relative humidity. These LCMs/LCSs were compared to outcomes from research-grade instruments (RGIs). All the experiments were performed in a climate chamber, where three kinds of typical activities (background; arts-and-crafts; cleaning; [in a total of 32 events]) were simulated by recruited subjects at two typical indoor climatic conditions (cool and dry [20 ± 1 °C & 40 ± 10%], warm and humid [26 ± 1 °C & 70 ± 5%]). Results showed that tested LCMs had the ability to capture DCCs activities by simultaneously monitoring multiple IAQ parameters, and LCMs/LCSs revealed a strong correlation with RGIs in most events (R2 values from 0.7 to 1), but, for some events, the magnitude of responses varied widely. Sensirion SCD41, an emerging CO2 sensor built on the photoacoustic sensing principle, had a more accurate performance than all tested NDIR-based CO2 sensors/monitors. In general, the study implies that the selection of LCMs/LCSs for a specific application of interest should be based on emission characteristics and space conditions.

Occupant behavior and indoor particulate concentrations in daycare centers

'Occupant behavior' is the primary mechanism determining indoor particulate concentrations. Various indoor human activities generate particulate matter. Human-building interactions, such as window opening behavior, change the number of outdoor particulate matter introduces to the building. 'Daycare center' where young children spend considerable time has an occupant schedule distinguished from other types of buildings. In the study, we analyzed the effects of occupant behavior on indoor particle concentrations in daycare centers by on-site monitoring. The measurements were performed in four daycare centers located in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. Optical particle counters(OPS, model 3330, TSI Inc., Shoreview, MN, USA) were used for particulate concentration monitoring. The source strengths of particles resuspended by each human activity were calculated, and their contributions to indoor particle concentrations were evaluated. Further, characteristics of human-building interactions and their corresponding impacts on indoor air quality were also analyzed. Results showed that particle resuspension was greater when occupants were awake (mean, 41.0 particles·min^-1) than when they were asleep (mean, 9.2 particles·min^-1), and the contribution of occupant status was also higher when awake (37-70% vs. 8-18%) for particles sized (0.3-10.0 μm). Analyzing five detailed human activities, vacuuming (9.8·10⁷ particles·min^-1) emitted the highest amount of particulate matter per person, followed by physical activity (4.8·10⁷ particles·min^-1), sedentary activity (1.9·10⁷ particles· min^-1), meals (1.9·10⁷ particles·min^-1), and nap time (8.1·10⁶ particles·min^-1). The study suggests that vacuuming should be avoided while children are occupied. This research also shows that children could be exposed to high daily average indoor particulate concentration (up to 1217 particles·cm^-3) when windows were opened for an extended period of time while poor outdoor air quality. These results indicate that indoor air quality can be severely degraded by opening windows without considering the level of outdoor particle concentration.

Emission characteristics, sources, and airborne fate of speciated organics in particulate matters in a Hong Kong residence

A growing number of studies warn of the adverse health effects of indoor particulate matters (PM). However, little is known about the molecular compositions and emission characteristics of PM-bound organics (OM) indoors, a critical group of species with highest concentration and complexity in indoor PM. In a Hong Kong residence where prescribed activities were performed with normal frequency and intensity, we found that the activities significantly elevated not only the total concentration but also the fraction of OM in indoor PM. However, the concentration of the total PM-bound OM outdoors (10.3 ± 0.7 μg/m³ ) surpassed that for the indoor counterpart during the undisturbed period (8.2 ± 0.1 μg/m³ ), that is, period when there was no activity with high emission of PM but the residual effects of previous activities might remain. Emissions of indoor activities involving combustion or high-temperature processes significantly elevated the indoor-to-outdoor (I/O) ratios for a majority of organic species. In addition, gas-to-particle partitioning, secondary formation, carrying-over (residues of pollutants in the air), and re-emission also modulated the I/O ratios of some compounds. Chemically comprehensive emission profiles of speciated organics were obtained for 5 indoor activities in the residence. While the indoor contribution to PM-bound OM was estimated to be not higher than 13.1% during the undisturbed period, carrying-over and/or re-emission seemed to exist for certain compounds emitted from cigarette smoking and incense burning. This study enhances knowledge on emissions and airborne fate of speciated organics in indoor PM.

Indoor concentrations of PM2.5 and associated water-soluble and labile heavy metal fractions in workplaces: implications for inhalation health risk assessment

PM2.5 (i.e., particles with aerodynamic diameters less than 2.5 μm) and the associated water-soluble, dissolved, and labile fractions of heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Mn, Ni, Co, Zn, Cr, and Cd) were determined in indoor air of twenty workplaces in Alexandroupolis (Northeastern Greece). PM2.5 concentrations exhibited significant variance across the workplaces ranging from 11.5 μg m-3 up to 276 μg m-3. The water-soluble metal concentrations varied between 0.67 ± 2.52 ng m-3 for Co and 27.8 ± 19.1 ng m-3 for Ni exhibiting large variations among the different workplaces. The water-soluble metal fractions were further treated to obtain the labile metal fraction (by binding with Chelex 100-chelating resin) that might represent a higher potential for bioaccessibility than the total water-soluble fraction. The largest labile (chelexed) fractions (48-67% of the corresponding water-soluble concentrations) were found for Cd, Mn, Cu, and Ni, while the labile fractions of Pb, Cr, Co, and Zn were relatively lower (34-42% of the corresponding water-soluble concentrations). Water-soluble and labile concentrations of heavy metals were further used to calculate cancer and non-cancer risks via inhalation of the PM2.5-bound metals. To our knowledge, this is the first study estimating the health risks due to the inhalation of water-soluble and labile metal fractions bound to indoor PM.

Reduced solvent and reagent amounts: effect on carbonyl dinitrophenylhydrazone measurements at low concentrations

This work aims to advance towards a more affordable laboratory procedure for sample treatment to determine carbonyl compounds by derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). The proposal is based on reducing the amount of DNPH and solvents. A simple addition of standard carbonyls in a solution containing DNPH to prepare hydrazone standards is described and evaluated. Tedious recrystallization steps are avoided. Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetone, tolualdehyde and hexanal, as carbonyl models, were quantified using a DNPH concentration of 400 μg mL^-1 and 3.8 mM H₂SO₄ and by keeping for 24 hours at room temperature. Analytical coefficients of variation between 10 and 25% were found from the analysis of blanks under intermediate conditions (two different devices, very different concentrations of DNPH and analysis on two days). From these values of relative standard deviations and background levels, quantification limits were estimated between 15 and 40 ng mL^-1. The reduction of reagent amounts allows the operator to better control the background levels in the use of DNPH, as well as making the method more cost-effective and easy to use. In short, it leads to a more sustainable adaptation of the classical method. The versatility in analytical application was tested to estimate the levels of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acetone in very different types of environmental samples. In particular, outdoor and indoor samples were collected in filters and impregnated cartridges, respectively. Moreover, tars in 2-propanol and particulate matter from gasification processes were also tested.

Perfluoroalkyl substances in the urine and hair of preschool children, airborne particles in kindergartens, and drinking water in Hong Kong

Seven perfluorinated and polyfluorinated substances (PFASs), namely perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), and perfluoro-1,10-decanedicarboxylic acid (PFDDA), were evaluated in urine and hair samples from children (age: 4-6 years, N = 53), airborne particles sampled at 17 kindergartens, and tap water and bottled water samples. All samples were collected in Hong Kong. The analytical results suggested widespread PFAS contamination. All target PFASs were detected in at least 32% of urine samples, with geometric mean (GM) concentrations ranging from 0.18 to 2.97 ng/L, and in 100% of drinking water samples at GM concentrations of 0.18-21.1 ng/L. Although PFOS and PFDDA were not detected in hair or air samples, the other target PFASs were detected in 48-70% of hair samples (GM concentrations: 2.40-233 pg/g) and 100% of air samples (GM concentrations: 14.8-536.7 pg/m³). In summary, the highest PFAS concentrations were detected in airborne particles measured in kindergartens. PFOA was the major PFAS detected in hair, urine, and drinking water samples, while PFOA, PFDA, and PFHpA were dominant in airborne particles. Although a significant difference in PFAS concentrations in hair samples was observed between boys and girls (p < .05), no significant sex-related difference in urinary PFAS or paired PFAS (hair/urine) concentrations was observed.

Semivolatile organic compounds in French schools: Partitioning between the gas phase, airborne particles and settled dust

The indoor environmental quality in classrooms can largely affect children's daily exposure to indoor chemicals in schools. To date, there has not been a comprehensive study of the concentrations of semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in French schools. Therefore, the French Observatory for Indoor Air Quality (OQAI) performed a field study of SVOCs in 308 nurseries and elementary schools between June 2013 and June 2017. The concentrations of 52 SVOCs, including phthalates, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), synthetic musks, and pesticides, were measured in air and settled dust (40 SVOCs in both air and dust, 12 in either air or dust). The results showed that phthalates had the highest concentrations among the SVOCs in both the air and dust. Other SVOCs, including tributyl phosphate, fluorene, phenanthrene, gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma-HCH, lindane), galaxolide, and tonalide, also showed high concentrations in both the air and dust. Theoretical equations were developed to estimate the SVOC partitioning between the air and settled dust from either the octanol/air partition coefficient or the boiling point of the SVOCs. The regression constants of the equations were determined using the data set of the present study for phthalates and PAHs.

Occurrence and human exposure assessment of organophosphate esters in atmospheric PM2.5 in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, China

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) in atmospheric fine particles (PM_2.5) were comprehensively investigated in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region from April 2016 to March 2017. The concentrations of Σ₈OPEs in all the five sampling sites ranged from 90 to 8291 pg/m³ (mean 1148 ± 1239 pg/m³; median 756 pg/m³). The highest level (median 1067 pg/m³) was found at one of the urban sites in Beijing, followed by Tianjin (746 pg/m³) and Shijiazhuang (724 pg/m³). Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tri[(2R)-1-chloro-2-propyl] phosphate (TCPP) were the dominant compounds across the five sampling locations. Generally, the concentrations of chlorinated OPEs were relatively higher in summer than in winter (p < 0.05), but no significant seasonal difference was discovered for non-chlorinated individual OPEs. The concentrations of tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP), TCEP, TCPP and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) were positively correlated with the meteorological parameters (i.e. temperature and relative humidity) (p < 0.05), indicating an evident influence of meteorological condition on OPE distribution. We observed a negative correlation (p < 0.05) between octanol-air partition coefficients (logK_oa) and the ratio of PM_2.5-bound OPE concentrations to total suspended particulates-bound OPE concentrations, suggesting that physicochemical properties affect the particle-size distribution of OPEs. Furthermore, the median value of cancer hazard quotients (HQs) of TCEP was higher than TBP and tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP). The health risk assessment showed that HQ values for children were ~1.6 times higher than those for adults. Relatively higher health risk induced by PM_2.5-bound OPEs via inhalation was found during severe hazy days than in clear days.

Chemical identity and cardiovascular toxicity of hydrophobic organic components in PM2.5

Numerous experimental and epidemiological studies have demonstrated that exposure to PM_2.5 may result in pathogenesis of several major cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), which can be attributed to the combined adverse effects induced by the complicated components of PM_2.5. Organic materials, which are major components of PM_2.5, contain thousands of chemicals, and most of them are environmental hazards. However, the contamination profile and contribution to overall toxicity of PM_2.5-bound organic components (OCs) have not been thoroughly evaluated yet. Herein, we aim to provide an overview of the literature on PM_2.5-bound hydrophobic OCs, with an emphasis on the chemical identity and reported impairments on the cardiovascular system, including the potential exposure routes and mechanisms. We first provide an update on the worldwide mass concentration and composition data of PM_2.5, and then, review the contamination profile of PM_2.5-bound hydrophobic OCs, including constitution, concentration, distribution, formation, source, and identification. In particular, the link between exposure to PM_2.5-bound hydrophobic OCs and CVDs and its possible underlying mechanisms are discussed to evaluate the possible risks of PM_2.5-bound hydrophobic OCs on the cardiovascular system and to provide suggestions for future studies.

Tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphate: An Unexpected Abundant Toxic Pollutant Found in PM2.5

A novel pollutant, tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphate (I168O), was identified in urban fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) samples in a nontargeted screening based on mass spectrometry for the first time. I168O was detected in all samples collected from two typical cities far away from each other in China. The concentrations of I168O reached up to 851 (median: 153) ng/m³, indicating that it was a widespread and abundant pollutant in the air. The antioxidant Irgafos 168 [I168, tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphite] popularly added in plastics was the most suspected source for the detected I168O. Simulation studies indicated that heating, UV radiation, and water contact might significantly (p < 0.05) transform I168 to I168O. In particular, I168O might be magnificently evaporated into the air at high temperatures. The outdoor inhalation exposure of I168O may exert substantial health risks.

Uptake, Accumulation, and Biomarkers of PM2.5-Associated Organophosphate Flame Retardants in C57BL/6 Mice after Chronic Exposure at Real Environmental Concentrations

Although the bioaccumulation of organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) in aquatic organisms has been investigated, little information is available about their bioaccumulation in mammals following chronic inhalation exposure. To address this knowledge gap, C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 7 PM_2.5-associated OPFRs via the trachea to study their bioaccumulation, tissue distribution, and urinary metabolites. Low (corresponding to the real PM_2.5 concentrations occurring during winter in Guangzhou), medium, and high dosages were examined. After 72 days' exposure, ∑OPFR concentrations in tissues from mice in the medium dosage group decreased in the order of intestine > heart > stomach > testis > kidney > spleen > brain > liver > lung > muscle. Of the OPFRs detected in all three exposure groups, chlorinated alkyl OPFRs were most heavily accumulated in mice. We found a significant positive correlation between the bioaccumulation ratio and octanol-air partition coefficient (K_OA) in mice tissues for low log K_OW OPFR congeners (log K_OW ≤ 4, p < 0.05). Three urinary metabolites (di-p-cresyl phosphate: DCrP, diphenyl phosphate: DPhP, dibutyl phosphate: DnBP) were detected from the high dosage group. These results provide important insights into the bioaccumulation potential of OPFRs in mammals and emphasize the health risk of chlorinated alkyl OPFRs.

Airborne antibiotic resistance genes in Hong Kong kindergartens

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) have become a critical global public health issue in this century. There is increasing evidence for the presence and transmission of ARGs by air transmission. In this research, ARGs and ARB in air conditioner filter dust (AC dust) and urine samples from 55 kindergarten children in 17 kindergartens and nearby 10 soil samples in Hong Kong were analyzed. The results showed the presence of 16 ARG subtypes and the mobile genetic element (MGE) intI1 in AC dust, and 12 ARG subtypes in the soil samples. ARGs presenting resistance to sulfonamide (6.9 × 10^-3-0.17) (expressed as relative abundance of the 16 S rRNA genes) were most abundant followed by macrolides (1.8 × 10^-3-3.3 × 10^-2), sul1, sul2 (sulfonamide), ermF (macrolides) and intI1 genes in AC dust in 17 kindergartens. For soil samples, 12 ARG subtypes and the intI1 were detected, and the genes providing resistance to sulfonamide (1.6 × 10^-3-2.7 × 10^-1) were the most abundant ARGs in the 10 soil samples, followed by tetracycline (ND-1.4 × 10^-2). Multi-resistant bacteria with sul1, sul2, intI1, or tetQ were detected in all AC dust samples and some urine samples. Based on bacterial genera and ARG co-occurrence network analysis and Hong Kong's special geographical location and cultural environment, there might be two origins for the ARGs detected in the kindergartens: β-lactam/macrolide ARGs mainly derived from human medicine use and tetracycline/sulfonamide ARGs mainly from other areas, as well as IntI1 may play a role in the spread of ARGs in Hong Kong. The widely detection of ARGs in AC dust in kindergartens in Hong Kong highlights the need for the improvement of management measures.

Size-segregated deposition of atmospheric elemental carbon (EC) in the human respiratory system: A case study of the Pearl River Delta, China

It has increasingly become apparent in recent years that atmospheric elemental carbon (EC) is potentially a more sensitive indicator of human health risks from ambient aerosol exposure compared to particulate mass. However, a comprehensive evaluation of the factors affecting EC exposure is lacking so far. To address this, we performed measurements of size-segregated EC in Guangzhou, China, followed by an estimation of deposition in the human respiratory system. Most ambient EC was in the fine mode suggesting significant cloud processing, and ~40% was deposited in the human respiratory tract, with predominant deposition in the head region (47%), followed by the pulmonary (30%) and tracheobronchial (23%) regions. A significant fraction (36%) of deposited EC were coarse particles indicating the need to consider coarse-mode EC in future health effect studies. Infants and children exhibited greater vulnerability to EC exposure than adults, and the deposition amount varied linearly with breathing rate, a proxy for physical exertion. The nature of breathing was found to constrain EC inhalation significantly, with oronasal breathing associated with lower total deposition and nasal breathing leading to lower deposition in the tracheobronchial and pulmonary regions. Overall, these observations strengthen the need to include EC as an additional air quality indicator.

Organophosphate flame retardants and bisphenol A in children's urine in Hong Kong: has the burden been underestimated?

The urine levels of organophosphate flame retardants (PFRs) and bisphenol A (BPA) in kindergarten children (n = 31, 4-6 years old, sampling performed in 2016) in Hong Kong were measured. The detection frequency of the target PFRs, tri(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), tris(chloroisopropyl)phosphate (TCIPP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) and 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) ranged from 52% to 84%. The 95th percentile urinary concentrations of TPHP, TDCIPP, TCIPP, EHDPP and TCEP were 1.70, 0.24, 0.03, 0.05, 0.68 and 0.03 ng/mL, respectively. The median urine level of BPA was 1.69 ng/mL, with a detection frequency of 77%. Due to the lack of metabolism information, two scenarios were used to calculate the estimated daily intake (EDI) of these compounds. Back-calculated EDIs of PFRs using the urinary excretion rates from in vivo animal data (scenario 2) were up to 2.97 μg/kg/d (TDCIPP), which was only a little less than that observed in a sample of American infants, and the reference dose (RfD), meaning that the potential health risk of TDCIPP cannot be ignored. Dust ingestion was suggested to be the major pathway of exposure to PFRs, but when the levels in dust and air particles in kindergartens in Hong Kong were used to predict EDIs, these values were nearly half as much as those predicted from urinary TDCIPP in this study. This suggested that children's PFRs burden may be underestimated when considering only PFR levels in dust or air. There is thus a need for further studies with large-scale surveys and investigation of exposure routes.

Integrated assessment of health risk and climate effects of black carbon in the Pearl River Delta region, China

BACKGROUND

Black carbon (BC) caused by incomplete combustion of fossil and bio-fuel has a dual effect on health and climate. There is a need for systematic approaches to evaluation of health outcomes and climate impacts relevant to BC exposure.

OBJECTIVES

We propose and illustrate for the first time, to our knowledge, an integrated analysis of a region-specific health model with climate change valuation module to quantify the health and climate consequences of BC exposure.

METHODS

Based on the data from regional air pollution monitoring stations from 2013 to 2014 in the Pearl River Delta region (PRD), China, we analyzed the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects and the relative risk of cause-specific mortality due to BC exposure in three typical cities of the PRD (i.e. Guangzhou, Jiangmen and Huizhou). The radiative forcing (RF) and heating rate (HR) were calculated by the Fu-Liou-Gu (FLG) plane-parallel radiation model and the conversion of empirical formula. We further connected the health and climate impacts by calculating the excess mortalities attributed to climate warming due to BC.

RESULTS

Between 2013 and 2014, carcinogenic risks of adults and children due to BC exposure in the PRD were higher than the recommended limits (1 × 10^-6 to 1 × 10^-4), resulting in an excess of 4.82 cancer cases per 10,000 adults (4.82 × 10^-4) and an excess of 1.97 cancer cases per 10,000 children (1.97 × 10^-4). Non-carcinogenic risk caused by BC was not found. The relative risks of BC exposure on mortality were higher in winter and dry season. The atmospheric RFs of BC were 26.31 W m^-2, 26.41 W m^-2, and 22.45 W m^-2 for Guangzhou, Jiangmen and Huizhou, leading to a warming of the atmosphere in the PRD. The estimated annual excess mortalities of climate warming due to BC were 5052 (95% CI: 1983, 8139), 5121 (95% CI: 2010, 8249) and 4363 (95% CI: 1712, 7032) for Guangzhou, Jiangmen and Huizhou, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our estimates suggest that current levels of BC exposure in the PRD region posed a considerable risk to human health and the climate. Reduction of BC emission could lead to substantial health and climate co-benefits.

Data on Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in kindergartens with different surrounding activities

The aim of the measurement of this data is to evaluate the Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in terms of chemical and physical parameters. Data were collected at three different kindergartens having different surrounding activities (industrial, institutional, residential area). The chemical parameters measured were respirable suspended particulates of PM₁₀, PM_2.5, PM₁, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and the concentrations are within the acceptable limit. Physical parameters of wind speed are within the standard, while temperature and relative humidity exceeded the acceptable limit. A strong correlation was found between the chemical IAQ parameters with thermal comfort parameters (temperature and relative humidity). The concentration of IAQ pollutants is higher in order of residential > institutional > industrial.

Seasonal variation and human exposure assessment of legacy and novel brominated flame retardants in PM2.5 in different microenvironments in Beijing, China

Indoor exposure to legacy and novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) may cause potential risks to human health. Studies on seasonal variations of indoor PM_2.5-bound BFRs are scant. This study comprehensively investigated the seasonal variations of PM_2.5-bound polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and NBFRs in various indoor environments (i.e. activity room, dormitory, home and office) and outdoor PM_2.5 in Beijing, China over one year. The levels of PBDE (226 ± 108 pg m^-3) were higher than that of NBFRs (27.0 ± 16.0 pg m^-3) in all indoor environments. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) were the most abundant BFRs. Office showed the highest mean concentrations of Σ₁₅PBDEs (251 ± 125 pg m^-3) and Σ₉NBFRs (33.0 ± 18.0 pg m^-3), which may be related to the higher number density of indoor materials. The concentrations of Σ₉NBFRs and Σ₁₅PBDE in indoor PM_2.5 were found to be significantly higher than those in the corresponding outdoor PM_2.5 (p < 0.05). Two to twenty-fold seasonal variations were observed for levels of PM_2.5-bound BFRs during one year, and indoor concentrations increased slightly during the central-heating period (November 2016-March 2017). Seasonal variations of BFRs could be affected by temperature, relative humidity and concentrations of particle matters. The PM_2.5-bound BFRs concentrations in PM_2.5 were negatively correlated with temperature and relative humidity, while positively correlated with PM_2.5 concentrations (p < 0.05). Atmospheric haze pollution could possibly contribute to higher levels of indoor PM_2.5-bound BFRs. Human daily intake of BFRs via PM_2.5 inhalation showed seasonal differences, and the highest exposure risk occurred in winter. Toddlers were assessed to be more vulnerable to indoor PM_2.5-bound BFRs in all seasons. This study provided the first-hand measurements of seasonal concentrations and human exposure to PM_2.5-bound BFRs in different indoor scenarios in Beijing.

Temporal variations of PM2.5-bound organophosphate flame retardants in different microenvironments in Beijing, China, and implications for human exposure

In the present study, the temporal distribution of PM_2.5-bound organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) was comprehensively investigated in various indoor environments as well as outdoor air in Beijing, China over a one-year period. The mean concentrations of Σ₉OPFRs were 22.7 ng m^-3 and 1.40 ng m^-3 in paired indoor and outdoor PM_2.5, respectively. The concentrations of tri-n-butyl phosphate (TNBP), tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris (2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP) in indoor PM_2.5 were significantly correlated with those in outdoor PM_2.5. For different indoor microenvironments, mean concentrations of Σ₉OPFRs were in the order of office (29.0 ± 11.7 ng m^-3) > home (24.0 ± 9.4 ng m^-3) > dormitory (19.4 ± 4.9 ng m^-3) > activity room (14.4 ± 3.1 ng m^-3). TCIPP was the most abundant compound in the indoor PM_2.5, followed by TCEP. Significantly higher concentrations of OPFRs were observed in indoor environments with more furnishing, electronics or other materials (p < 0.05). Moreover, lower levels of OPFRs in indoor air were observed at well-ventilated (with higher air exchange rate) indoor sampling sites. Concentrations of Σ₉OPFRs in the activity room, dormitory, homes and outdoor sites generally increased in summer and heating seasons (November 2016 to February 2017). Significant correlations (p < 0.05) were observed between temperatures and mass concentrations of OPFRs with higher vapor pressures, i.e. TNBP, TCEP and TCIPP in all indoor and outdoor samples. Seasonal differences in human exposure were observed and the highest daily exposure dose occurred in summer. Toddlers may suffer the highest exposure risk of PM_2.5-bound OPFRs via inhalation among all age groups. This is one of the very few studies that have revealed the seasonal variation and human exposure of PM_2.5-bound OPFRs in different microenvironments, which shed light on emission sources and fate of OPFRs and potential human exposure pathway.

Brominated flame retardants in atmospheric fine particles in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, China: Spatial and temporal distribution and human exposure assessment

Atmospheric fine particle (PM_2.5) samples were collected over a whole year (April 2016 - March 2017) across five sampling locations in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region, to investigate the occurrence of novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The concentrations of ∑₉NBFRs were in the range of 0.63-104 pg/m³ (15.6 ± 16.8 pg/m³) in atmospheric PM_2.5, while the levels of ∑₉PBDEs (excluding BDE-209) ranged from 0.05 to 19.1 pg/m³ (2.9 ± 3.8 pg/m³) and BDE-209 concentrations ranged from 0.88 to 138 pg/m³ (22 ± 28 pg/m³). Relatively higher levels of NBFRs and PBDEs were found at urban sampling sites in Beijing City and Shijiazhuang City. Decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) and BDE-209 were the dominant compounds with the relative abundances of 72% in ∑₉NBFRs and 90% in ∑₁₀PBDEs, respectively. Generally, the levels of most target BFRs in summer were lower than those in other seasons. However, there were no notable seasonal differences in levels of DBDPE and BDE-209 in atmospheric PM_2.5 samples across the BTH region. Significant and positive correlations were found between the concentrations of BFRs and PM_2.5. Daily human exposure via inhalation revealed that children have a higher probability of suffering from the adverse effects of BFRs than that of adults. In addition, residents living near sampling locations across the BTH region may suffer high exposure risks to BDE-209 and NBFRs.

Particle-phase concentrations and sources of legacy and novel flame retardants in outdoor and indoor environments across Spain

Levels of particle-phase legacy polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and novel brominated and chlorinated flame retardants, such as decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and Dechlorane Plus (DP), were measured in ambient outdoor air, indoor workplace air and indoor dust, in different locations across Spain. PBDE concentrations were generally higher in outdoor ambient air samples than in indoor air, ranging between 1.18 and 28.6 pg m^-3, while DP was the main flame retardant (FR) in indoor air (2.90-42.6 pg m^-3). A different behavior of legacy versus novel FRs was observed in all the environments and matrices considered, which seemed to indicate a progressive replacement of the former. Although the emission sources could not be fully identified, certain evidences suggested that high outdoor PBDE concentrations could be associated with old goods in landfills and recycling centers, while high indoor DP concentrations were linked to the presence of new electronic devices. A direct impact of land use on outdoor atmospheric DP concentrations was observed, with DP concentrations correlating with high density of buildings within a city. In addition, DP concentrations outdoors correlated with inorganic species with FR properties (e.g., Cr, Cu). Significant differences in the fraction of anti-DP to the total DP (F_anti ratio) were observed between indoor air (PM_2.5) and dust (PM₁₀), which could be related with: a) a dependence on particle size, suggesting a higher relative abundance of the anti-isomer in PM₁₀ than in PM_2.5, while similar concentrations were recorded for the syn-isomer; b) a higher deposition rate of the anti-isomer compared to the syn-isomer; and/or c) a more accentuated preferential degradation of the anti-isomer linked to artificial light or other agents coexisting in the air. The detectable presence of all the FR families analyzed in indoor air and dust points to the importance of monitoring these compounds in order to minimize human exposure.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and novel brominated flame retardants in indoor dust of different microenvironments in Beijing, China

The occurrence levels of eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and four novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) were determined and compared in indoor dust from different microenvironments (21 homes, 23 offices and 16 day care centers) in Beijing, China. Concentrations of ∑₈PBDEs in dust were 430-17,000 ng/g, 690-8600 ng/g, and 90-2300 ng/g for homes, offices, and day care centers, respectively, and were dominated by BDE-209. Concentrations of ∑₄NBFRs ranged from 310 to 17,000 ng/g, 300 to 4300 ng/g, and not detected to 500 ng/g for homes, offices, and day care centers, respectively, and were dominated by bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TEBP) and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) across microenvironments. The results showed an increasing detection and elevated concentration of NBFRs (especially BEH-TEBP), indicating that monitoring of NBFRs in dust samples should be of concern in future studies. A notable finding was that the BFR concentrations in dust samples from day care centers were generally one order of magnitude lower than those from homes and offices in the present study. This implies that previous estimates of toddler exposure via dust ingestion on data from homes may be overestimated. Concentrations of BDE-209 and ∑₈PBDEs were found to be significantly higher in elevated surface dust than floor dust from day care centers. The estimates of daily intakes of BFRs via dust ingestion for Chinese adults and toddlers using Monte Carlo analysis were 2-5 orders of magnitude lower than the corresponding reference daily intakes.

Multiple-life-stage probabilistic risk assessment for the exposure of Chinese population to PBDEs and risk managements

Studies assessing body burden of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) exposure have been conducted in the United States and Europe. However, the long-term assessment that is associated with multimedia exposure of PBDEs for the Chinese population is not available. The current study estimated the health risks using large PBDEs data to quantify the contributions of various media from different regions and distinguished the most vulnerable periods in life. We summarized media-specific (soil, dust, outdoor and indoor air, human milk and food) concentration of PBDEs in China from 2005 to 2016. Probabilistic risk assessment was adopted to estimate the health risks of infants, toddlers, children, teenagers and adults through ingestion, inhalation and dermal absorption. Monte Carlo simulation and sensitivity analysis were performed to quantify risk estimates uncertainties. E-waste areas had the highest PBDEs concentration, which was at least an order of magnitude higher than in other areas. BDE209 was the primary congener, accounting for 38-99% of the estimated daily intake. The dominant exposure pathway for infants was dietary intake through human milk, whereas dust ingestion was a higher contributing factor for toddlers, children, teenagers and adults. The 95th percentile of hazard index for infants and toddlers from e-waste areas of Guangdong and Zhejiang provinces exceeded one. Our estimates also suggested that infants may have the highest body burdens of PBDEs compared to other age groups. Sensitivity analyses indicated that PBDEs concentrations and ingestion rates contributed to major variances in the risk model. In this study, e-waste was found as a significant source of PBDEs, and PBDEs-containing e-waste are likely to be a threat to human health especially during early period of life. Risk strategies for better managing environmental PBDEs-exposure and human health are needed, due to the high intake of PBDEs and their persistence in the environment.

Phosphorus flame retardants and Bisphenol A in indoor dust and PM2.5 in kindergartens and primary schools in Hong Kong

Organophosphate flame retardants (PFRs) and bisphenol A (BPA) were measured in indoor dust and PM_2.5 samples from nine kindergartens and two primary schools in Hong Kong. The average levels of PM_2.5 ranged from 4.0E+03 ng/m³ to 1.5E+04 ng/m³. Average levels of PFRs (from 1.5 ng/m³ to 20 ng/m³ in PM_2.5; from 8.0E-02 μg/g dw to 2.4 μg/g dw in dust) and BPA (from 6.4E-01 ng/m³ to 1.0 ng/m³ in PM_2.5; from 1.0E-02 μg/g dw to 2.0E-01 μg/g dw in dust) were detected in most of the sampling sites. Tri-(2-Chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(1,3-Dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCP), tris-(chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCPP), and triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) were present in low levels in PM_2.5 with medians of 16, 14, 8.7, and 3.2 ng/m³, respectively. In dust, the medians were 1.5E-01, 5.5E-02, 5.9E-01, 8.6E-01, and 8.5E-02 μg/g dw for TCEP, TCPP, TDCPP, TPHP, and 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate, respectively. The medians of BPA were 6.4E-01 ng/m³ and 7.4E-02 μg/g dw for PM_2.5 and dust, respectively. A positive correlation was found between indoor PM_2.5 and dust in the levels of TCEP (r = 0.85; p = .05). In the individual classroom in this survey, the predominant PFRs were similar, that is, TDCP and TCEP in indoor PM_2.5 while TPHP and TDCP in dust. TPHP and TCEP in primary schools were obviously lower than those in kindergartens. The estimated daily intakes via PM_2.5 and dust for all selected PFRs ranged from 1.3E-4 μg/kg/d to 2.0E-02 μg/kg/d, and the value of less than the detection limit at 3.5E-4 μg/kg/d was found for BPA. The EDI values of TPHP in dust non-dietary intake fraction were higher than those in the others. Calculated hazard indices (EDI/RfD) ranged from 4.8E-06 and 5.5E-03, showing that PFRs and BPA in PM_2.5 and dust presented no health risks to children.

Children's exposure to brominated flame retardants in indoor environments - A review

The aim of this review is to present up-to-date research on children's exposure to brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in indoor environments. Large geographical variations were observed for all BFRs [polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)], with the highest concentrations of PBDEs measured in North America (BDE-47) and Europe (BDE-209), where higher concentrations of PBDEs are present in dust from houses, daycare centers and primary schools. In Asia the highest PBDE concentrations were measured in China, near e-waste recycling areas. In the Middle East, Australia and Africa BFR levels were low in most indoor spaces. Asian countries also have the highest concentrations of TBBPA and HBCDD, followed by European countries. Fewer studies have been conducted measuring novel and emerging BFRs (NBFRs or EBFRs), of which decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) has the highest concentration in indoor environments, especially in China. The vast majority of children's exposure studies have been conducted in houses, sampling either dust or air, and considerably fewer in schools, daycare centers, cars and public facilities, despite BFR levels being comparable to (or sometimes even higher than) house dust. Relatively fewer studies focused on children's tissues such as serum, and only two studied exposure via mouthing toys. Alternative noninvasive sampling matrices that may act as surrogates for exposure to BFRs such as handwipes and silicone wristbands have recently started to gain momentum, because of the ease of sampling, faster collection time and better correlations to serum than house dust. Feces sampling is another promising alternative to children's serum that warrants further research. While many studies have associated different indoor environment characteristics, there is a knowledge gap on the association between children's behaviour and activity patterns and their exposure to BFRs, as well as data on infant exposure to BFRs via baby products. Results from the studies showed that dust ingestion was the dominant exposure pathway for most studied BFRs compared to indoor air inhalation and dermal contact, especially for infants and toddlers who have higher exposures than older children.

Association of ambient Particulate matter 2.5 with intensive care unit admission due to pneumonia: a distributed lag non-linear model

Air pollution in China has become a major environmental problem. There is a lack of evidence on the impact of haze (especially PM2.5) on intensive care unit admission due to pneumonia (ICUp). We hypothesized that PM2.5 was independently associated with ICUp and there was a non-linear time lag effect. All ICU admissions occurred from January 1, 2014 to December 31, 2016 in Sir Run-Run Shaw hospital were included in the study. The primary reasons for admission were categorized into pneumonia and non-pneumonia. Distributed lag non-linear model (DLNM) was built to account for the effect of air quality parameters in both value and temporal lag dimensions. There was a total of 7487 ICU admissions during the study period, including 391 admissions due to pneumonia. The DLNM showed that the relative risk (RR) of ICUp increased with PM2.5 concentrations. At a PM2.5 concentration of 200 mcg/m3, the RR increased from 1.06 (95% CI: 0.57-1.95) at day 0 to 1.40 (95% CI: 1.05-1.86) at day 3, and returned normal at day 6 (RR: 1.13; 95% CI: 0.83-1.55). The study showed that PM2.5 was independently associated with the risk of ICUp, and the maximum effect occurred at 3 to 4 days after exposure.

Human Exposure Assessment for Air Pollution

Assessment of human exposure to air pollution is a fundamental part of the more general process of health risk assessment. The measurement methods for exposure assessment now include personal exposure monitoring, indoor-outdoor sampling, mobile monitoring, and exposure assessment modeling (such as proximity models, interpolation model, air dispersion models, and land-use regression (LUR) models). Among these methods, personal exposure measurement is considered to be the most accurate method of pollutant exposure assessment until now, since it can better quantify observed differences and better reflect exposure among smaller groups of people at ground level. And since the great differences of geographical environment, source distribution, pollution characteristics, economic conditions, and living habits, there is a wide range of differences between indoor, outdoor, and individual air pollution exposure in different regions of China. In general, the indoor particles in most Chinese families comprise infiltrated outdoor particles, particles generated indoors, and a few secondary organic aerosol particles, and in most cases, outdoor particle pollution concentrations are a major contributor to indoor concentrations in China. Furthermore, since the time, energy, and expense are limited, it is difficult to measure the concentration of pollutants for each individual. In recent years, obtaining the concentration of air pollutants by using a variety of exposure assessment models is becoming a main method which could solve the problem of the increasing number of individuals in epidemiology studies.