Sex-dependent effects of sulfamethoxazole exposure on pro-/anti-oxidant status with stimulation on growth, behavior and reproduction in the amphipod Hyalella azteca

Intermittent multi-generational reproductive toxicities of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate with essential involvement of lipid metabolism

Ionic liquids (ILs) become emerging environmental pollutants. Especially, alkyl imidazolium ILs commonly showed stimulation in toxicological studies and mechanisms remained to be explored. In the present study, alkyl imidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([amim]BF4), with ethyl ([emim]), hexyl ([hmim]) and octyl ([omim]) as side-chains, were chosen as target ILs. Their toxicities on the reproduction and lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans were explored with two types (A and B) exposure arrangements to mimic realistic intermittent multi-generational exposure scenarios. In type A scenario, there was an exposure every 4 generations with 12 generations in total, and in type B one, there was an exposure every two generations with 12 generations in total. Result showed that [emim]BF4 caused inhibition on the reproduction in 8 generations in type A exposure but 6 ones in type B exposure. Meanwhile, [hmim]BF4 showed inhibition in one generation and stimulation in 3 generations in type A exposure, but stimulation in 6 generations in type B exposure. Also, [omim]BF4 showed stimulation in one generation in type B exposure. Collectively, the results demonstrated less frequencies of inhibition, or more frequencies of stimulation, in the exposure scenario with more frequent exposures. Further mechanism exploration was performed to measure the lipid storage and metabolism in the aspect of energy supply. Results showed that [emim]BF4, [hmim]BF4 and [omim]BF4 commonly stimulated the triglyceride (TG) levels across generations. They also disturbed the activities of glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) and acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACC) in lipogenesis, those of adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) and carnitine acyl transferase (CPT) in lipolysis, and also the contents of acetyl-CoA (ACA). Further data analysis indicated the energy allocation among life traits including reproduction, antioxidant responses and hormone regulations.

Assessing ecological responses to exposure to the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole in freshwater mesocosms

Antibiotics are a contaminant class of worldwide concern as they are frequently detected in aquatic ecosystems. To better understand the impacts of antibiotics on aquatic ecosystems, we conducted an outdoor mesocosm experiment in which aquatic communities were exposed to different concentrations of the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole (0, 0.15, 1.5, 15 and 150 μg/L). These concentrations include mean (0.15 μg/L) and maximum detected concentrations (15 and 150 μg/L) in aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Sulfamethoxazole was applied once a week for eight consecutive weeks to 1530 L outdoor mesocosms in the Netherlands, followed by an eight-week recovery period. We evaluated phytoplankton-, bacterial- and invertebrate responses during and after sulfamethoxazole exposure and assessed impacts on organic matter decomposition. Contrary to our expectations, consistent treatment-related effects on algal and bacterial communities could not be demonstrated. In addition, sulfamethoxazole did not significantly affect zooplankton and macroinvertebrate communities. However, some effects on specific taxa were observed, with an increase in Mesostoma flatworm abundance (NOEC of <0.15 μg/L). In addition, eDNA analyses indicated negative impacts on the insects Odonata at a sulfamethoxazole concentration of 15 μg/L. Overall, environmentally relevant sulfamethoxazole concentration did not result in direct or indirect impairment of entire aquatic communities and ecological processes in our mesocosms. However, several specific macroinvertebrate taxa demonstrated significant (in)direct effects from sulfamethoxazole. Comparison of the results with the literature showed inconsistent results between studies using comparable, environmentally relevant, concentrations. Therefore, our study highlights the importance of testing the ecological impacts of pharmaceuticals (such as sulfamethoxazole) across multiple trophic levels spanning multiple aquatic communities, to fully understand its potential ecological threats.

Oxidative stress responses in two marine diatoms during sulfamethoxazole exposure and the toxicological evaluation using the IBRv2 index

Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) is widely present in water systems, and its stable properties and poor biodegradability can result in high residues of SMX in the water environment. This, in turn, can have detrimental effects on the entire aquatic habitat and human life and health. This study aimed to investigate the toxic effects of SMX on the growth, photosynthetic pigment content, and oxidative stress of two marine microalgae species: Skeletonema costatum and Phaeodactylum tricornutum. SMX demonstrated a significant inhibitory effect on microalgae proliferation, with 96-h median effective concentration (EC50) values of 0.93 mg/L and 4.65 mg/L for S. costatum and P. tricornutum, respectively. At low concentrations, SMX significantly increased the production of Chl a in both microalgae species. However, in the higher concentration SMX treatment group, Chl a content in P. tricornutum experienced a significant decrease, whereas Chl c showed no sensitivity to SMX. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), along with the glutathione (GSH) content, exhibited a significant increasing trend in response to higher SMX concentrations. However, these changes effectively inhibited the accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA) content. In the treatment group with the highest SMX concentration, MDA content in both microalgae species was significantly higher compared to the control group. The Integrated Biomarker Response Version 2 (IBRv2) index showed a significant positive correlation with SMX concentration, suggesting its potential for assessing the ecotoxicological effects of lower SMX concentrations on marine microalgae.

A review on oxidant and antioxidant effects of antibacterial agents: impacts on bacterial cell death and division and therapeutic effects or adverse reactions in humans

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced in the mitochondrial respiratory pathway and cellular metabolism. They are responsible for creating oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. In living organisms, there is a balance between oxidative stress and the antioxidant system, but some factors such as medicines disturb the balance and cause many problems. These effects can impact bacterial death and division and also in humans can induce therapeutic or adverse reactions. Web of Science and Pubmed databases were used for searching. This review focuses on the oxidant and antioxidant effects of different classes of antibacterial agents and the mechanisms of oxidative stress. Some of these agents have beneficial effects on killing bacteria due to their antioxidant or oxidant effects. However, some of their side effects may be due to their oxidative effects. Based on the results of this review, minocycline is an antioxidant, but aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol, glycopeptides, antituberculosis drugs, fluoroquinolones, and sulfamethoxazole agents have oxidant effects. Furthermore, cephalosporins, penicillins, metronidazole, and macrolides have both oxidant and antioxidant effects in different studies. It is concluded that some antibacterial agents have oxidant and other antioxidant effects. These activities may affect their therapeutic effects or side effects. Some antioxidants can prevent the adverse effects of antibacterial agents. Clarifying the exact oxidant and antioxidant effects of some antimicrobial agents needs more research projects.

Co-contaminants of ethinylestradiol and sulfamethoxazole in groundwater exacerbate ecotoxicity and ecological risk and compromise the energy budget of C. elegans

Ethinylestradiol (EE2) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) are among pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and regarded as emerging contaminants in groundwater worldwide. However, the ecotoxicity and potential risk of these co-contaminants remain unknown. We investigated the effects of early-life long-term co-exposure to EE2 and SMX in groundwater on life-history traits of Caenorhabditis elegans and determined potential ecological risks in groundwater. L1 larvae of wild-type N2 C. elegans were exposed to measured concentrations of EE2 (0.001, 0.75, 5.1, 11.8 mg/L) or SMX (0.001, 1, 10, 100 mg/L) or co-exposed to EE2 (0.75 mg/L, no observed adverse effect level derived from its reproductive toxicity) and SMX (0.001, 1, 10, 100 mg/L) in groundwater. Growth and reproduction were monitored on days 0 - 6 of the exposure period. Toxicological data were analyzed using DEBtox modeling to determine the physiological modes of action (pMoAs) and the predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs) to estimate ecological risks posed by EE2 and SMX in global groundwater. Early-life EE2 exposure significantly inhibited the growth and reproduction of C. elegans, with lowest observed adverse effect levels (LOAELs) of 11.8 and 5.1 mg/L, respectively. SMX exposure impaired the reproductive capacity of C. elegans (LOAEL = 0.001 mg/L). Co-exposure to EE2 and SMX exacerbated ecotoxicity (LOAELs of 1 mg/L SMX for growth, and 0.001 mg/L SMX for reproduction). DEBtox modeling showed that the pMoAs were increased growth and reproduction costs for EE2 and increased reproduction costs for SMX. The derived PNEC falls within the range of detected environmental levels of EE2 and SMX in groundwater worldwide. The pMoAs for EE2 and SMX combined were increased growth and reproduction costs, resulting in lower energy threshold values than single exposure. Based on global groundwater contamination data and energy threshold values, we calculated risk quotients for EE2 (0.1 - 123.0), SMX (0.2 - 91.3), and combination of EE2 and SMX (0.4 - 341.1). Our findings found that co-contamination by EE2 and SMX exacerbates toxicity and ecological risk to non-target organisms, suggesting that the ecotoxicity and ecological risk of co-contaminants of pharmaceuticals should be considered to sustainably manage groundwater and aquatic ecosystems.

Sex-dependent obesogenic effect of tetracycline on Drosophila melanogaster deteriorated by dysrhythmia

Antibiotics have been identified as obesogens contributing to the prevalence of obesity. Moreover, their environmental toxicity shows sex dependence, which might also explain the sex-dependent obesity observed. Yet, the direct evidence for such a connection and the underlying mechanisms remain to be explored. In this study, the effects of tetracycline, which is a representative antibiotic found in both environmental and food samples, on Drosophila melanogaster were studied with consideration of both sex and circadian rhythms (represented by the eclosion rhythm). Results showed that in morning-eclosed adults, tetracycline significantly stimulated the body weight of females (AM females) at 0.1, 1.0, 10.0 and 100.0 µg/L, while tetracycline only stimulated the body weight of males (AM males) at 1.0 µg/L. In the afternoon-eclosed adults, tetracycline significantly stimulated the body weight of females (PM females) at 0.1, 1.0 and 100.0 µg/L, while it showed more significant stimulation in males (PM males) at all concentrations. Notably, the stimulation levels were the greatest in PM males among all the adults. The results showed the clear sex dependence of the obesogenic effects, which was diminished by dysrhythmia. Further biochemical assays and clustering analysis suggested that the sex- and rhythm-dependent obesogenic effects resulted from the bias toward lipogenesis against lipolysis. Moreover, they were closely related to the preference for the energy storage forms of lactate and glucose and also to the presence of excessive insulin, with the involvement of glucolipid metabolism. Such relationships indicated potential bridges between the obesogenic effects of pollutants and other diseases, e.g., cancer and diabetes.

Reproductive toxicities of ofloxacin and norfloxacin on Caenorhabditis elegans with multi-generational oscillatory effects and trans-generational residual influences

The reproductive toxicities over generations are essential to assess the long-term impacts environmental fluoroquinolone antibiotics (FQs). In the present study, the multi-generational effects of ofloxacin (OFL) and norfloxacin (NOR) on reproduction were studied on Caenorhabditis elegans from 9 successive generations (F1-F9). Results showed that OFL showed no effects in F1, stimulation in F2 to F4, and inhibition F5 to F9. The effects of NOR also showed oscillation between stimulation and inhibition across generations. Further biochemical analysis demonstrated that the reproductive toxicities of OFL and NOR were more closely connected with total cholesterol (TCHO), progesterone (P) and testosterone (T), than major sperm protein (MSP) and vitellogenin (Vn). Moreover, OFL and NOR also showed significant trans-generational reproductive toxicities in T4 and T4', the great-grand-daughter of F1 and F9. Differences between T4 and T4' and between OFL and NOR, indicated influences of multi-generational exposure and urged more exploration on different mechanisms between FQs.

The physiological, biochemical and transcriptional responses to sulfamethoxazole in the Asian clam, Corbicula fluminea (O. F. Müller, 1774)

Sulfamethoxazole (SMX), a broad-spectrum antibiotic, has been widely used in the treatment and prevention of infection caused by bacteria in recent years. The present study was aimed to evaluate the response mechanisms to SMX stress in gills and digestive gland of Corbicula fluminea (O. F. Müller, 1774). To this end, clams were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of SMX (0, 1, 10 and 100 μg/L) for 7 and 28 days, and siphon behavior, tissue-specific enzymatic and transcriptional changes were assayed. Our results showed that exposure to SMX significantly suppressed filtration rate and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, activated antioxidant defense system and elevated transcription of several genes related to cell apoptosis in gills and digestive gland of clams. In general, SMX at environmentally relevant concentrations exhibited a negative impact on siphon behavior and induced neurotoxicology, oxidative stress and cell apoptosis in C. fluminea. The current study will help broaden our understanding of the ecotoxicity of SMX on freshwater bivalves.

Occurrence and ecotoxicity of sulfonamides in the aquatic environment: A review

Rapid population growth and increasing demand for animal protein food have led to a continuous increase in global utilization of antibiotic. Sulfonamides (SAs) are ubiquitous in aquatic environments and pose an ecological risk owing to their large consumption and strong environmental persistence. Hence, this review focuses on the recent publications on 12 different SAs and provides a detailed summary of selected antibiotic concentrations in various water systems. We evaluated the ecotoxicity of SAs on organisms at different trophic level organisms and the environmental risks regarding aquatic systems. The results indicated that SA antibiotics were ubiquitous in aquatic environments at concentrations ranging from ng/L to μg/L. According to the data using standard ecotoxicity bioassays, algae were the most susceptible aquatic organisms for selected antibiotics, followed by crustaceans and fish. The risk data suggested that some antibiotics, such as sulfadiazine (SDZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), and sulfamethazine (SMZ) pose a great risk to the aquatic system. Based on the present review, it is necessary to strengthen the research into their ecotoxicity to marine systems and the chronic toxicity of antibiotic mixtures.

Intermittent multi-generational effects of 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium nitrate on Caenorhabditis elegans mediated by lipid metabolism

Ionic liquids (ILs) become environmental pollutants. Their environmental toxicities included inhibitory effects, stimulatory ones and hormesis combining both aspects on various organisms. However, the mechanisms still need systematic investigations. Presently, 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium nitrate ([Hmim]NO₃) was chosen as one representative IL. Its effects on lifespan and reproduction were studied on C. elegans with lipid metabolism as the potential mechanism. Two types (A and B) intermittent multi-generational exposure arrangements were set up to mimic realistic ILs exposure scenarios. Type A arrangement had exposure in F1, F5 and F9 with recovery in T2-T4, T6-T8 and T10-T12, and type B arrangement had exposure in F1, F3, F5, F7, F9 and F11 with recovery in T2, T4, T6, T8, T10 and T12. In type A exposure, the effects of [Hmim]NO₃ on reproduction were 1.32-, 1.68-, 1.23-, 0.96-, 1.68-, 1.07-, 1.25-, 1.64-, 1.31-, 1.11-, 0.89- and 1.02-fold of the control in F1, T2-T4, F5, T6-T8, F9, T10-T12, respectively. The results showed oscillation between stimulatory and inhibitory effects. In type B exposure, the effects showed fewer inhibitions and more stimulations across generations. Moreover, the effects on reproduction showed trade-off relationships with lifespan, and the trade-off was more obvious in type B exposure. Further biochemical and gene expression analysis showed that lipid metabolism was closely related with lifespan and reproduction in type A exposure, but it was connected with cholesterol synthesis in type B exposure. The results demonstrated different strategies in the biological responses to the two arrangements of intermittent multi-generational exposure.

Multi-generational effects of enrofloxacin on lifespan and reproduction of Caenorhabditis elegans with SKN-1-mediated antioxidant responses and lipid metabolism disturbances

Antibiotics are ubiquitous environmental pollutants and they can provoke multi-generational impacts due to their pseudo-persistence. However, their multi-generational effects and potential mechanisms remained poorly studied. Presently, effects of enrofloxacin (ENR) were studied on Caenorhabditis elegans with a continuous exposure over 9 generations (from F1 to F9) at an environmentally realistic level. Regarding reproduction, ENR showed stimulation in F1 (1.18-fold of the control) and F2 (1.08), inhibition in F3 (0.70), stimulation in F4 (1.86), F5 (3.18) and F6 (1.53), inhibition in F7 (0.73) and F8 (0.69) and stimulation again in F9 (1.89). That is to say, ENR provoked multi-generational oscillatory effects on the reproduction. Such oscillation was also observed in effects on lifespan with much less magnitudes than those on reproduction. Biochemical assays were performed in F1, F3, F4 and F9 which represented the oscillation over generations. Results showed more antioxidants (e.g., superoxide dismutase and glutathione), mild oxidative stress (e.g., reactive oxygen species) and less oxidative damage (i.e., protein carbonyl) underlying the generation-dependent stimulation. Moreover, ENR provoked multi-generational oscillation on the enzymes that regulate the lipogenesis (e.g., fatty acid synthase and acetyl-CoA carboxylase) and lipolysis (e.g., acyl-CoA synthetase), with similarities to the effects on the oxidative stress and damage. Further analysis on SKN-1 and its activating PMK-1 and GSK-3 demonstrated their involvement in regulating both antioxidant detoxification and lipid metabolism.

Multi- and trans-generational effects of N-butylpyridium chloride on reproduction, lifespan, and pro/antioxidant status in Caenorhabditis elegans

Ionic liquids (ILs) became emerging pollutants. Their poor degradation and accumulation in organisms urged studies on the long-term effects and also the underlying mechanisms. Currently, 1-butylpyrinium chloride ([bpyr]Cl) was chosen to represent the pyridine-based ILs. Its multi-generational effects were measured on C. elegans for 14 consecutive generations (F1 to F14), and the trans-generational effects were also measured in the great-grand-children (T3 and T3') of F1 and F14. The multi-generational results from F1 to F14 showed that the effects of [bpyr]Cl on the initial and total reproduction and lifespan showed oscillation between inhibition and stimulation. Notably, hormetic effects on reproduction were observed in F7 to F10. The trans-generational effects in T3 and T3' showed different residual consequences between one generational exposure (F1) and multiple generational exposure (F14). Further biochemical analysis showed that the pro/antioxidant status also showed oscillation between inhibition and stimulation. The oscillation levels were greater in superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and protein carbonyl content (PC) than those in glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and hydroxyl radical (OH). The pro/antioxidant status contributed to both multi- and trans-generational effects of [bpyr]Cl. Future studies should pay attentions to the long-term influence of ILs and also epigenetic explanations.

Biotransformation mechanism of Vibrio diabolicus to sulfamethoxazole at transcriptional level

Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) has attracted much attention due to its high probability of detection in the environment. Marine bacteria Vibrio diabolicus strain L2-2 has been proven to be able to transform SMX. In this study, the potential resistance and biotransformation mechanism of strain L2-2 to SMX, and key genes responses to SMX at environmental concentrations were researched. KEGG pathways were enriched by down-regulated genes including degradation of L-Leucine, L-Isoleucine, and fatty acid metabolism. Resistance mechanism could be concluded as the enhancement of membrane transport, antioxidation, response regulator, repair proteins, and ribosome protection. Biotransformation genes might involve in arylamine N-acetyltransferases (nat), cytochrome c553 (cyc-553) and acyl-CoA synthetase (acs). At the environmental concentration of SMX (0.1-10 μg/L), nat was not be activated, which meant the acetylation of SMX might not occur in the environment; however, cyc-553 was up-regulated under SMX stress of 1 μg/L, which indicated the hydroxylation of SMX could occur in the environment. Besides, the membrane transport and antioxidation of strain L2-2 could be activated under SMX stress of 10 μg/L. The results provided a better understanding of resistance and biotransformation of bacteria to SMX and would support related researches about the impacts of environmental antibiotics.

Influences of sex, rhythm and generation on the obesogenic potential of erythromycin to Drosophila melanogaster

Antibiotics are gaining attention due to their roles as emerging pollutants and environmental obesogens, yet several aspects between their environmental exposure and obesogenic influence on organisms remain poorly explored. Here, Drosophila melanogaster were exposed to erythromycin (ERY, 0.1 μg/L) for three consecutive generations (F1 to F3). Body weight, circadian rhythm (represented by eclosion timing) and lipid metabolism were measured. ERY increased the size of lipid droplets in larvae of all three generations. It modestly inhibited body weight in adults that abnormally eclosed in the morning (AM adults) in the F1 and F2 generations, and the inhibition was less in adults that eclosed in the afternoon (PM adults). In contrast, it stimulated body weight in F3 adults. Notably, ERY promoted morning eclosion of females. Combining the effects from F1 to F3, acyl-CoA oxidase (ACO) was commonly increased in AM female and male adults and also in PM female ones, while it was commonly decreased in PM male adults. Glucokinase (GCK) was commonly increased in both sexes of AM adults but decreased in PM male adults across generations. The IIS pathway showed a common up-regulation in the AM adults despite some differences between sexes, but it did not show any shared changes in the PM adults with dysrhythmia. The AMPK pathway was involved across generations without particular shared changes. Collectively, the effects of ERY on the key metabolites and enzymes in glucolipid metabolism and the genetic regulations depended on sex, rhythm and exposure generation.

Reproductive toxicities of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide on Caenorhabditis elegans with oscillation between inhibition and stimulation over generations

Ionic liquids (ILs) become emerging pollutants and their toxicities earn increasing attentions. Yet, their effects were seldom explored on reproduction which connects generations and also effects across generations. In the present study, reproductive effects of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide ([C₂mim]Br), one representative IL, were studied on C. elegans with 11 continuously exposed generations (F1 to F11). At 8.20E-5 g/L, the effects on the initial reproduction showed oscillatory changes between stimulation (in F1, F3, F4, F6 and F10) and inhibition (in F2, F5, F7, F8 and F11). At 8.20E-3 g/L, the effects on the reproduction over generations also showed such oscillation despite of different stimulation or inhibition levels, and even opposite influences in F4 and F11. The effects of [C₂mim]Br on the total reproduction also showed the concentration-dependent oscillation between stimulation and inhibition over generations, though they had less alteration frequencies than those on the initial reproduction. Biochemical and molecular indicators were further measured in F1, F4, F7 and F11 to explore potential mechanisms. Results showed that the effects on spermatocyte protein 8 (SPE8) showed positive correlation with those on reproduction while the influences on major sperm protein (MSP) and sperm transmembrane protein 9 (SPE9) showed negative correlation with SPE8. Moreover, the dysregulation on expressions of acs-2 and akt-1 indicated the involvement of glucolipid metabolism. The changes in expressions of set-2, met-2, set-25 and mes-4 demonstrated that the long-term reproductive impacts of [C₂mim]Br over generations also involved histone methylation at H3K4, H3K9 and H3K36, which also connected with the glucolipid metabolism.

Life stage-dependent toxicities of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide on Caenorhabditis elegans

Ionic liquids (ILs) are considered as extracting solvents in soil remediation. However, they can be pollutants themselves, and their own toxicities are of concerns. Notably, organisms were exposed to pollutants at random life stages in actual environmental exposure scenario, which is different from the set-up of one uniform life stage in usual experiment designs. The influence of life stages on ILs toxicities will provide essential information on their actual environmental risks. In the present study, effects of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide ([C₂mim]Br) were measured on C. elegans with egg exposure and adult exposure. In egg exposure, [C₂mim]Br increased the lifespan, stimulated initial reproduction and inhibited the total reproduction. Biochemical indices including oxidative stress, antioxidant responses and oxidative damage were further measured to explore the toxicity mechanisms. Results showed that [C₂mim]Br significantly stimulated O₂^-· as the oxidative stress and superoxide dismutase (SOD) as the antioxidant defense. In adult exposure, [C₂mim]Br inhibited initial reproduction, total reproduction and lifespan. Biochemical results showed that [C₂mim]Br significantly stimulated H₂O₂ and oxidized glutathione (GSSG). The overall findings demonstrated that [C₂mim]Br caused life stage-dependent toxicities on C. elegans. Future studies are still needed for the detailed mechanisms.

Obesogenic Effect of Sulfamethoxazole on Drosophila melanogaster with Simultaneous Disturbances on Eclosion Rhythm, Glucolipid Metabolism, and Microbiota

Antibiotics have recently gained attention because they are emerging environmental pollutants with obesogenic properties. In this study, Drosophila melanogaster were exposed to sulfamethoxazole (SMX), a sulfonamide antibiotic, and the effects were measured on circadian rhythm (represented by the eclosion rhythm), lipid metabolism, and microbiota. Circadian rhythm disorder was considered due to its connection with lipid metabolism and microbiota in association with obesity. SMX decreased the proportion of adult flies that eclosed in the morning (AM adults) and increased the proportion of PM adults. Moreover, SMX increased the body weight of PM adults, indicating that SMX exposure caused dysrhythmia in eclosion together with obesity. In measurements of key metabolites and metabolic enzymes, SMX exposure stimulated 3 indices in AM adults and 10 indices in PM adults. In AMP-activated protein kinase and insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathways, SMX upregulated six genes in AM adults and nine genes in PM adults. Finally, microbiota analysis demonstrated that SMX increased the Firmicutes/Bacteroides ratios (F/B) by 79.6- and 5.8-fold compared to concurrent controls in AM and PM adults. Collectively, these results suggest that SMX showed obesogenic effects accompanied with dysrhythmia and disturbances in lipid metabolism and microbiota. Further studies on the intrinsic connection are needed.

Early exposure to environmental levels of sulfamethoxazole triggers immune and inflammatory response of healthy zebrafish larvae

Trace levels of antibiotics are increasingly being detected in aquatic environment and their potential toxicity to aquatic organisms is concerning. Sulfamethoxazole (SMX), a veterinary sulfonamide widely used across the globe, exists ubiquitously in aquatic environment with concentrations up to micrograms per liter. This study aims to investigate the effects of environmentally relevant levels (0.1, 1, 10, 100 μg/L) of SMX on the health of zebrafish during early development. Our results show that SMX delays the hatchment of embryos and reduces the body length. A dose-response relationship of oxidative stress indicators including total-antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and total nitric oxide synthase (TNOS), catalase (CAT) has been observed. Additionally, SMX up-regulates the gene expression of several key proinflammatory cytokines and their corresponding proteins including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and interleukin-11 (IL-11) and the expression of genes including interleukin-6 (il-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (tnf-α). This indicates that early exposure of SMX may evoke inflammation response in healthy fish. Inhibition of lysozyme and recombination-activating genes (rags) suggests that SMX suppresses the ability of zebrafish to resist pathogen. The reduction of the expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) related genes and significant correlations between TLRs and other immune-related genes reveal that TLRs might be an immunoregulator of SMX for zebrafish embryos and larvae. The novelty of this study lies in that early exposure to environmental levels of SMX not only affects the growth and development of zebrafish larvae, but also triggers oxidative stress and inflammation, resulting in a reduction in host immune defense via TLRs in healthy fish.

Multi-generational obesogenic effects of sulfomethoxazole on Caenorhabditis elegans through epigenetic regulation

Increasing concerns are earned on the multigenerational hazards of antibiotics due to the connection between their mother-children transfer via cord blood and breast milk and obesity in the children. Currently, Caenorhabditis elegans was exposed to sulfamethoxazole (SMX) over 11 generations (F0-F10). Indicators of obesogenic effects and gene expressions were measured in each generation and also in T11 to T13 that were the offspring of F10. Biochemical analysis results showed that SMX stimulated fatty acids in most generations including T13. The stimulation was resulted from the balance between enzymes for fatty acid synthesis (e.g., fatty acid synthetase) and those for its consumption (e.g., fatty acid transport protein). Gene expression analysis demonstrated that the obesogenic effects of SMX involved peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs, e.g., nhr-49) and insulin/insulin-like signaling (IIS) pathways (e.g., ins-1, daf-2 and daf-16). Further epigenetic analysis demonstrated that SMX caused 3-fold more H3K4me3 binding genes than the control in F10 and T13. In F10, the most significantly activated genes were in metabolic and biosynthetic processes of various lipids, nervous system and development. The different gene expressions in T13 from those in F10 involved development, growth, reproduction and responses to chemicals in addition to metabolic processes.

Bioconcentration of the antiepileptic drug carbamazepine and its physiological and biochemical effects on Daphnia magna

Owing to its persistence, carbamazepine an antiepileptic drug is regularly detected in the aquatic environment. The motive for our research was to assess the bioconcentration, physiological and biochemical effects of carbamazepine in Daphnia magna. A 48 h aqueous exposure of carbamazepine yielded bioconcentration factors of 202.56 and 19.95 in Daphnia magna for the respective nominal treatments of 5 and 100 µg/L. Apparently, the inhibition of the capability of Daphnia magna to obtain food attributable to carbamazepine exposure will reduce their fitness to reproduce as well as to grow. Also, a significant alteration in the phototactic behaviour of Daphnia magna exposed to carbamazepine is maladaptive since it will increase their chance of being preyed upon in the surface water during daylight. Again, a significant decline in the acetylcholinesterase activity observed herein brings to light the neurotoxicity of carbamazepine to Daphnia magna. Moreover, significant inhibition of the superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione reductase activities coupled with the simultaneous induction of the malondialdehyde content imply that carbamazepine evoked a life-threatening oxidative stress that overpowered the antioxidant defence system of Daphnia magna. These observations confirm that carbamazepine can accumulate and consequently cause negative physiological and biochemical changes to wild Daphnia magna populations.

Induction of oxidative stress, apoptosis and DNA damage by koumine in Tetrahymena thermophila

Koumine is a component of the Chinese medicinal herb Gelsemium elegans and is toxic to vertebrates. We used the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila as a model to evaluate the toxic effects of this indole alkaloid in eukaryotic microorganisms. Koumine inhibited T. thermophila growth and viability in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, this drug produced oxidative stress in T. thermophila cells and expressions of antioxidant enzymes were significantly elevated at high koumine levels (p < 0.05). Koumine also caused significant levels of apoptosis (p < 0.05) and induced DNA damage in a dose-dependent manner. Mitophagic vacuoles were present in cells indicating induction of autophagy by this drug. Expression of ATG7, MTT2/4, CYP1 and HSP70 as well as the MAP kinase pathway gene MPK1 and MPK3 were significantly altered after exposed to koumine. This study represents a preliminary toxicological evaluation of koumine in the single celled eukaryote T. thermophila.