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Bensadi L, Azzoug M, Benslimane A, Benlaribi R, Bouledouar S, Merzeg FA. Distribution, levels, sources and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the bottom sediments of a Mediterranean river under multiple anthropopressures (Soummam River), Algeria. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 202:116416. [PMID: 38669853 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The Soummam River, a vital watercourse in Algeria is threatened by anthropogenic activities despite its protected wetland status. This study is the first to assess sediment pollution in the Soummam River, examining levels, compositions, sources of 16 PAHs and their effects on the environment and human health. Analysis employing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and molecular diagnostic ratios pointed to petrogenic sources, likely stemming from petroleum leaks originating from aging pipeline and vehicles, as well as pyrogenic sources arising from vehicle exhaust and biomass combustion. Environmental and health risks were assessed through risk quotients (RQ), Sediments Quality Guidelines (SQG) and Total Lifetime Cancer Risk (TLCR). Ecological risk was found to range from moderate to high, with anticipated biological impacts, while cancer risk was deemed low. Toxicity assessment, measured by TEQ, revealed that the majority of monitoring stations exceeded safe levels. Consequently, urgent action by local authorities is warranted to implement ecosystem rehabilitation measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Bensadi
- Université de Bejaia, Faculté de Technologie, Laboratoire des Procédés Membranaires et des Techniques de Séparation et de Récupération (LPMTSR), 06000 Bejaia, Algeria.
| | - Moufok Azzoug
- Université de Bejaia, Faculté de Technologie, Laboratoire des Procédés Membranaires et des Techniques de Séparation et de Récupération (LPMTSR), 06000 Bejaia, Algeria
| | - Abdelhakim Benslimane
- Université de Bejaia, Faculté de Technologie, Laboratoire Mécanique, Matériaux et Energétique, 06000 Bejaia, Algeria
| | - Rabia Benlaribi
- Institut National de Criminalistique et de Criminologie de la Gendarmerie Nationale (INCC/GN), Cheraga, Algeria
| | - Samira Bouledouar
- Université de Bejaia, Faculté de Technologie, Laboratory of Materials and Process Engineering (LTMGP), 06000 Bejaia, Algeria; Scientific and Technical Research Center in Physical and Chemical Analyses (CRAPC), BP 384 Bou-Ismail, RP 42004 Tipaza, Algeria
| | - Farid Ait Merzeg
- Scientific and Technical Research Center in Physical and Chemical Analyses (CRAPC), BP 384 Bou-Ismail, RP 42004 Tipaza, Algeria; Research Unit in Physico-Chemical Analyzes of Fluids and Soils (URAPC-FS), 11 Chemin, Doudou Mokhtar, Ben Aknoun, 16028 Alger, Algeria; Technical Platform for Physico-chemical Analyzes (PTAPC-Bejaia), Targa Ouzemmour, 06000 Bejaia, Algeria
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Zhang X, Qi A, Wang P, Huang Q, Zhao T, Yang L, Wang W. Influence of oil extraction on concentration distributions, migration, secondary formation and carcinogenic risk of NPAHs and OPAHs in air and soil in an oilfield development area in China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 922:170736. [PMID: 38325475 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Oil extraction leads to environmental pollution from the oilfields and dweller activities, however, knowledge of the concentration distributions, migration, secondary formation and toxicity of nitrated/oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (N/OPAHs) in oilfield regions is limited. In this research, atmospheric and soil samples in 7 different location types in an important oil industrial base in China were gathered. The ΣNPAHs and ΣOPAHs in the air ranged from 0.05 to 2.47 ng/m3 and 0.14-22.72 ng/m3, respectively, and in soil ranged from 0.22 to 17.81 ng/g and 9.69-66.86 ng/g, respectively. Both NPAHs and OPAHs in the atmosphere exhibited higher concentrations during winter. The atmospheric NPAH concentrations decreased exponentially with distance from urban area especially in the summer, revealing the impact of vehicles on the air in the Yellow River Delta area. High NPAH and OPAH concentrations were found only in soil near oil extraction facilities, indicating that the impact of oil extraction is limited to the soil near the extraction facilities. The air-soil exchanges of N/OPAHs were assessed through fugacity fraction analysis, and NPAHs were in the equilibrium-deposition state and OPAHs were in the net-deposition state in the winter. Higher incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) occurred at the urban, industrial, and oilfield sites in the atmospheric samples, and the soil samples had the largest ILCR values in the oilfield sites. However, ILCR values for both air and soil did not exceed the threshold of 10-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiongfei Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Anan Qi
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Pengcheng Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Qi Huang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Tong Zhao
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Lingxiao Yang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Climate Change, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China.
| | - Wenxing Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
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Guo L, Huang T, Ling Z, Zhang J, Lian L, Song S, Ren J, Zhang M, Zhao Y, Mao X, Gao H, Ma J. Global trade-driven transfer of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions and associated human inhalation exposure risk. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 355:120438. [PMID: 38422853 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are of significant public concern because of their toxicity and long-range transport potential. Extensive studies have been conducted to explore the source-receptor relationships of PAHs via atmospheric transport. However, the transfer of trade-driven regional and global PAHs is poorly understood. This study estimated the virtual PAHs emission transfer embodied in global trade from 2004 to 2014 and simulated the impact of international trade on global contamination and associated human inhalation exposure risk of PAHs. Results show that trade-driven PAHs flowed primarily from developed to less-developed regions, particularly in those regions with intensive heavy industries and transportation. As the result, international trade resulted in an increasing risk of lung cancer induced by exposure to PAHs (27.8% in China, 14.7% in India, and 11.3% in Southeast Asia). In contrast, we found decreasing risks of PAHs-induced lung cancer in Western Europe (63.2%) and the United States (45.9%) in 2004. Our findings indicate that final demand and emission intensity are the key driving factors contributing to rising and falling consumption-based PAHs emissions and related health risk respectively. The results could provide a useful reference for global collaboration in the reduction of PAHs pollution and related health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Guo
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Tao Huang
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China.
| | - Zaili Ling
- College of Agricultural and Forestry Economics & Management, Lanzhou University of Finance and Economics, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Jiaxuan Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Lulu Lian
- College of Atmospheric Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Shijie Song
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Ji Ren
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Menglin Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Yuan Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Xiaoxuan Mao
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Hong Gao
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Jianmin Ma
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China; Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, PR China
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Famiyeh L, Xu H, Chen K, Tang YT, Ji D, Xiao H, Tong L, Jia C, Guo Q, He J. Breathing in danger: Unveiling the link between human exposure to outdoor PM 2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and lung cancer risk in an urban residential area of China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:167762. [PMID: 37852504 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies have extensively examined the risk of lung cancer associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), with particular emphasis on the 16 priority PAHs. However, this may underestimate the actual risk. This study seeks to enhance the current risk assessment framework by integrating four additional parent PAHs such as Dibenzo[a,h]pyrene, Dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, Dibenzo[a,e]pyrene, 7H-benzo[c]fluorene with potentially high risk of causing cancer. By considering their physicochemical properties, metabolism, and bioavailability, the study also examines the relationship between low molecular weight (LMW) - and high molecular weight (HMW)-PAH doses and the risk of developing cancer in the human lungs. The study was conducted in Ningbo, China and identified five PAH sources: natural gas combustion (NGC), vehicular exhaust (VE), coal combustion (CC), biomass burning (BB), and volatilization of unburnt fuel (VUF). This study emphasizes the elevated risk associated with highly carcinogenic PAHs, as they consistently exceed acceptable limits for lung cancer risk throughout the year. Based on the study's estimation, approximately 324 out of every one million individuals exposed to PAHs face an increased cancer risk over their lifetime. This research emphasizes the importance of identifying source specific lung cancer risk in residential areas to protect the exposed population. Moreover, while there is a moderate connection between LMW-PAH doses and lung cancer risk, a strong relationship is observed with HMW-PAHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lord Famiyeh
- Center for Environmental Remediation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 199 Taikang E Rd, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Honghui Xu
- Zhejiang Institute of Meteorological Sciences, Hangzhou 310017, China
| | - Ke Chen
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 199 Taikang E Rd, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Yu-Ting Tang
- School of Geographical Sciences, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 199 Taikang E Rd, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Dongsheng Ji
- State Kay Laboratory of Atmospheric Boundary Layer Physics and Atmospheric Chemistry, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Hang Xiao
- Ningbo (Beilun) Zhongke Haixi Industrial Technology Innovation Center, Ningbo 318825, China
| | - Lei Tong
- Ningbo (Beilun) Zhongke Haixi Industrial Technology Innovation Center, Ningbo 318825, China
| | - Chunrong Jia
- School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38125, United States
| | - Qingjun Guo
- Center for Environmental Remediation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
| | - Jun He
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 199 Taikang E Rd, Ningbo 315100, China; Nottingham Ningbo China Beacon of Excellence Research and Innovation Institute, Ningbo 315100, China.
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Qi A, Wang P, Lv J, Zhao T, Huang Q, Wang Y, Zhang X, Wang M, Xiao Y, Yang L, Ji Y, Wang W. Distributions of PAHs, NPAHs, OPAHs, BrPAHs, and ClPAHs in air, bulk deposition, soil, and water in the Shandong Peninsula, China: Urban-rural gradient, interface exchange, and long-range transport. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 265:115494. [PMID: 37742577 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
A systematic study of the movement of PAHs (Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and their derivatives through air, soil, and water is key to understanding the exchange and transport mechanisms of these pollutants in the environment and for ultimately improving environmental quality. PAHs and their derivatives, such as nitrated PAHs (NPAHs), oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs), brominated PAHs (BrPAHs) and chlorinated PAHs (ClPAHs), were analyzed in air, bulk deposition, soil, and water samples collected from urban, rural, field, and background sites on the eastern coast of China. The goal was to investigate and discuss their spatiotemporal variations, exchange fluxes, and transport potential. The concentrations of PAHs and their derivatives in the air and bulk deposition displayed distinct seasonal patterns, with higher concentrations observed during the winter and spring and lower concentrations during the summer and autumn. NPAHs exhibited the opposite trend. Significant urban-rural gradients were observed for most of the PAHs and their derivatives. According to the air-soil fugacity calculations, 2-3 ring PAHs, BrPAHs, and ClPAHs were found to volatilize from the soil into the air, while 4-7 ring PAHs, OPAHs, and NPAHs deposited from the air into the soil. The air-water fugacity of the PAHs and their derivatives indicated that surface water was an important source for the ambient atmosphere in Qingdao. The characteristic travel distances (CTDs) and persistence (Pov) for atmospheric transport were much lower than that for the water samples, which may be due to the longer half-lives of PAHs and their derivatives in water. NPAHs and ClPAHs with long transport distances and strong persistence in water could lead to a significant impact on marine pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anan Qi
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Pengcheng Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Jianhua Lv
- Qingdao Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Tong Zhao
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; Qingdao Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Qi Huang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Yiming Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Xiongfei Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Miao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yang Xiao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Lingxiao Yang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Climate Change, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, China.
| | - Yaqin Ji
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China.
| | - Wenxing Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
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Qi X, Lan J, Sun Y, Wang S, Liu L, Wang J, Long Q, Huang M, Yue K. Linking PAHs concentration, risk to PAHs source shift in soil and water in epikarst spring systems, Southwest China. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 264:115465. [PMID: 37716073 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
A systematic assessment of the variations in the ecological risk of PAHs and the key emission sources controlling the variations is of great importance to human health and aquatic organisms. PAH concentrations, composition, source, and ecological risk in soils and water in two different periods (2010-2011 and 2019) of three typical epikarst springs in Southwest China were investigated. Results showed that PAH concentrations in soil and water have an overall downward trend (a reduction of 57 % and 93 %, respectively) in the past 10 years, which is consistent with the downward trend in the relative contribution rate of raw coal production (a 66 % reduction). In terms of composition, the proportion of low-ring PAHs decreased, medium-ring and high-ring PAHs increased in the soil profile. The proportion of low-ring PAHs did not change obviously, the proportion of medium-ring PAHs increased, and the proportion of high-ring PAHs decreased in epikarst springs. The source of PAHs changed remarkably over time, the relative contribution of coal combustion to PAHs decreased from 38 % to 20 %, and the vehicle contribution of PAHs increased from 31 % to 44 % in soils. The relative contribution rate of unburned oil and coke oven and biomass combustion change is less. Furthermore, the ecological risk of PAHs in the soils was reduced from moderate risk 2 to moderate risk 1, the risk in epikarst spring was reduced from high risk to moderate risk 2 after 10 years. This study demonstrates that substituting petroleum and coal with green energies can reduce PAH concentrations and risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Qi
- School of Karst Science / State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification control, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
| | - Jiacheng Lan
- School of Karst Science / State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification control, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China.
| | - Yuchuan Sun
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Karst Environment, School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.
| | - Shasha Wang
- School of Karst Science / State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification control, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
| | - Lei Liu
- School of Karst Science / State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification control, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
| | - Junxian Wang
- School of Karst Science / State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification control, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
| | - Qixia Long
- School of Karst Science / State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification control, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
| | - Mingzhi Huang
- School of Karst Science / State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification control, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
| | - Kunqian Yue
- School of Karst Science / State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification control, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
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Tian S, Liu Q, Qu J, Yang M, Ma Q, Liu J, Shao P, Liu Y. Whole-Transcriptome Analysis on the Leaves of Rosa chinensis Jacq. under Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. TOXICS 2023; 11:610. [PMID: 37505575 PMCID: PMC10386715 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11070610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
The leaves of plants can be recommended as a cheap and sustainable environmental protection tool to mitigate PAHs with high toxicity in the ambient environment because they can serve as a reactor to remove ambient PAHs. Although previous studies have demonstrated that PAHs exhibit toxicological features, our knowledge about how ambient PAHs influence the leaves of plants is limited regarding the leaves of plants reducing ambient PAHs as a reactor. In this study, 1-year-old Rosa chinensis Jacq. with good growth potential was selected as a model plant. The leaves of Rosa chinensis Jacq. were exposed to 16 types of PAHs in the environmental concentration exposure group (0.1 μg L-1) and high-concentration exposure group (5 μg L-1) for seven days. In comparison, the leaves of Rosa chinensis Jacq. were exposed to de-ionized water and were chosen as the control group. During the exposure periods, the physiological parameters of leaves including, chlorophyll value, water content, temperature and nitrogen, were monitored using a chlorophyll meter. After 7 days of exposure, the leaves in the control and exposure groups were collected and used for whole-transcriptome analysis. Our results demonstrate that significant differentially expressed genes were observed in the leaves of Rosa chinensis Jacq. exposed to individual PAHs at 5 μg L-1 compared to the control group. These differentially expressed genes were involved in seven main pathways using bioinformatic analyses. In contrast, the levels of PAHs at environmentally relevant concentrations had negligible impacts on the physiological parameters and the gene transcription levels of the leaves of Rosa chinensis Jacq. Our results may provide direct evidence to remove ambient PAHs using terrestrial trees without considering the risk of PAHs at environmentally relevant concentrations on the leaves of terrestrial plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shili Tian
- Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis, Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100089, China
| | - Qingyang Liu
- College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Jingming Qu
- Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis, Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100089, China
| | - Ming Yang
- Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis, Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100089, China
| | - Qiaoyun Ma
- Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis, Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100089, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis, Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100089, China
| | - Peng Shao
- Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis, Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100089, China
| | - Yanju Liu
- Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis, Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100089, China
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Hao W, Gao B, Liang B, Chen J, Dong L, Wang Z, Tian M. Distinct seasonal variability of source-dependent health risks from PM 2.5-bound PAHs and related derivatives in a megacity, southwest China: Implications for the significance of secondary formation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 885:163742. [PMID: 37116800 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which have been regularly monitored, the source-dependent health risk of their derivatives in ambient environment has not been well understood, especially regarding seasonal variability. In this study, oxygenated and nitrated PAHs (OPAHs and NPAHs) in PM2.5 samples from different seasons in urban Chongqing were analyzed and compared with PAHs from a human health perspective. Benzo[a]pyrene equivalent concentrations (BaPeq) were annually averaged at 6.13 ± 8.97 ng/m3 (n = 118) in the present study, with highest levels in winter followed by spring, autumn, and summer. The BaPeq values of OPAHs were higher than PAHs in spring and summer with seasonal averaged value up to 3.7 times of that for PAHs, manifesting significant underestimation of the health impact if only PAHs were considered. Incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) model results suggested that the potential cancer risks were accumulated mostly from inhalation exposure during infancy and adulthood. Furthermore, in comparison with PAHs, OPAHs, mainly 6H-Benzo[c,d]pyren-6-one, had significant contribution to cancer risks (annually averaged at 58.3 %). Source-dependent cancer risks based on positive matrix factorization model denoted secondary formed PAH derivatives as a critical contributor to cancer risk, particularly in spring and summer (attributed to about 61 % of ILCR). The enhanced secondary formation of PAH derivatives during spring and summer was partially justified by diagnostic ratios and further analysis revealed that higher temperature, higher O3 level, and lower relative humidity besides stronger solar intensity during these two seasons as the most likely causes of this seasonal variation. Results in this study emphasizes that more knowledge on the formation and toxicity of OPAHs is imperative, especially in the context of complex PM2.5-ozone pollution in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Hao
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
| | - Bo Gao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Water and Air Pollution Control, South China Institute of Environmental Science, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou 510535, China
| | - Bo Liang
- Materials Quality Supervision & Inspection Research Center, Chongqing Academy of Metrology and Quality Inspection, Chongqing 401123, China
| | - Jing Chen
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
| | - Lingchi Dong
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
| | - Ziqian Wang
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
| | - Mi Tian
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China; Key Laboratory of Three Gorges Reservoir Region's Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China.
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9
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Deng X, Mao L, Wu Y, Tan Z, Feng W, Zhang Y, Zhou C. Distribution and source of black carbon in coastal river sediments around Haizhou Bay, Eastern China: implications for anthropogenic inputs. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:21092-21103. [PMID: 36264471 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23713-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
It is crucial to investigate the distribution and origin of black carbon (BC) in the environment for evaluating human inputs and developing pollution control strategies. This study analyzed BC in coastal river sediments from Haizhou Bay, Eastern China. The concentrations (dry weight) of the BC, char, soot, and total organic carbon (TOC) in coastal river sediments flowing into Haizhou Bay were 0.11-4.68, 0.06-4.24, 0.04-0.70, and 0.15-2.29 mg/g, respectively. Char and soot accounted for 38.54-90.70% and 9.30-61.46% of BC, with an average of 68.95% and 31.05%, respectively. The results show that the spatial variation of char was markedly presented in river sediment (108.27%), followed by that of BC (89.25%), TOC (58.69%), and soot (55.85%). The BC was mainly distributed in the Shawang River and the Shiliang River, soot was distributed primarily in the Shawang River, and char was mainly distributed in the Shiliang River. This finding supports the presence of anthropogenic activity sources in coastal rivers. The grey correlation analysis results show that industrial and agricultural activities greatly influenced BC emissions, as the influence degree of four socio-economic variables on BC contamination decreased as follows: regional total production value, population density, total agricultural production value, and total industrial production value. The char/soot ratio, an index to discriminate the source of BC contamination in sediments, was found to range from 0.63 to 9.75 with an average of 2.75. The result indicates that BC in Haizhou Bay was contributed from mixed sources including transportation emissions, fossil fuel combustion, and biomass combustion. The study demonstrates that BC could be an effective indicator for the degree and spatial distribution of organic pollutants in coastal river sediments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqian Deng
- School of Marine Sciences, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - Longjiang Mao
- School of Marine Sciences, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China.
| | - Yuling Wu
- School of Marine Sciences, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - Zhihai Tan
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Xi'an Polytechnic University, Xi'an, 710048, China
| | - Wanzhu Feng
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Xi'an Polytechnic University, Xi'an, 710048, China
| | - Yuanzhi Zhang
- School of Marine Sciences, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - Chaofan Zhou
- Jiangsu Provincial Environmental Monitoring Center, Nanjing, 210019, China
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10
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Liu Y, He Y, Liu Y, Liu H, Tao S, Liu W. Source identification and ecological risks of parent and substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in river surface sediment-pore water systems: Effects of multiple factors. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 858:159921. [PMID: 36343826 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (SPAHs) have shown higher health and ecological risks than the corresponding parent PAHs (PPAHs) from laboratory studies, their variations in freshwater system, especially in surface sediment and pore water, remain inadequate understanding. In this study, we revealed the coexistence, ecological risk, and multiple factors affecting variations and sources of PPAHs and SPAHs (nitrated PAHs (NPAHs), oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs)) in the surface sediment-pore water system from a typical urban river in Northern China. The concentration ranges of Σ26PPAHs, Σ10NPAHs, and Σ4OPAHs in the surface sediments were 153.0-5367.4, not detected (N.D.)-105.4, and 42.2-1177.0 ng·g-1 dry weight, and fell within 0.6-38.8, N.D.-297.9, and N.D.-212.6 ng·mL-1 in the pore waters. The t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (SNE) coupled with the partitioning around medoids (PAM) elucidated spatiotemporal the variations in PAHs, emphasizing the impacts of industrial activities and sewage discharges. Besides the geochemical and hydrochemical conditions, SPAHs were affected by the potential secondary formation, especially during the wet season. The method comparisons indicated the advantages of principal component analysis-multivariate linear regression (PCA-MLR) and n-alkanes model on source identification. PAHs mainly originated from fossil fuel combustion and vehicular exhaust. The top risk quotient (RQ) values for PAHs occurred in the urban and industrial sections. A majority of the surface sediment samples emerged with low to moderate exposure risks, while all the pore water samples showed high exposure risks. The RQs of OPAHs were significantly higher (p < 0.01) than those of PPAHs. The results suggested the secondary formation of SPAHs as an important role in ecological risks of PAHs in the urban river system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Center for Water and Ecology, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yong He
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - HuiJuan Liu
- Center for Water and Ecology, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shu Tao
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - WenXin Liu
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
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11
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Liu W, Du W, Wang J, Zhuo S, Chen Y, Lin N, Kong G, Pan B. PAHs bound to submicron particles in rural Chinese homes burning solid fuels. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 247:114274. [PMID: 36356530 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Inhalation exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from indoor solid fuel combustion poses a high health risk, and PAHs bound to particles with smaller sizes (e.g., PM1.0, aerodynamic diameter ≤ 1.0 µm) should be of particular concern since they can penetrate deep into pulmonary alveoli. However, PAHs bound to PM1.0 was less studied compared with PAHs in total suspended particles or PM2.5. In this study, multiple provincial field measurements were conducted to investigate 28 PAHs bound to PM1.0 in rural Chinese homes. Daily averaged PM1.0-PAH28 concentrations ranged from 27 ng/m3 to 3795 ng/m3 (median: 233 ng/m3) and from 10 ng/m3 to 2978 ng/m3 (median: 87 ng/m3) in indoor and outdoor air, respectively. Higher concentrations were found in northern China in winter due to increased solid fuels consumption for space heating. The ambient pollution was lower during the non-heating season in Eastern China, where clean energy was preferred. Highly toxic congeners were more abundant in indoor air compared with outdoor air. The results of source apportionment revealed that solid fuel combustion was the primary contributor to rural household PM1.0-PAHs, but other sources such as vehicles cannot be overlooked. The transition to cleaner energy can reduce the indoor PM1.0-PAH28 and BaPeq-28 concentrations by 87% and 98%, respectively, and more efficient reduction was observed for highly toxic congeners. The estimated Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) based on PM1.0-PAH28 ranged from 4.6 × 10-5 to 3.4 × 10-2, far exceeding the acceptable level of 10-6. Over 60% of the ILCR could be attributed to inhalation exposure during childhood and adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weijian Liu
- College of Environmental and Safety Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, PR China; Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, PR China
| | - Wei Du
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, PR China; Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil Carbon Sequestration and Pollution Control, Faculty of Environmental Science & Engineering, Kunming University of Science & Technology, Kunming 650500, PR China.
| | - Jinze Wang
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science of the Ministry of Education, School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, PR China
| | - Shaojie Zhuo
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China
| | - Yuanchen Chen
- College of Environment, Research Centre of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, PR China
| | - Nan Lin
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Guorui Kong
- College of Environmental and Safety Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, PR China
| | - Bo Pan
- Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil Carbon Sequestration and Pollution Control, Faculty of Environmental Science & Engineering, Kunming University of Science & Technology, Kunming 650500, PR China
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12
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Lv Z, Dong F, Zhang W, Chen S, Zheng F, Zhou L, Liu M, Huo T. Determination of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Atmospheric Gases and Particles by Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE) and Gas Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS/MS). ANAL LETT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2022.2144873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhen Lv
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Faqin Dong
- Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Resource Recycle, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Wen Zhang
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Shanyu Chen
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Fei Zheng
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Lin Zhou
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Mingxue Liu
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Tingting Huo
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
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13
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Yang M, Tian S, Liu Q, Yang Z, Yang Y, Shao P, Liu Y. Determination of 31 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Plant Leaves Using Internal Standard Method with Ultrasonic Extraction-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. TOXICS 2022; 10:634. [PMID: 36355925 PMCID: PMC9698594 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10110634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The method for the determination of 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in plant leaves has been studied extensively, yet the quantitativemethod for measuring non-priority PAHs in plant leaves is limited. A method for the simultaneous determination of 31 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in plant leaves was established using an ultrasonic extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-internal standard method. The samples of plant leaves were extracted with ultrasonic extraction and purified with solid-phase extraction columns. The PAHs were separated by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry equipped with a DB-EUPAH capillary column (20 m × 0.18 mm × 0.14 μm) with a selective ion monitoring (SIM) detection mode, and quantified with an internal standard. The method had good linearity in the range of 0.005~1.0 μg/mL with correlation coefficients greater than 0.99, and the method detection limit and maximum quantitative detection limit were in the ranges of 0.2~0.7 μg/kg and 0.8~2.8 μg/kg, respectively. The method was verified with spiked recovery experiments. The average spiked recovery ranged from 71.0% to 97.6% and relative standard deviations (n = 6) were less than 14%. Herein, we established a quantitativemethod for the simultaneous determination of priority and non-priority PAHs in plant leaves using GC-MS. The method is highly sensitive and qualitatively accurate, and it is suitable for the determination of PAHs in plant leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Yang
- Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology (Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis), Beijing 100089, China
| | - Shili Tian
- Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology (Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis), Beijing 100089, China
| | - Qingyang Liu
- College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Zheng Yang
- Beijing Milu Ecological Research Center, Beijing 100076, China
| | - Yifan Yang
- Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology (Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis), Beijing 100089, China
| | - Peng Shao
- Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology (Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis), Beijing 100089, China
| | - Yanju Liu
- Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology (Beijing Center for Physical and Chemical Analysis), Beijing 100089, China
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14
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Mellado D, Giuliani D, Demetrio PM, Sanchez EY, Porta A, Lerner JEC. Influence of vehicular emissions on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban and industrial areas of La Plata, Argentina. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:822. [PMID: 36149534 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10496-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are considered potentially toxic, even carcinogenic, because of their affection to public health and the environment. It is necessary to know their ambient levels and the origin of these pollutants in order to mitigate them. A concerning scenario is the one in which commercial/administrative, industrial, and residential activities coexist. In this context, Gran La Plata (Argentina) presents such characteristics, in addition to the presence of one of the most important petrochemical complexes in the country and intense vehicular traffic. The source apportionment of PAH emission in the region, associated to 10-µm and 2.5-µm particulate matter fractions, was studied. First, different missing value imputation methods were evaluated for PAH databases. GSimp presented a better performance, with mean concentrations of ∑PAHs of 65.8 ± 40.2 ng m-3 in PM10 and 39.5 ± 18.0 ng m-3 in PM2.5. For both fractions, it was found that the highest contribution was associated with low molecular weight PAHs (3 rings), with higher concentrations of anthracene. Emission sources were identified by using principal component analysis (PCA) together with multiple linear regression (MLR) and diagnostic ratios of PAHs. The results showed that the main emission source is associated with vehicular traffic in both fractions. Classification by discriminant analysis showed that emissions can be identified by region and that fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthracene, and anthracene in PM10 and anthracene and phenanthrene in PM2.5 are a characteristic of emissions from the petrochemical complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Mellado
- Centro de Investigaciones del Medioambiente (CIM), CONICET CCT La Plata, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1489, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Daniela Giuliani
- Centro de Investigaciones del Medioambiente (CIM), CONICET CCT La Plata, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1489, La Plata, Argentina.
| | - Pablo Martin Demetrio
- Centro de Investigaciones del Medioambiente (CIM), CONICET CCT La Plata, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1489, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Erica Yanina Sanchez
- Centro de Investigaciones del Medioambiente (CIM), CONICET CCT La Plata, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1489, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Andrés Porta
- Centro de Investigaciones del Medioambiente (CIM), CONICET CCT La Plata, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1489, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Jorge Esteban Colman Lerner
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ciencias Aplicadas "Dr. Jorge J. Ronco" (CINDECA), CONICET CCT La Plata, UNLP, 47 N° 257, 1900, La Plata, Argentina
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15
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Lei Y, Wang Z, Xu H, Feng R, Zhang N, Zhang Y, Du W, Zhang Q, Wang Q, Li L, Qu L, Hang Ho SS, Shen Z, Cao J. Characteristics and health risks of parent, alkylated, and oxygenated PAHs and their contributions to reactive oxygen species from PM 2.5 vehicular emissions in the longest tunnel in downtown Xi'an, China. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 212:113357. [PMID: 35580669 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
A vehicular emission study was conducted in the longest inner-city tunnel in Xi'an, northwestern China in four time periods (I: 07:30-10:30, II: 11:00-14:00, III: 16:30-19:30, and IV: 20:00-23:00 LST). A sum of 40 PAHs, including parent (p-PAHs), alkylated (a-PAHs), and oxygenated (o-PAHs) in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were quantified. The relationships between the PAHs and the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were also studied. The average total quantified PAHs concentration was 236.3 ± 48.3 ng m-3. The p-PAHs were found to be the most dominated group, accounting for an average of 88.1% of the total quantified PAHs, followed by a-PAHs (6.1%) and o-PAHs (5.8%). On the base of the number of aromatic rings, the groups of ≤5 rings (92.5 ± 1.2%) had higher fractions than the high ones (≥6 rings, 7.5 ± 1.2%) for pPAHs. Diurnal variations of PAHs subgroups exhibited the highest levels in Period III, consistent with the largest traffic counts in evening rush hours. However, less reduction of few PAHs in the night period demonstrates that the emissions of compressed natural gas (CNG) and methanol-fueled vehicles cannot be ignored while their contribution increased. High ROS activity levels were observed in the traffic-dominated samples, implying the potential oxidative damages to humans. Additionally, diurnal variation of the ROS activity was consistent with the total quantified PAHs and toxic equivalency of benzo[a]pyrene. Good correlations (R > 0.6, p < 0.05) were seen between individual groups of PAHs (especially for 3-5 rings p-PAHs, 4 rings a-PAHs, and 2-3 rings o-PAHs) and ROS activity, supporting that the vehicular emitted PAHs possibly initiate oxidative stress. The multiple linear regression analysis further illustrated that chrysene contributed the highest (25.0%) to ROS activity. In addition to highlighting the potential hazards to the PAHs from the vehicular emission, their roles to mitigate the health effects by formations of ROS were firstly reported in northwestern China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Lei
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China; Key Lab of Geographic Information Science of the Ministry of Education, School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Zexuan Wang
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Hongmei Xu
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China; State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710049, China.
| | - Rong Feng
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Ningning Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- Henan Research Academy of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, Zhengzhou, 450003, China
| | - Wei Du
- Key Lab of Geographic Information Science of the Ministry of Education, School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Qiyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Lijuan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Linli Qu
- Hong Kong Premium Services and Research Laboratory, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Steven Sai Hang Ho
- Division of Atmospheric Sciences, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV, 89512, United States
| | - Zhenxing Shen
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - Junji Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710049, China
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16
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Li Y, Bai X, Ren Y, Gao R, Ji Y, Wang Y, Li H. PAHs and nitro-PAHs in urban Beijing from 2017 to 2018: Characteristics, sources, transformation mechanism and risk assessment. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 436:129143. [PMID: 35594669 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their nitrated derivatives (NPAHs) attract continuous attention due to their distinct carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. To investigate the characteristics, sources, formation mechanism and health risk assessment of PAHs and NPAHs, PM2.5 were collected at an urban site in Beijing from 2017 to 2018. The highest PAHs and NPAHs concentrations were 77.92 ± 54.62 ng/m3 and 963.71 ± 695.06 pg/m3 in the winter campaign, which were several times larger than those in other seasonal campaigns. Distinct diurnal variations of nocturnal levels higher than daytime levels were shown for PAHs and NPAHs. Source analysis indicated that besides vehicle exhaust, biomass burning and coal combustion were important sources of PAHs and NPAHs in the fall and winter campaigns. Secondary formation in atmosphere was another source of NPAHs especially in the spring and summer campaigns. NO2 and RH could positively influence the heterogeneous formation of NPAHs when RH was less than 60%. Quantum calculation results confirmed the formation pathway of 2N-FLA from the OH/NO3-initiated oxidation of FLA. The results of health risk assessment showed the potential health risks for the residents, especially in the winter campaign. These results indicated that PAHs and NPAHs still deserve attention following with the decrease concentrations of particulate matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunfeng Li
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology, Beijing 102617, China
| | - Xurong Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Yanqin Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China.
| | - Rui Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China.
| | - Yuanyuan Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Yafei Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology, Beijing 102617, China
| | - Hong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
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17
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Wang P, Qi A, Huang Q, Wang Y, Tuo X, Zhao T, Duan S, Gao H, Zhang W, Xu P, Zhang T, Zhang X, Wang W, Yang L. Spatial and temporal variation, source identification, and toxicity evaluation of brominated/chlorinated/nitrated/oxygenated-PAHs at a heavily industrialized area in eastern China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 822:153542. [PMID: 35101518 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Some derivatives of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as chlorinated and brominated PAHs (Cl/BrPAHs), nitrated and oxygenated PAHs (N/OPAHs) have attracted significant concern due to their high toxicity. Knowledge of the profiles, formation mechanisms, and potential sources of these toxic chemicals near the industrial complexes is essential for their pollution control and management. In this study, we monitored Cl/BrPAHs, N/OPAHs, and PAHs at 24 sampling sites near a heavily industrialized area (steel, chemical, and rubber plants) using passive air samplers during the heating period (7 December 2019 to 15 April 2020) and the non-heating period (2 June 2020 to 4 October 2020). The total average concentrations of 16 BrPAHs, 8 ClPAHs, 17 NPAHs, 6 OPAHs, and 18 PAHs during both sampling periods were 471 pg/m3, 229 pg/m3, 312 pg/m3, 2120 pg/m3, and 63.1 ng/m3, respectively. Except for NPAHs, BrPAHs, ClPAHs, OPAHs, and PAHs all showed higher levels during the heating period. The spatial distributions of Cl/BrPAHs, N/OPAHs, and PAHs exhibited a similar pattern, with the highest concentrations detected in the vicinity of the steel industry. Congener profiles of PAH derivatives indicated that mono-substituted low molecular weight compounds (2-3 rings) were dominant. The major formation mechanisms of halogenated PAHs were discussed by correlation analysis and relative Gibbs free energies, and direct bromination of parent PAHs could be the major formation mechanism of BrPAHs in this study. Diagnostic ratios showed that NPAHs were mainly derived from primary emissions, but the contribution of secondary formation was increased at heavily contaminated sites. The positive matrix factorization model extracted four Cl/BrPAHs, three N/OPAHs, and four PAHs factors, and the result showed that PAHs and their derivatives mainly derived from industrial and combustion sources, photochemical reactions, vehicle emissions, and crude oil volatilization, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengcheng Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Anan Qi
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Qi Huang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Yiming Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Xiong Tuo
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Tong Zhao
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Shengfei Duan
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Hongliang Gao
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Wan Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Peng Xu
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Tianqi Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Xiongfei Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Wenxing Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China
| | - Lingxiao Yang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Climate Change, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China.
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18
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Source Apportionment and Toxic Potency of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) at an Island in the Middle of Bohai Sea, China. ATMOSPHERE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos13050699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have attracted more attention because of their high atmospheric concentration and toxicity in recent decades. In this study, a total of 60 PM2.5 samples were collected from Beihuangcheng Island in Bohai Sea, China, from August 2017 to March 2018 for analyzing 16 congeners of PAHs (Σ16PAHs). Sources of PAHs were apportioned by a positive matrix factorization (PMF) model and the carcinogenic risk due to exposure to the PAHs was estimated by the toxicity equivalent of BaP (BaPeq). The results showed that the average concentration of Σ16PAHs was 35.3 ± 41.8 ng/m3. The maximum concentration of Σ16PAHs occurred in winter, followed by spring and autumn, and summer. The PMF modeling apportioned the PAHs into four sources, coal combustion, biomass burning, vehicle exhaust, and petroleum release, contributing 43.1%, 25.8%, 24.7%, and 6.39%, respectively. The average ΣBaPeq concentration was 2.32 ± 4.95 ng/m3 during the sampling period, and vehicle exhaust was the largest contributor. The finding indicates that more attention should be paid to reduce the emissions from coal combustion and vehicle exhaust because they were the largest contributors to the PAH concentration in PM2.5 and ΣBaPeq concentration, respectively.
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19
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Li Y, Zhu Y, Liu W, Yu S, Tao S, Liu W. Modeling multimedia fate and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the coastal regions of the Bohai and Yellow Seas. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 818:151789. [PMID: 34808152 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Using an improved multimedia fate model, this study simulated the spatial distributions, partitioning behaviors, and mass exchanges of PAH16 (16 species with priority by the USEPA) in multiple environmental compartments in the coastal regions of the Bohai and Yellow Seas, Northern China. The model predictions generally matched well with the measured results, as the deviations of most points were within one order of magnitude in the air, freshwater, and 3 soil compartments. The estimated concentrations of ΣPAH16 in the northern part were higher than those in the southern part, which was consistent with the emissions of each part. Approximately 97.6% of the ΣPAH16 mass was distributed in soils; therefore, soils served as the dominant sink of PAH16. The estimated net flux of ΣPAH16 from air to soil ranged from 0.4 to 10.7 mg/m2/year (an average of 3.2 mg/m2/year), and the estimated flux of deposition from air to soil fell in the range of 0.4-10.8 mg/m2/year (an average of 3.2 mg/m2/year), which served as the dominant process at the air-soil interface. The estimated net flux of ΣPAH16 from air to freshwater ranged from -15.3 to 9.4 mg/m2/year (an average of -0.3 mg/m2/year), and the reversed volatilization flux from freshwater to air ranged from 0.01 to 21.1 mg/m2/year (an average of 3.7 mg/m2/year). This situation indicated notable spatial variations and volatilization as the main process affecting the direction of net flux at the air-freshwater interface. Deterministic risk assessment and probabilistic risk assessment were conducted. The overall health risks of the studied regions were acceptable, while the excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) by air inhalation was greater than that by soil ingestion. CAPSULE: Multimedia fate model-predicted distributions and compositions of PAH16 in different compartments, compartmental exchange fluxes and directions, and deterministic and probabilistic ELCR via different exposure pathways were assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujun Li
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Ying Zhu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Weijian Liu
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Shuangyu Yu
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Shu Tao
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Wenxin Liu
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
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Wang Y, Qi A, Wang P, Tuo X, Huang Q, Zhang Y, Xu P, Zhang T, Zhang X, Zhao T, Wang W, Yang L. Temporal profiles, source analysis, and health risk assessments of parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PPAHs) and their derivatives (NPAHs, OPAHs, ClPAHs, and BrPAHs) in PM 2.5 and PM 1.0 from the eastern coastal region of China: Urban coastal area versus coastal background area. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 292:133341. [PMID: 34929283 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The eastern coastal region of China is the area with the highest emission of PAHs in China. Therefore, understanding the sources and health risk of parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PPAHs) and their derivatives in eastern coastal cities of China is the main basis for air pollution control. In this study, we measured the concentrations of 18 parent PAHs, 17 nitrated PAHs, 7 oxygenated PAHs, 8 chlorinated PAHs, and 13 brominated PAHs in PM1.0 and PM2.5 samples collected at an urban coastal city site and a coastal background site in 2019. We analyzed the temporal distribution, molecular composition, and sources and performed health risk assessments for both winter and summer samples. The average concentration of the PPAHs and their derivatives (all 63 compounds combined) in the PM1.0 samples accounted for 75.57% of the PAHs concentration in PM2.5 samples. The average concentration of PM2.5- and PM1.0- bound PPAHs in winter was 114.70 times higher than in summer, and their derivatives was 27.51 times. Both the combined concentrations of the 18 PPAHs and the combined concentrations of the 45 derivatives were higher in the coastal city compared to the background site during the winter (1.90 and 1.48 times, respectively), but they were comparable during the summer. The positive matrix factorization analysis indicated that the compounds mainly originated from coal/biomass combustion, industrial sources, vehicle emissions, and secondary formation. In addition, the concentration-weighted trajectories model revealed that the PAHs were mainly emitted locally in Shandong Province and surrounding areas, such as Hebei Province, Henan Province, and Bohai Sea. The compounds 1-NPYR, 2+9-BrPHE, 9,10-Cl2PHE, and 1-ClPYR dominantly contributed to the derivatives of TEQ during the winter due to their high concentrations or the high TEFs of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiming Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Anan Qi
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Pengcheng Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Xiong Tuo
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Qi Huang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Peng Xu
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Tianqi Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Xiongfei Zhang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Tong Zhao
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Wenxing Wang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Lingxiao Yang
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Climate Change, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210093, China.
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Sun R, Wang X, Tian C, Zong Z, Ma W, Zhao S, Wang Y, Tang J, Cui S, Li J, Zhang G. Exploring source footprint of Organophosphate esters in the Bohai Sea, China: Insight from temporal and spatial variabilities in the atmosphere from June 2014 to May 2019. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 159:107044. [PMID: 34915353 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.107044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are still produced and used in large quantities in the world-wide, and the environmental burden and behavior have generated widespread concern, especially in some large-scale waterbodies. This study conducted a comprehensive assessment on the temporal and spatial variabilities and budget of OPEs to trace the source for the Bohai Sea (BS), based on a 5-year seasonal monitoring campaign (June 2014 to May 2019) of 12 atmospheric sites around the BS and our previous studies. The average concentration of Σ10OPEs in atmosphere during the sampling period was 7.65 ± 6.42 ng m-3, and chlorinated OPEs were the major compounds. The Seasonal-Trend decomposition procedure based on Loess (STL) analyzed that during the 5-year sampling period, the atmospheric concentrations of Σ10OPEs had a slightly increasing trend with a rate of + 0.092 ng m-3 yr-1, and the seasonal concentrations had a distinct seasonal distribution. The highest concentration of Σ10OPEs was observed at the sampling site of Dalian, followed by Tianjin, Yantai, and Beihuangcheng. The estimation of the fugacity ratios and air-water gas exchange fluxes established that the concentration levels of two major components of chlorinated OPEs (tris-(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris-(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP)) in the atmosphere were dominated by their volatilization from BS's seawater (1.24 ± 0.46 t yr-1 for TCEP and 5.15 ± 2.15 t yr-1 for TCPP), with 73% deriving from the coastal seawater. The budget assessment suggested that the volatile fluxes of TCEP and TCPP accounted for 8% and 29% of their storages (15.6 ± 5.32 t for TCEP and 17.6 ± 6.70 t for TCPP) in the BS seawater, which were mainly contributed by continental river input (20% for TCEP and 42% for TCPP). The efforts indicated that river inputs of TCEP and TCPP needed to be paid more attention for the improvement of environmental quality of the BS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai 264003, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Guangzhou 510640, China; Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | | | - Chongguo Tian
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai 264003, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Zheng Zong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai 264003, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Wenwen Ma
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Shizhen Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Guangzhou 510640, China; Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (MOE), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Jianhui Tang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai 264003, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Song Cui
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), School of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Jun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Guangzhou 510640, China; Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China.
| | - Gan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Resources Utilization, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Deep Earth Science, Guangzhou 510640, China; Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
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22
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Ding Z, Wang X, Yi Y, Huo X, Wang W, Zhang Q. Understanding the atmospheric fate of triphenylene: The oxidation mechanism initiated by OH radicals. Chem Phys Lett 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2021.139158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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23
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Zhang K, Yang L, Li Q, Li R, Zhang D, Xu W, Feng J, Wang Q, Wang W, Huang L, Yaluk EA, Wang Y, Yu JZ, Li L. Hourly measurement of PM 2.5-bound nonpolar organic compounds in Shanghai: Characteristics, sources and health risk assessment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 789:148070. [PMID: 34323831 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5)-bound nonpolar organic compounds (NPOCs), including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and alkanes, are commonly used as typical molecular markers for detailed source identification. Online thermal desorption aerosol gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TAG) system can obtain ambient data with hourly resolution, which is of great importance for investigating the diurnal characteristics and refined source identification of NPOCs. From June to October 2020, hourly ambient aerosol samples were collected and analyzed to investigate the characteristics and sources of 14 PAHs and 15 alkanes (C21-C35) in PM2.5 using TAG at a suburban site of Baoshan district in Shanghai, China. The average concentration of summed PAHs and alkanes during the sampling period was 1.27 ± 1.4 ng/m3 and 8.87 ± 3.46 ng/m3, respectively, in which Benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), Benzo[ghi]perylene (BghiP) and Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IcdP) are the dominant PAHs species, with n-Heptacosane (C27), n-Nonacosane (C29) and n-Hentriacontane (C31) being the most abundant n-alkane species. Carbon preference index (CPI) and carbon maximum (Cmax) number indicated that the sources of alkanes shifted from biogenic-oriented (such as plant wax) in the summer to anthropogenic-dominated (such as fossil fuels) in the autumn. Results from trajectory cluster analysis and potential source contribution function (PSCF) modeling showed that alkanes were mainly from the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River Plain including Anhui, Jiangxi, and Zhejiang provinces, while PAHs were mainly from northeastern China. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) model results indicated that gasoline (41.48%) and diesel (21.82%) were the two major sources of PM2.5-bound PAHs in summer and fall of 2020 in Shanghai, followed by coal consumption or catering (19.96%) and biomass burning (16.74%). Diurnal variation of PAHs sources resolved by PMF showed characteristic features consistent with the corresponding anthropogenic activities. For example, gasoline vehicle exhaust showed higher concentrations during traffic rush hours; while coal consumption or catering presented higher concentrations during lunch times from 10:00 to 12:00. In addition, the TAG data coupling with PMF also can be capable for source appointment of short-duration episodes. Health risk assessment showed that adult women were at greater lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) than people in other age groups, and people may subject to higher health risks at morning and night time. This work demonstrates that hourly NPOCs measured by TAG are uniquely specific on refined source identification and investigation into the characteristics of diurnal variations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liumei Yang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qing Li
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Rui Li
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongping Zhang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen Xu
- Aerodyne Research Inc., Billerica, MA, USA
| | - Jialiang Feng
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiongqiong Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wu Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ling Huang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Elly Arukulem Yaluk
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yangjun Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Zhen Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong, China; Division of Environment & Sustainability, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Li Li
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Organic Compound Pollution Control Engineering (MOE), Shanghai University, Shanghai, China.
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Chen L, Liu W, Tao S, Liu W. Spatiotemporal variations and source identification of atmospheric nitrated and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the coastal cities of the Bohai and Yellow Seas in northern China. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 279:130565. [PMID: 33866095 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Gaseous and particulate nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs, 12 species) and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OPAHs, 4 species) in seven coastal cities of the Bohai and Yellow Seas were determined throughout the year. The annual arithmetical mean concentrations of ΣNPAH12 and ΣOPAH4 were 737 ± 475 pg/m3 and 35.3 ± 26.8 ng/m3. NPAHs and OPAHs existed mainly in the gaseous phase, accounted for 88.5% and 95.2% of the total concentrations. Air concentrations of ΣNPAH12 and ΣOPAH4 in the coastal cities of the Yellow Sea were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than those of the Bohai Sea. Air concentrations of ΣNPAH12 and ΣOPAH4 were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in winter than in summer. Strong secondary formation of atmospheric NPAHs and OPAHs occurred in all of the studied cities. The sequence of annual contribution of the emission sources of airborne NPAHs determined by positive matrix factorization was traffic exhaust > combustion of solid fuels (coal and biomass) > secondary formation, while for OPAHs, it was combustion of solid fuels > secondary formation > traffic exhaust. The combustion of solid fuels served as the main source of NPAHs and OPAHs in winter, while secondary formation was the predominant source in summer. Interregional transport may exert an important effect on the local atmospheric NPAHs and OPAHs by potential source contribution function analysis. The estimated incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) due to inhalation exposure to specific NPAHs ranged from 2.9 × 10-12 to 6.2 × 10-6 (median at 4.8 × 10-9) was mainly attributed to exposure before the age of 16.
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Affiliation(s)
- LiYuan Chen
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - WeiJian Liu
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Shu Tao
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - WenXin Liu
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface and Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
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Zeng H, Zhang L, Sun F, Liu J, Fang B, Yang W, Meng C, Wang M, Wang Q, Hao Y. Inhalation bioaccessibility, health risk assessment, and source appointment of ambient PM 2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Caofeidian, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:47574-47587. [PMID: 33893916 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-13965-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The inhalation bioaccessibility of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is significant for accurately assessing the health risks posed by PM2.5-bound PAHs. In this study, 96 PM2.5 samples from Caofeidian, China, were investigated for PM2.5-bound PAH source appointment and bioaccessibility assessment during four seasons. PAH18 potential sources were identified by positive matrix factorization. The inhalation bioaccessibility of PAH18 was investigated by simulated epithelial lung fluid extraction. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) model was subsequently used to evaluate the carcinogenic risk posed by PM2.5-bound PAHs in children, teenagers, and adults. Four potential sources of PM2.5-bound PAH18 were identified: industry emissions (44%), petroleum volatilization (30%), vehicle emissions (15%), and coal combustion (11%). The average inhalation bioaccessibility of PAHs ranged from 17.8% (dibenzo [a,h] anthracene) to 67.9% (fluorene). The ILCR values for children and teenagers were lower than the acceptable levels (10-6) in the four seasons considering inhalation bioaccessibility. However, the ILCR value of adults was higher than the threshold in winter (1.26 × 10-6). Source identification suggested that reducing industrial pollution was the primary measure for controlling PM2.5-bound PAHs in Caofeidian. Additionally, the inhalation bioaccessibility of PM2.5-bound PAHs was evaluated to precisely estimate the health risks caused by PAHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zeng
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China
| | - Feize Sun
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China
| | - Jiajia Liu
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China
| | - Bo Fang
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China
| | - Wenqi Yang
- Affiliated Hospital, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, 063000, China
| | - Chunyan Meng
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China
| | - Manman Wang
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China
| | - Qian Wang
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China.
| | - Yulan Hao
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No.21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, China.
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Source Apportionment and Toxic Potency of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Air of Harbin, a Cold City in Northern China. ATMOSPHERE 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos12030297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A total of 68 PUF samples were collected seasonally from 17 sampling sites in Harbin, China from May 2016 to April 2017 for analyzing 15 congeners of gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Σ15PAHs). An improved non-negative matrix (NMF) model and a positive matrix factorization (PMF) model were used to apportion the sources of PAHs. The carcinogenic risk due to exposure to PAHs was estimated by the toxicity equivalent of BaP (BaPeq). The results showed that the average concentration of Σ15PAHs was 68.3 ± 22.3 ng/m3, and the proportions of 3-ring, 4-ring, 5-ring, and 6-ring PAHs were 64.4%, 32.6%, 2.10%, and 0.89%, respectively. Among the six typical functional areas in Harbin, the Σ15PAHs concentrations were 98.1 ± 76.7 ng/m3, 91.2 ± 76.2 ng/m3, 71.4 ± 75.6 ng/m3, 67.9 ± 65.6 ng/m3, 42.6 ± 34.7 ng/m3, and 38.5 ± 38.0 ng/m3 in the wastewater treatment plant, industrial zone, business district, residential area, school, and suburb, respectively. During the sampling period, the highest concentration of Σ15PAHs was in winter. The improved NMF model and PMF model apportioned the PAHs into three sources including coal combustion, biomass burning, and vehicle exhaust. The contributions of coal combustion, biomass burning, and vehicle exhausts were 34.6 ± 3.22%, 48.6 ± 4.03%, and 16.8 ± 5.06%, respectively. Biomass burning was the largest contributor of Σ15PAHs concentrations in winter and coal combustion contributed significantly to the concentrations in summer. The average ΣBaPeq concentration was 0.54 ± 0.23 ng/m3 during the sampling period, high concentrations occurred in the cold season and low levels presented in the warm period. Vehicle exhaust was the largest contributor to the ΣBaPeq concentration of PAHs in Harbin.
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Dong Z, Jiang N, Zhang R, Xu Q, Ying Q, Li Q, Li S. Molecular characteristics, source contributions, and exposure risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the core city of Central Plains Economic Region, China: Insights from the variation of haze levels. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 757:143885. [PMID: 33310581 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In this study, molecular characteristics, source contributions, and health risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM2.5 for four haze levels in Zhengzhou, a megacity in central China with severe air pollution problems, have been analyzed. The concentrations of PAHs and PM2.5 on heavy haze (HH) days were 63% and 122% higher than non-haze (NH) days. The occurrence of high PAH concentration was often accompanied by the northwest wind along with adverse meteorological conditions that limit regional dispersion. The source apportionment results indicated that almost all sources contributed more PAH concentration on haze days. In particular, coal combustion and vehicle emissions contributions were almost doubled on HH days. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) of PAHs has been assessed. BaP and DahA showed relatively high contributions to ILCR, and 31%-48% of ILCR is due to exposure to PAHs on high HH days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Dong
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Nan Jiang
- School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China.
| | - Ruiqin Zhang
- School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Qixiang Xu
- School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Qi Ying
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-3136, USA.
| | - Qiang Li
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Shengli Li
- School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
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Gao X, Zhou X, Zou H, Wang Q, Zhou Z, Chen R, Yuan W, Luan Y, Quan C, Zhang M. Exposure characterization and risk assessment of ultrafine particles from the blast furnace process in a steelmaking plant. J Occup Health 2021; 63:e12257. [PMID: 34375492 PMCID: PMC8354618 DOI: 10.1002/1348-9585.12257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to clarify the exposure characteristics and risks of ultrafine particles from the blast furnace process and to provide a reasonable control strategy for protecting the health of workers. METHODS The blast furnace location of a steelmaking plant was selected as a typical investigation site. A membrane-based sampling system was used to collect ultrafine particles to analyze their morphology and elemental compositions. A real-time system was used to monitor the total number concentration (NC), total respirable mass concentration (MC), surface area concentration (SAC), and size distribution by number. The risk level of ultrafine particles was analyzed using the Stoffenmanager-Nano model. RESULTS The total NC, total MC, and SAC increased significantly relative to background concentrations after slag releasing started and decreased gradually after the activity stopped. The three highest total concentrations during slag releasing were 3-10 times higher than those of the background or non-activity period. The ultrafine particles were mainly gathered at 10.4 or 40 nm, and presented as lump-like agglomerates. The metal elements (Al and Pt) in the ultrafine particles originated from slag and iron ore. The risk level of the ultrafine particles was high, indicating the existing control measures were insufficient. CONCLUSIONS The blast furnace workers are at high risk due to exposure to high levels of ultrafine particles associated with working activity and with a bimodal size distribution. The existing control strategies, including engineering control, management control, and personal protection equipment need to be improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangjing Gao
- Department of Occupational Health and Radiation ProtectionZhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and PreventionHangzhouChina
| | - Xingfan Zhou
- Beijing Municipal Institute of Labour ProtectionBeijing Academy of Science and TechnologyBeijingChina
| | - Hua Zou
- Department of Occupational Health and Radiation ProtectionZhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and PreventionHangzhouChina
| | - Qunli Wang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational HealthNingbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and PreventionNingboChina
| | - Zanrong Zhou
- Department of Occupational Health and Radiation ProtectionZhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and PreventionHangzhouChina
| | - Rui Chen
- Beijing Municipal Institute of Labour ProtectionBeijing Academy of Science and TechnologyBeijingChina
| | - Weiming Yuan
- Department of Occupational Health and Radiation ProtectionZhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and PreventionHangzhouChina
| | - Yuqing Luan
- Department of Occupational Health and Radiation ProtectionZhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and PreventionHangzhouChina
| | - Changjian Quan
- Department of Occupational Health and Radiation ProtectionZhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and PreventionHangzhouChina
| | - Meibian Zhang
- Department of Occupational Health and Radiation ProtectionZhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and PreventionHangzhouChina
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Zhou X, Strezov V, Jiang Y, Yang X, Kan T, Evans T. Contamination identification, source apportionment and health risk assessment of trace elements at different fractions of atmospheric particles at iron and steelmaking areas in China. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230983. [PMID: 32240214 PMCID: PMC7117772 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
China has the largest share of global iron and steel production, which is considered to play a significant contribution to air pollution. This study aims to investigate trace element contamination at different fractions of particulate matter (PM) at industrial areas in China. Three PM fractions, PM2.1-9.0, PM1.1-2.1 and PM1.1, were collected from areas surrounding iron and steelmaking plants at Kunming, Wuhan, Nanjing and Ningbo in China. Multiple trace elements and their bioavailability, as well as Pb isotopic compositions, were analysed for identification of contaminants, health risk assessment and source apportionment. Results showed that PM particles in the sites near industrial areas were associated with a range of toxic trace elements, specifically As, Cr(VI), Cd and Mn, and posed significant health risks to humans. The isotopic Pb compositions identified that coal and high temperature metallurgical processes in the steelmaking process were the dominant contributors to local air pollution in these sites. In addition to iron and steelmaking activities, traffic emissions and remote pollution also played a contributing role in PM contamination, confirmed by the differences of Pb isotopic compositions at each PM fraction and statistical results from Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE) and Geometrical Analysis for Interactive Aid (GAIA). The results presented in this study provide a comprehensive understanding of PM emissions at iron and steelmaking areas, which helps to guide subsequent updates of air pollution control guidelines to efficiently minimise environmental footprint and ensure long term sustainability of the industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoteng Zhou
- ARC Research Hub for Computational Particle Technology, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Vladimir Strezov
- ARC Research Hub for Computational Particle Technology, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Yijiao Jiang
- ARC Research Hub for Computational Particle Technology, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Xiaoxia Yang
- ARC Research Hub for Computational Particle Technology, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tao Kan
- ARC Research Hub for Computational Particle Technology, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tim Evans
- ARC Research Hub for Computational Particle Technology, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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