A review on per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) in microplastic and food-contact materials

Food packaging solutions in the post-per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and microplastics era: A review of functions, materials, and bio-based alternatives

Food packaging (FP) is essential for preserving food quality, safety, and extending shelf-life. However, growing concerns about the environmental and health impacts of conventional packaging materials, particularly per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and microplastics, are driving a major transformation in FP design. PFAS, synthetic compounds with dual hydro- and lipophobicity, have been widely employed in food packaging materials (FPMs) to impart desirable water and grease repellency. However, PFAS bioaccumulate in the human body and have been linked to multiple health effects, including immune system dysfunction, cancer, and developmental problems. The detection of microplastics in various FPMs has raised significant concerns regarding their potential migration into food and subsequent ingestion. This comprehensive review examines the current landscape of FPMs, their functions, and physicochemical properties to put into perspective why there is widespread use of PFAS and microplastics in FPMs. The review then addresses the challenges posed by PFAS and microplastics, emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable and bio-based alternatives. We highlight promising advancements in sustainable and renewable materials, including plant-derived polysaccharides, proteins, and waxes, as well as recycled and upcycled materials. The integration of these sustainable materials into active packaging systems is also examined, indicating innovations in oxygen scavengers, moisture absorbers, and antimicrobial packaging. The review concludes by identifying key research gaps and future directions, including the need for comprehensive life cycle assessments and strategies to improve scalability and cost-effectiveness. As the FP industry evolves, a holistic approach considering environmental impact, functionality, and consumer acceptance will be crucial in developing truly sustainable packaging solutions.

Insight into the effect of natural aging of polystyrene microplastics on the sorption of legacy and emerging per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in seawater

Microplastics (MPs) are abundant in aquatic environments and due to their small size, surface properties, and strong hydrophobicity, they can easily sorb chemicals, thus potentially acting as pollutant carriers. To date, most studies investigating the sorption of chemicals on MPs have principally focused on virgin MPs. However, MPs in the environment undergo aging effects, which changes their physical-chemical properties and aptitude to interact with chemicals, such as per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) referred to as "forever chemicals". In this study, we compared the sorption behavior of nine PFAS, exhibiting different physical-chemical properties, on virgin and naturally aged polystyrene microplastic (PS-MPs) to explore to what extent the environmental aging affects the sorption behavior of the PS-MPs for different legacy and emerging PFAS in seawater. Differences in the morphology and surface properties of aged PS-MPs were examined by infrared spectroscopy, surface area analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Results revealed that compared to virgin PS-MPs, aged PS-MPs exhibited morphological changes (e.g. cavities, pits, and rough surfaces) with biofilm development and signs of oxidation on the MPs surface. PFAS sorption on PS-MPs was enhanced for the aged PS-MPs compared to virgin PS-MPs with Kd values ranging from 327 L kg-1 for PFOA to 3247 L kg-1 for PFOS in aged PS-MPs. The difference in sorption capacity was mainly attributed to the physical-chemical changes and the adhered biofilm observed in aged PS-MPs. Results also showed that virgin PS-MPs adsorb PFAS mainly through steric hindrance, while the aged PS-MPs may involve more complex sorption mechanisms. This research provides additional insights into the ability of aged MPs as potential carriers of legacy and emerging contaminants in the marine environment.

Co-accumulation characteristics and interaction mechanism of microplastics and PFASs in a large shallow lake

Microplastics (MPs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) coexist widely in lakes and affect ecological security. The coexistence characteristics and adsorption-desorption mechanisms between MPs and typical PFASs were explored in a typical eutrophic shallow lake (Taihu Lake). Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE) are the primary types of MPs in Taihu Lake, with average abundances in water and sediment of 18630 n/m3 and 584 n/kg, respectively. The average concentrations of PFASs in water and sediment are 288.93 ng/L and 4.33 ng/g, with short-chain PFASs (C4-C7) being the main pollutants. Perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) in both water and sediment contributed 38.48 % and 44.53 %, respectively, followed by hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA). The morphological characteristics of MPs influence the distribution of long-chain PFAS in lake water, while the presence of HFPO-DA and perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) in sediment is directly linked to the concentration and size of MPs. A combination of field investigations and indoor experiments revealed that the irreversible adsorption characteristics between MPs and HFPO-DA may promote the high cumulative flux of HFPO-DA in sediment, and the biofilm on the surface of MPs significantly accelerates this accumulation process. The results provide a new perspective on the co-transport behavior of emerging pollutants in aquatic environments.

A review of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) removal in constructed wetlands: Mechanisms, enhancing strategies and environmental risks

PER: Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), typical persistent organic pollutants detected in various water environments, have attracted widespread attention due to their undesirable effects on ecology and human health. Constructed wetlands (CWs) have emerged as a promising, cost-effective, and nature-based solution for removing persistent organic pollutants. This review summarizes the removal performance of PFASs in CWs, underlying PFASs removal mechanisms, and influencing factors are also discussed comprehensively. Furthermore, the environmental risks of PFASs-enriched plants and substrates in CWs are analyzed. The results show that removal efficiencies of total PFASs in various CWs ranged from 21.3% to 98%. Plant uptake, substrate absorption and biotransformation are critical pathways in CWs for removing PFASs, which can be influenced by the physiochemical properties of PFASs, operation parameters, environmental factors, and other pollutants. Increasing dissolved oxygen supply and replacing traditional substrates in CWs, and combining CWs with other technologies could significantly improve PFASs removal. Further, CWs pose relatively lower ecological and environmental risks in removing PFASs, which indicates CWs could be an alternative solution for controlling PFASs in aquatic environments.

Microplastics in the urban water cycle: A critical analysis of issues and of possible (needed?) solutions

Microplastic (MP) contamination is a problem that affects even remote, scarcely populated regions of the world. This topic has recently been the subject of many published studies, however, these often adopt hyperbolic statements and do not actually provide definitive evidence that MPs are a cause of environmental risk in actual environmental conditions. New technologies to remove MPs from supply and waste water are being investigated, but they are able to intercept a minimal fraction of the MPs circulating in all environmental media. Recently, several pieces of legislation were introduced to reduce plastic production, use, and disposal, but it is not clear how such measures could achieve a significant environmental MP reduction. This paper addresses the MP issue within the urban water cycle, examining recent current literature on MP presence in drinking and waste water, and overviewing available recent treatment technologies for their removal. The ensuing discussion attempts to holistically assess the actual relevance of the issue in the light of the current scientific evidence.

Characteristics of organic matter driven by Eichhornia crassipes during co-contamination with per(poly)fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and microplastics (MPs)

Co-contamination with MPs and PFASs has been recorded, particularly in surface-water environments. Floating macrophyte microcosms are an important part of the surface water ecosystem, and dissolved organic matter (DOM) driven by floating macrophytes (FMDDOM) is critical for maintaining material circulation. However, knowledge gaps remain regarding the impact of MPs and PFASs co-pollution on FMDDOM. An greenhouse simulation experiment was conducted in this study to investigate the effects of four PFASs, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluoro-octane-sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluoro-2-methyl-3-oxahexanoic acid (Gen X), and potassium 9-chlorohexadecafluoro-3-oxanonane-1-sulfonate (F-53B), on FMDDOM sourced from Eichhornia crassipes (E. crassipes), a typical floating macrophyte, in the presence and absence of polystyrene (PS) MPs. Four PFASs increased FMDDOM release from E. crassipes, leading to a 32.52-77.49 % increase in dissolved organic carbon (DOC) levels. PS MPs further increased this, with results ranging from -21.28 % to 26.49 %. Based on the parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC), FMDDOM was classified into three types of fluorescent components: tryptophan-like, humic-like, and tyrosine-like compounds. Contaminants of MPs and PFASs modified the relative abundance of these three components. Protein secondary structure analysis showed that fluorocarbon bonds tended to accumulate on the α-helix of proteins in FMDDOM. The relative abundance of fluorescent and chromophorous FMDDOMs varied from 0.648 ± 0.044 to 0.964 ± 0.173, indicating that the photochemical structures of the FMDDOM were modified. FMDDOM exhibits decreased humification and increased aromaticity when contaminated with MPs and PFASs, which may be detrimental to the geochemical cycling of carbon. This study offers a theoretical basis for assessing the combined ecological risks of MPs and PFASs in floating macrophyte ecosystems.

A simple and cost-efficient route to prepare sulfonated dihalo-monomers for synthesizing sulfonated aromatic PEMs

We present a simple and cost-efficient route for the preparation of sulfonated dihalo-monomers for the synthesis of hydrocarbon ionomers. After conventional monomer sulfonation, excess sulfuric acid is quantitatively removed by neutralization with BaCO3. This leads to the precipitation of excess H2SO4 as insoluble BaSO4, which is easily separated from the sulfonated monomers in their soluble Ba-forms by filtration. Compared to conventional methods, the proposed approach leads to higher yields, drastically reduces the number of purification steps, and can easily be expanded to the preparation of other sulfonated monomers. The specific monomers presented here are suitable for the preparation of sulfonated polyarylenes and sulfonated polyphenylenes.

Leaching of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from food contact materials with implications for waste disposal

Leaching of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) during the post-consumer disposal of food contact materials (FCMs) poses a potential environmental threat but has seldom been evaluated. This study characterized the leaching behavior of PFAS and unidentified precursors from six common FCMs and assessed the impact of environmental conditions on PFAS release during disposal. The total concentration of 21 PFAS ranged from 3.2 to 377 ng/g in FCMs, with PFAS leachability into water varying between 1.1-42.8 %. Increasing temperature promoted PFAS leaching, with leached nine primary PFAS (∑9PFAS) reaching 46.3, 70.4, and 102 ng/L at 35, 45, and 55 ℃, respectively. Thermodynamic analysis (∆G>0, ∆H>0, and ∆S<0) indicated hydrophobic interactions control PFAS leaching. The presence of dissolved organic matter in synthetic leachate increased the leached ∑9PFAS from 47.1 to 103 ng/L but decreased PFBS, PFOS, and 6:2 FTS leaching. The total release of seven perfluorocarboxylic acids (∑7PFCAs) from takeaway food packaging waste was estimated to be 0.3-8.2 kg/y to landfill leachate and 0.6-15.4 kg/y to incineration plant leachate, contributing 0.2-4.8 % and 0.1-3.2 % of total ∑7PFCAs in each leachate type. While the study presents a refined methodology for estimating PFAS release during disposal, future research is needed on the indirect contribution from precursors.

Fluorinated compounds in paper and paperboard based food packaging materials

Paper- and paperboard-based materials are alternatives to petroleum-based plastics in food packaging but unsuitable for their poor moisture and oil resistance. In this sense, fluorinated compounds improve water and grease repellency, though their use is controversial. This Perspective discusses main techniques to combine fluorinated compounds with paper and paperboard, including water and oil contact angles and grease resistance values, and summarizes main legal aspects in Europe and the United States.

Aggregated health risk assessment of perfluoroalkyl acids migrated from convenience food contact materials

Ingestion of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) via contaminated food contact materials (FCMs) is an important human exposure source. This study adopts a toxicity equivalent approach to evaluate the collective health risk of multiple PFAAs in FCMs. A comprehensive extraction and analysis of 21 PFAAs in FCMs was performed. Among the analyzed substances, 15 PFAAs were detected. Migration experiment using three food simulants revealed the migration range of seven PFAAs from FCMs into the simulant to be 0.47-46.7 ng/cm2. The hazard quotient results suggest minimal health risk, except for 9% of packaged samples where perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) poses a higher risk. Utilizing PFOA toxic equivalent concentrations, comprehensive risk calculations showed ∼77% of samples potentially posing elevated health risks due to PFAA exposure. This emphasizes the substantial contribution of PFAAs beyond PFOA and underscores the importance of considering them in related assessments. The aggregated risk assessment reflects actual exposure circumstances more accurately.

Microplastic-induced hepatic adverse effects evaluated in advanced quadruple cell human primary models following three weeks of repeated exposure

Nano and microplastics are defined as particles smaller than 100 nm and 5 mm respectively. The widespread production and use of plastics in everyday life has resulted in significant accumulation of plastic debris in the environment. Over the last two decades there are increased concerns regarding the potential entry and accumulation of plastics in the human body with ingestion being one of the most important routes of exposure. However, the magnitude and nature of potential toxic effects of plastic exposure to human health is not yet fully understood. The liver is the body's principal detoxification organ and critically to this study recognized as the main accumulation site for particulates. In this study as the first of its kind the health impacts of long term low repeated polystyrene microplastics (1 and 5 μm) exposure was investigated in a functionally active 3D liver microtissue model, composed of primary human hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatic stellate cells. The highlight from the data includes microplastic-induced dose (3.125-25 μg/ml) and time dependent (up to 504 h) increase in cell death and inflammation manifested by enhanced release of IL6, IL8 and TNF-α. The exposure to repeated dosing of the plastics also resulted in notable pathology manifested as aberrant tissue architecture, such as dilated bile canaliculi and large lipid droplets inside the hepatic cells. This toxicity matched extremely well to the accumulation of the materials with the cells of microtissue predominately in the organ macrophages. This study highlights the real issue and danger of microplastic exposure with potential for long-term accumulation and adverse effects of non-biodegradable plastics within the liver.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and human health outcomes: An umbrella review of systematic reviews with meta-analyses of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Although evidence on the association between per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and human health outcomes has grown exponentially, specific health outcomes and their potential associations with PFASs have not been conclusively evaluated.

METHODS

We conducted a comprehensive search through the databases of PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science from inception to February 29, 2024, to identify systematic reviews with meta-analyses of observational studies examining the associations between the PFASs and multiple health outcomes. The quality of included studies was evaluated using the A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) tool, and credibility of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations (GRADE) criteria. The protocol of this umbrella review (UR) had been registered in PROSPERO (CRD 42023480817).

RESULTS

The UR identified 157 meta-analyses from 29 articles. Using the AMSTAR measurement tool, all articles were categorized as of moderate-to-high quality. Based on the GRADE assessment, significant associations between specific types of PFASs and low birth weight, tetanus vaccine response, and triglyceride levels showed high certainty of evidence. Moreover, moderate certainty of evidence with statistical significance was observed between PFASs and health outcomes including lower BMI z-score in infancy, poor sperm progressive motility, and decreased risk of preterm birth as well as preeclampsia. Fifty-two (33%) associations (e.g., PFASs and gestational hypertension, cardiovascular disease, etc) presented low certainty evidence. Additionally, eighty-five (55%) associations (e.g., PFASs with infertility, lipid metabolism, etc) presented very low certainty evidence.

CONCLUSION

High certainty of evidence supported that certain PFASs were associated with the incidence of low birth weight, low efficiency of the tetanus vaccine, and low triglyceride levels.

Adsorption behaviors of perfluorooctanoic acid on aged microplastics

The presence of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment poses a significant threat to ecological safety and environmental health. Widespread microplastics (MPs) have been recognized as vectors for emerging contaminants due to human activities. However, the adsorption behaviors of PFAS on MPs, especially on aged MPs, have not been extensively investigated. This study aimed to investigate the adsorption behaviors of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) on aged MPs (polystyrene, polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate) treated with UV irradiation and persulfate oxidation under salinity and dissolve organic matter (DOM) condition. Carbonyl index values of MPs increased after the aged treatment, indicating the production of oxygen-containing groups. The PFOA adsorption on aged MPs was impacted by the co-existence of Na+ ions and DOM. As PFOA adsorption onto aged MPs was mainly controlled by hydrophobic interaction, the electrostatic interaction also made a contribution, but there was no significant change in PFOA adsorption behavior between the pristine and aged MPs. While these findings provide insight into PFAS adsorption on aged MPs, further research is necessary to account for the complexity of the real environment. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Adsorption behaviors of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) on aged microplastics were investigated. Hydrophobic interaction mainly controlled PFOA adsorption on aged microplastics (MPs). Co-existence dissolve organic matter and salinity influenced PFOA adsorption behaviors on aged MPs.

In Vivo Tissue Distribution of Polystyrene or Mixed Polymer Microspheres and Metabolomic Analysis after Oral Exposure in Mice

BACKGROUND

Global plastic use has consistently increased over the past century with several different types of plastics now being produced. Much of these plastics end up in oceans or landfills leading to a substantial accumulation of plastics in the environment. Plastic debris slowly degrades into microplastics (MPs) that can ultimately be inhaled or ingested by both animals and humans. A growing body of evidence indicates that MPs can cross the gut barrier and enter into the lymphatic and systemic circulation leading to accumulation in tissues such as the lungs, liver, kidney, and brain. The impacts of mixed MPs exposure on tissue function through metabolism remains largely unexplored.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to investigate the impacts of polymer microspheres on tissue metabolism in mice by assessing the microspheres ability to translocate across the gut barrier and enter into systemic circulation. Specifically, we wanted to examine microsphere accumulation in different organ systems, identify concentration-dependent metabolic changes, and evaluate the effects of mixed microsphere exposures on health outcomes.

METHODS

To investigate the impact of ingested microspheres on target metabolic pathways, mice were exposed to either polystyrene (5 μ m ) microspheres or a mixture of polymer microspheres consisting of polystyrene (5 μ m ), polyethylene (1 - 4 μ m ), and the biodegradability and biocompatible plastic, poly-(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (5 μ m ). Exposures were performed twice a week for 4 weeks at a concentration of either 0, 2, or 4 mg / week via oral gastric gavage. Tissues were collected to examine microsphere ingress and changes in metabolites.

RESULTS

In mice that ingested microspheres, we detected polystyrene microspheres in distant tissues including the brain, liver, and kidney. Additionally, we report on the metabolic differences that occurred in the colon, liver, and brain, which showed differential responses that were dependent on concentration and type of microsphere exposure.

DISCUSSION

This study uses a mouse model to provide critical insight into the potential health implications of the pervasive issue of plastic pollution. These findings demonstrate that orally consumed polystyrene or mixed polymer microspheres can accumulate in tissues such as the brain, liver, and kidney. Furthermore, this study highlights concentration-dependent and polymer type-specific metabolic changes in the colon, liver, and brain after plastic microsphere exposure. These results underline the mobility within and between biological tissues of MPs after exposure and emphasize the importance of understanding their metabolic impact. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13435.

Microplastics and associated chemicals in drinking water: A review of their occurrence and human health implications

Microplastics (MPs) have entered drinking water (DW) via various pathways, raising concerns about their potential health impacts. This study provides a comprehensive review of MP-associated chemicals, such as oligomers, plasticizers, stabilizers, and ultraviolet (UV) filters that can be leached out during DW treatment and distribution. The leaching of these chemicals is influenced by various environmental and operating factors, with three major ones identified: MP concentration and polymer type, pH, and contact time. The leaching process is substantially enhanced during the disinfection step of DW treatment, due to ultraviolet light and/or disinfectant-triggered reactions. The study also reviewed human exposure to MPs and associated chemicals in DW, as well as their health impacts on the human nervous, digestive, reproductive, and hepatic systems, especially the neuroendocrine toxicity of endocrine-disrupting chemicals. An overview of MPs in DW, including tap water and bottled water, was also presented to enable a background understanding of MPs-associated chemicals. In short, certain chemicals leached from MPs in DW can have significant implications for human health and demand further research on their long-term health impacts, mitigation strategies, and interactions with other pollutants such as disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). This study is anticipated to facilitate the research and management of MPs in DW and beverages.

Interactions between MPs and PFASs in aquatic environments: A dual-character situation

Microplastics (MPs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have drawn great attention as emerging threats to aquatic ecosystems. Although the literature to study the MPs and PFASs alone has grown significantly, our knowledge of the overlap and interactions between the two contaminations is scarce due to the unawareness of it. Actually, numerous human activities can simultaneously release MPs and PFASs, and the co-sources of the two are common, meaning that they have a greater potential for interactions. The direct interaction lies in the PFASs adsorption by MPs in water with integrated mechanisms including electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, plus many influence factors. In addition, the existence and transportation of MPs and PFASs in the aquatic environment have been identified. MPs and PFASs can be ingested by aquatic organisms and cause more serious combined toxicity than exposure alone. Finally, curbing strategies of MPs and PFASs are overviewed. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can be an effective place to remove MPs from wastewater, while they are also an important point source of MPs pollution in water bodies. Although adsorption has proven to be a successful curbing method for PFASs, more technological advancements are required for field application. It is expected that this review can help revealing the unheeded relationship and interaction between MPs and PFASs in aquatic environments, thus assisting the further investigations of both MPs and PFASs as a whole.

The sources and bioaccumulation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in animal-derived foods and the potential risk of dietary intake

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have attracted increasing attention due to their environmental persistence and potential toxicity. Diet is one of the main routes of human exposure to PFAS, particularly through the consumption of animal-derived foods (e.g., aquatic products, livestock and poultry, and products derived from them). This review summarizes the source, bioaccumulation, and distribution of PFAS in animal-derived foods and key influential factors. In most environmental media, perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate are the dominant PFAS, with the levels of short-chain PFAS such as perfluorobutyric acid and perfluorohexane sulfonate surpassing them in some watersheds and coastal areas. The presence of PFAS in environmental media is mainly influenced by suspended particulate matter, microbial communities as well as temporal and spatial factors, such as season and location. Linear PFAS with long carbon chains (C ≥ 7) and sulfonic groups tend to accumulate in organisms and contribute significantly to the contamination of animal-derived foods. Furthermore, PFAS, due to their protein affinity, are prone to accumulate in the blood and protein-rich tissues such as the liver and kidney. Species differences in PFAS bioaccumulation are determined by diet, variances in protein content in the blood and tissues and species-specific activity of transport proteins. Carnivorous fish usually show higher PFAS accumulation than omnivorous fish. Poultry typically metabolize PFAS more rapidly than mammals. PFAS exposures in the processing of animal-derived foods are also attributable to the migration of PFAS from food contact materials, especially those in higher-fat content foods. The human health risk assessment of PFAS exposure from animal-derived foods suggests that frequent consumption of aquatic products potentially engender greater risks to women and minors than to adult males. The information and perspectives from this review would help to further identify the toxicity and migration mechanism of PFAS in animal-derived foods and provide information for food safety management.

Characteristic and health risk of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from cosmetics via dermal exposure

In this work, 45 cosmetic samples were collected from China, and 27 target per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. PFAS were found in all samples, including the products marketed for pregnant women, and the total concentrations of PFAS measured in each sample were in the range of 4.05 - 94.9 ng/g. Short-chain perfluorinated carboxylic acids were the dominant compounds contributing to over 60% of the total content. Perfluorobutanoic acid, with high placental transfer efficiency, was the major PFAS in cosmetics for pregnant women. Three emerging PFAS, 2-perfluorohexyl ethanoic acid, 3-perfluoropentyl propanoic acid (5:3) and perfluoro-2-propoxypropanoic acid, were also identified in the cosmetic samples at quantifiable levels. Significantly, positive correlations between individual PFAS were observed, indicating that there may be a common source for PFAS in these samples. Statistical analyses suggested that using plastic containers and precursor substances may be potential sources of PFAS in terminal products, and product aging may increase PFAS levels. From the PFAS analysis of the cosmetics, the margin of safety (MoS) and hazard quotient (HQ) were calculated to assess human health risks through dermal exposure by using these products. Although the MoS and HQ values obtained were deemed acceptable, the cumulative effect caused by composite and long-term exposure to these contaminants needs to be given greater attention by health authorities.

Exaggerated interaction of biofilm-developed microplastics and contaminants in aquatic environments

Biofilm-developed microplastics (MPs) may serve as important vectors for contaminants in aquatic environments. Elucidating the interactions between biofilm-developed MPs and coexisting contaminants is crucial for understanding the vector capacities of MPs. However, little is known about how the adverse effects of contaminants on MP surface-colonized biofilms influence their vector capacity. In this study, we aimed to investigate the interaction mechanism of biofilms colonizing the surface of MPs with coexisting contaminants using microcosm experiments and biofilm characterization techniques. The results indicated that the biofilm biomass on polystyrene increased over time, providing an additional abundance of oxygen-containing functional groups and promoting Cd accumulation by biofilm-developed polystyrene. Moreover, as a coexisting contaminant, Cd exerted adverse effects such as additional mortality of microorganisms and senescence and MP-colonized biofilm shedding. Consequently, the contaminant vector capacity of biofilm-developed MPs could be mitigated. Thus, the adverse effects of coexisting contaminants on biofilms influenced the ability of MPs to act as vectors in aquatic environments. Neglecting the negative effects of contaminants on biofilms may lead to an overestimation of the contaminant vector capacity of biofilm-developed MPs. This study provides support for more accurate assessment of the interactions between biofilm-developed MPs as vectors and contaminants in aquatic environments.

Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in High-Protein Food Products

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) belong to the emerging class of persistent organohalogenated contaminants in the environment. We determined the levels of 10 PFAS in selected samples representing different food types, with a special focus on those rich in protein such as fish, meat and meat preparations, liver, eggs, and leguminous vegetables. Such determinations were based on the Quick Easy Cheap Effective Rugged Safe extraction procedure followed by micro-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The most frequently found was perfluorooctanoic acid, in 84% of the food samples. However, its maximum measured concentration was 0.50 ng g-1 , in a herring sample. The highest concentrations were for perfluorobutanoic acid (35 ng g-1 measured in a pork liver sample) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (12 ng g-1 measured in a herring sample). Because these compounds may bioaccumulate in human tissues by dietary intake, further research into their impact on human health is called for. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:2589-2598. © 2023 SETAC.

Recent Advances in Non-Targeted Screening of Compounds in Plastic-Based/Paper-Based Food Contact Materials

Ensuring the safety of food contact materials has become a pressing concern in recent times. However, detecting hazardous compounds in such materials can be a complex task, and traditional screening methods may not be sufficient. Non-targeted screening technologies can provide comprehensive information on all detectable compounds, thereby supporting the identification, detection, and risk assessment of food contact materials. Nonetheless, the non-targeted screening of food contact materials remains a challenging issue. This paper presents a detailed review of non-targeted screening technologies relying on high-resolution mass spectrometry for plastic-based and paper-based food contact materials over the past five years. Methods of extracting, separating, concentrating, and enriching compounds, as well as migration experiments related to non-targeted screening, are examined in detail. Furthermore, instruments and devices of high-resolution mass spectrometry used in non-targeted screening technologies for food contact materials are discussed and summarized. The research findings aim to provide a theoretical basis and practical reference for the risk management of food contact materials and the development of relevant regulations and standards.

Visual mapping of global nanoplastics research progresses and hotspots: a scientometric assessment analysis

Environmental plastic wastes are continuously degraded into microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs); the latter are more potentially harmful to organisms and human health as their smaller size and higher surface-to-volume ratio. Previous reviews on NPs mainly concentrate on specific aspects, such as sources, environmental behavior, and toxicological effects, but few focused on NPs-related scientific publications from a global point of view. Therefore, this bibliometric study aims to summarize the research themes and trends on NPs and also propose potential directions for future inquiry. Related papers were downloaded from the Web of Science Core Collection database on NPs published from 2008 to 2021, and then retrieved information was analyzed using CiteSpace 6.1 R2 and VOSviewer (version 1.6.). Research on NPs mainly involved environmental behaviors, toxicological effects, identification and extraction of NPs, whereas aquatic environments, especially marine systems, attracted more attentions from these scientists compare to terrestrial environments. Furthermore, the adsorption behavior of pollutants by NPs and the toxicological effects of organisms exposed to NPs are the present hotspots, while the regulation of humic acid (HA) on NPs behaviors and the environmental behavior of NPs in freshwater, like rivers and lakes, are the frontier areas of research. This study also explored the possible opportunities and challenges that may be faced in NPs research, which provide a valuable summary and outlook for ongoing NPs-related research, which may be of intrigue and noteworthiness for relevant researchers.

Evaluating the Effect of Gestational Exposure to Perfluorohexane Sulfonate on Placental Development in Mice Combining Alternative Splicing and Gene Expression Analyses

BACKGROUND

Perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) is a frequently detected per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance in most populations, including in individuals who are pregnant, a period critical for early life development. Despite epidemiological evidence of exposure, developmental toxicity, particularly at realistic human exposures, remains understudied.

OBJECTIVES

We evaluated the effect of gestational exposure to human-relevant body burden of PFHxS on fetal and placental development and explored mechanisms of action combining alternative splicing (AS) and gene expression (GE) analyses.

METHODS

Pregnant ICR mice were exposed to 0, 0.03, and 0.3 μ g / kg / day  from gestational day 7 to day 17 via oral gavage. Upon euthanasia, PFHxS distribution was measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Maternal and fetal phenotypes were recorded, and histopathology was examined for placenta impairment. Multiomics was adopted by combining AS and GE analyses to unveil disruptions in mRNA quality and quantity. The key metabolite transporters were validated by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) for quantification and three-dimensional (3D) structural simulation by AlphaFold2. Targeted metabolomics based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used to detect amino acid and amides levels in the placenta.

RESULTS

Pups developmentally exposed to PFHxS exhibited signs of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), characterized by smaller fetal weight and body length (p < 0.01 ) compared to control mice. PFHxS concentration in maternal plasma was 5.01 ± 0.54  ng / mL . PFHxS trans-placenta distribution suggested dose-dependent transfer through placental barrier. Histopathology of placenta of exposed dams showed placental dysplasia, manifested with an attenuated labyrinthine layer area and deescalated blood sinus counts and placental vascular development index marker CD34. Combined GE and AS analyses pinpointed differences in genes associated with key biological processes of placental development, proliferation, metabolism, and transport in placenta of exposed dams compared to that of control dams. Further detection of placental key transporter gene expression, protein structure simulation, and amino acid and amide metabolites levels suggested that PFHxS exposure during pregnancy led to impairment of placental amino acid transportation.

DISCUSSION

The findings from this study suggest that exposure to human-relevant very-low-dose PFHxS during pregnancy in mice caused IUGR, likely via downregulating of placental amino acid transporters, thereby impairing placental amino acid transportation, resulting in impairment of placental development. Our findings confirm epidemiological findings and call for future attention on the health risk of this persistent yet ubiquitous chemical in the early developmental stage and provide a new approach for understanding gene expression from both quantitative and qualitative omics approaches in toxicological studies. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13217.

First determination on two kinds of microplastic-air partition coefficients of seven per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances under environmentally relative conditions: Experiment measurement and model prediction

Microplastics (MPs) in the environment are the sink and vector of organic contaminants, including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Although PFASs are low- and non-volatile compounds, they have the potential to partition and diffuse from MP into the gas phase in the environmental functions. Herein, the MP-air partition coefficient (KPA) of seven PFASs was measured using a solid-fugacity meter. The PFAS KPA values in two MPs (high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)) were determined under different times, temperatures, and relative humidities (RH), and a model was developed to predict the PFAS KPA values based on the measured data. The results showed that the KPA of PFASs increased with the prolonged partition time until 90 mins, and higher temperature and RH facilitated the distribution of PFASs in MPs into the air phase, leading to smaller KPA values. Moreover, the derived equation for predicting PFAS log KPA values was robust with 0.79 of an adjusted square of correlation coefficient (R2adjusted = 0.79) and 0.35 of root mean squared error (RMSE = 0.35). These findings provided the first knowledge for understanding the partition behavior and fate of PFASs in the MP-air microenvironment.

Perfluoroalkyl substances in food contact materials: preliminary investigation in Vietnam and global comparison

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a group of concerned persistent toxic substances, especially for their application or unintentional formation in food contact materials (FCMs). However, information about the occurrence, sources, and fate of these pollutants in food packaging materials from Vietnam as well as Southeast Asian countries is probably still obscured. In this study, levels of 13 perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and 4 sulfonates (PFSs) were determined in various types of food packaging samples collected from Vietnamese markets. Generally low concentrations of total 17 PFASs (median 0.341; max 624 ng/g) suggested that these compounds were mainly inadvertently produced rather than intentionally added to the packaging materials. A few mochi paper tray samples had relatively high PFAS levels (372-624 ng/g), which were dominated by long-chain (C8-C12) PFCAs. A comprehensive and updated overview of PFASs in FCMs from different countries in the world was also provided. Current database could not provide conclusive trends of PFAS concentrations and profiles in FCMs between continents and countries. The highest levels up to ppm were reported for PFCAs (e.g., PFBA, PFHxA, PFOA, and PFDA) and several fluorotelomer alcohols and carboxylic acids, while PFSs were almost absent in FCMs. FPASs can emit from FCMs, migrate to food, and then contribute to dietary exposure in humans and animals. Additional investigations on the occurrence, sources, behavior and fate, and impacts of PFASs in FCMs are critically needed, especially in emerging and developing countries.

Microplastic-sorbed persistent organic pollutants in coastal Mediterranean Sea areas of Tunisia

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging pollutants of global concern due to their pervasiveness, high sorption ability for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and direct and indirect toxicity to marine organisms, ecosystems, as well as humans. As one of the major coastal interfaces, beaches are considered among the most affected ecosystems by MPs pollution. The morphological characteristics of MPs (pellets and fragments) collected from four beaches along the Tunisian coast and sorbed POPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), were investigated in this study. The results showed that the MPs varied greatly in color, polymer composition and degradation degree. The color varied from colored to transparent and the most prevalent polymer identified using Raman spectroscopy was polyethylene. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images exhibited various surface degradation features including cavities, cracks, attached diatom remains, etc. The concentrations of Σ12PCBs over all beaches ranged from 14 to 632 ng g-1 and 26 to 112 ng g-1 in the pellets and fragments, respectively, with a notable presence and dominance of highly-chlorinated PCBs such as CB-153 and -138. Among the OCPs, γ-HCH is the only compound detected with concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 9.7 ng g-1 and 0.7 to 4.2 ng g-1 in the pellets and fragments, respectively. Our findings indicate that MPs found on the Tunisian coast may pose a chemical risk to marine organisms as the concentrations of PCBs and γ-HCH in most of the analysed samples exceeded the sediment-quality guidelines (SQG), especially the effects range medium (ERM) and the probable effects level (PEL). As the first report of its kind, the information gathered in this study can serve as the baseline and starting point for future monitoring work for Tunisia and neighbouring countries, as well as for stakeholders and coastal managers in decision-making processes.

An overview on human exposure, toxicity, solid-phase microextraction and adsorptive removal of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) from water matrices

Perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) are sub-class of perfluoroalkyl substances commonly detected in water matrices. They are persistent in the environment, hence highly toxic to living organisms. Their occurrence at trace amount, complex nature and prone to matrix interference make their extraction and detection a challenge. This study consolidates current advancements in solid-phase extraction (SPE) techniques for the trace-level analysis of PFCAs from water matrices. The advantages of the methods in terms of ease of applications, low-cost, robustness, low solvents consumption, high pre-concentration factors, better extraction efficiency, good selectivity and recovery of the analytes have been emphasized. The article also demonstrated effectiveness of some porous materials for the adsorptive removal of the PFCAs from the water matrices. Mechanisms of the SPE/adsorption techniques have been discussed. The success and limitations of the processes have been elucidated.

The unheeded inherent connections and overlap between microplastics and poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances: A comprehensive review

Microplastics (MPs) and poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are receiving global attention due to their widespread presences and considerable level in the environment. Although the occurrence and fate of MPs and PFASs alone have been extensively studied, little was known about their unheeded connection and overlap between the two. Therefore, this review attempts to reveal it for the purpose of providing a new view from joint consideration of the two in the future studies. Initially, the critically examined data on the co-sources and existence of MPs and PFASs are summarized. Surprisingly, some products could be co-source of MPs and PFASs which are general in daily life while the distribution of the two is primary influenced by the human activity. Then, their interactions are reviewed based on the fact that PFASs can be sorbed onto MPs which are regarded as a vector of contaminations. The electrostatic interaction and hydrophobic contact are the predominant sorption mechanisms and could be influenced by environmental factors and properties of MPs and PFASs. The effects of MPs on the transport of PFASs in the environments, especially in aquatic environments are then discussed. Additionally, the current state of knowledge on the combined toxicity of MPs and PFASs are presented. Finally, the existing problems and future perspectives are outlined at the end of the review. This review provides an advanced understanding of the overlap, interaction and toxic effects of MPs and PFASs co-existing in the environment.

In Vivo Tissue Distribution of Microplastics and Systemic Metabolomic Alterations After Gastrointestinal Exposure

Global plastic use has consistently increased over the past century with several different types of plastics now being produced. Much of these plastics end up in oceans or landfills leading to a substantial accumulation of plastics in the environment. Plastic debris slowly degrades into microplastics (MPs) that can ultimately be inhaled or ingested by both animals and humans. A growing body of evidence indicates that MPs can cross the gut barrier and enter into the lymphatic and systemic circulation leading to accumulation in tissues such as the lungs, liver, kidney, and brain. The impacts of mixed MPs exposure on tissue function through metabolism remains largely unexplored. To investigate the impact of ingested MPs on target metabolomic pathways, mice were subjected to either polystyrene microspheres or a mixed plastics (5 µm) exposure consisting of polystyrene, polyethylene and the biodegradability and biocompatible plastic, poly-(lactic-co-glycolic acid). Exposures were performed twice a week for four weeks at a dose of either 0, 2, or 4 mg/week via oral gastric gavage. Our findings demonstrate that, in mice, ingested MPs can pass through the gut barrier, be translocated through the systemic circulation, and accumulate in distant tissues including the brain, liver, and kidney. Additionally, we report on the metabolomic changes that occur in the colon, liver and brain which show differential responses that are dependent on dose and type of MPs exposure. Lastly, our study provides proof of concept for identifying metabolomic alterations associated with MPs exposure and adds insight into the potential health risks that mixed MPs contamination may pose to humans.

Interactions of human drug transporters with chemical additives present in plastics: Potential consequences for toxicokinetics and health

Human membrane drug transporters are recognized as major actors of pharmacokinetics; they also handle endogenous compounds, including hormones and metabolites. Chemical additives present in plastics interact with human drug transporters, which may have consequences for the toxicokinetics and toxicity of these widely-distributed environmental and/or dietary pollutants, to which humans are highly exposed. The present review summarizes key findings about this topic. In vitro assays have demonstrated that various plastic additives, including bisphenols, phthalates, brominated flame retardants, poly-alkyl phenols and per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances, can inhibit the activities of solute carrier uptake transporters and/or ATP-binding cassette efflux pumps. Some are substrates for transporters or can regulate their expression. The relatively low human concentration of plastic additives from environmental or dietary exposure is a key parameter to consider to appreciate the in vivo relevance of plasticizer-transporter interactions and their consequences for human toxicokinetics and toxicity of plastic additives, although even low concentrations of pollutants (in the nM range) may have clinical effects. Existing data about interactions of plastic additives with drug transporters remain somewhat sparse and incomplete. A more systematic characterization of plasticizer-transporter relationships is needed. The potential effects of chemical additive mixtures towards transporter activities and the identification of transporter substrates among plasticizers, as well as their interactions with transporters of emerging relevance deserve particular attention. A better understanding of the human toxicokinetics of plastic additives may help to fully integrate the possible contribution of transporters to the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of plastics-related chemicals, as well as to their deleterious effects towards human health.

Insights into Anthropogenic Micro- and Nanoplastic Accumulation in Drinking Water Sources and Their Potential Effects on Human Health

Anthropogenic microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are ubiquitous pollutants found in aquatic, food, soil and air environments. Recently, drinking water for human consumption has been considered a significant pathway for ingestion of such plastic pollutants. Most of the analytical methods developed for detection and identification of MPs have been established for particles with sizes > 10 μm, but new analytical approaches are required to identify NPs below 1 μm. This review aims to evaluate the most recent information on the release of MPs and NPs in water sources intended for human consumption, specifically tap water and commercial bottled water. The potential effects on human health of dermal exposure, inhalation, and ingestion of these particles were examined. Emerging technologies used to remove MPs and/or NPs from drinking water sources and their advantages and limitations were also assessed. The main findings showed that the MPs with sizes > 10 μm were completely removed from drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). The smallest NP identified using pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC/MS) had a diameter of 58 nm. Contamination with MPs/NPs can occur during the distribution of tap water to consumers, as well as when opening and closing screw caps of bottled water or when using recycled plastic or glass bottles for drinking water. In conclusion, this comprehensive study emphasizes the importance of a unified approach to detect MPs and NPs in drinking water, as well as raising the awareness of regulators, policymakers and the public about the impact of these pollutants, which pose a human health risk.

Determination of 21 per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in paper- and cardboard-based food contact materials by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry

In this work, a new analytical method was developed and validated for the determination of the total content of 21 per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in paper- and cardboard-based food contact materials (FCMs). This method is based on green ultrasound-assisted lixiviation followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS). The method was validated in various paper- and cardboard-based FCMs, showing good linearity (R² ≥ 0.99), limits of quantification (1.7-10 μg kg^-1), accuracy (74-115%), and precision (RSD < 20%). The eco-friendly characteristics of the proposed analytical method were assessed according to the analytical eco-scale, demonstrating that it can be considered an excellent green analytical method (EcoScale score > 75). Finally, 16 field samples of paper- and cardboard-based FCMs, including pizza boxes, popcorn boxes, paper bags and cardboard boxes for potato fries, ice cream tubs, pastry trays, and cardboard-based packaging for cooked Spanish omelets, fresh grapes, frozen fish, and salads were analyzed, showing that they comply with the current European regulations regarding the studied PFASs. The developed method is currently accredited according to UNE-EN ISO/IEC 17025 by the Spanish National Accreditation Body (ENAC) to be implemented for official control analysis of FCMs in the Public Health Laboratory of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana (Valencia, Spain).

A review on superior advanced oxidation and photocatalytic degradation techniques for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) elimination from wastewater

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) has been identified as the most toxic specie of the family of perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs). It has been widely distributed and frequently detected in environmental wastewater. The compound's unique features such as inherent stability, rigidity, and resistance to harsh chemical and thermal conditions, due to its multiple and strong C-F bonds have resulted in its resistance to conventional wastewater remediations. Photolysis and bioremediation methods have been proven to be inefficient in their elimination, hence this article presents intensive literature studies and summarized findings reported on the application of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and photocatalytic degradation techniques as the best alternatives for the PFOA elimination from wastewater. Techniques of persulfate, photo-Fenton, electrochemical, photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic degradation have been explored and their mechanisms for the degradation and defluorination of the PFOA have been demonstrated. The major advantage of AOPs techniques has been centralized on the generation of active radicals such as sulfate (SO₄^•-) hydroxyl (•OH). While for the photocatalytic process, photogenerated species (electron (e) and holes (h ⁺ _vb)) initiated the process. These active radicals and photogenerated species possessed potentiality to attack the PFOA molecule and caused the cleavage of the C-C and C-F bonds, resulting in its efficient degradation. Shorter-chain PFCAs have been identified as the major intermediates detected and the final stage entails its complete mineralization to carbon dioxide (CO₂) and fluoride ion (F^-). The prospects and challenges associated with the outlined techniques have been highlighted for better understanding of the subject matter for the PFOA elimination from real wastewaters.

EI/IOT of PFCs: Environmental impacts/interactions, occurrences, and toxicities of perfluorochemicals

Various studies have been conducted on the perfluorochemicals (PFCs) family over the years. These compounds have been sought in various industrial aspects involving the synthesis of everyday utilities due to their broad range of applications. As a result, PFCs have built up in the environment, causing concern. The presence of PFCs in various environmental media, such as terrestrial and marine settings, as well as the mechanisms of transport, bioaccumulation, and physio-chemical interactions of PFCs within plants, aquatic organisms, microplastics, and, ultimately, the human body, are discussed in this review, which draws on a variety of research publications. The interaction of PFCs with proteins, translocation, and adsorption by hydrophobic interactions were observed, and this had an impact on the natural functioning of biological processes, resulting in events such as phylogenic clustering, competitive inhibition, and many others, posing potential hazards to human health and other relevant organisms in the ecosystem. However, further research is needed to have a better knowledge of PFCs and their interactions so that low-cost treatments can be developed to eliminate them. It is therefore, future research should focus on the role of soil matrix as a defensive mechanism for PFCs, as well as the impact of PFC chain length rejection.

Use and release of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in consumer food packaging in U.S. and Canada

Numerous per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) occur in consumer food packaging due to intentional and unintentional addition, despite increasing concern about their health and environmental hazards. We present a substance flow analysis framework to assess the flows of PFASs contained in plant fiber-based and plastic food packaging to the waste stream and environment. Each year between 2018 and 2020, an estimated 9000 (range 1100-25 000) and 940 (range 120-2600) tonnes per year of polymeric PFASs were used in 2% of food packaging in the U.S. and Canada, respectively. At least 11 tonnes per year of non-polymeric PFASs also moved through the food packaging life cycle. Approximately 6100 (range 690-13 000) and 700 (range 70-1600) tonnes per year of these PFASs were landfilled or entered composting facilities in the U.S. and Canada, respectively, with the potential to contaminate the environment. The results suggest that minimal food packaging contains intentionally added PFASs which, nonetheless, has the potential to contaminate the entire waste stream. Further, this indicates that PFASs are not needed for most food packaging. These results serve as a benchmark to judge the effectiveness of future industry and government initiatives to limit PFAS use in food packaging.

Occurrence of Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Ice Cream, Instant Noodles, and Bubble Tea

Food consumption is a significant exposure route to perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). The concentrations of 27 PFAS in fast food were determined by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. In ice cream, instant noodles, and bubble tea, some PFAS were detected, among which perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluoro-n-butanoic acid, and 6:2 polyfluoroalkyl phosphate monoester showed relatively high concentrations. PFAS migrating from bubble tea cups to the food simulant of 50% ethanol aqueous solution showed a difference compared with those migrating into bubble tea matrices. The migration of 27 PFAS to bubble tea samples indicated that long storage time increased PFAS levels (up to 4.8 times) and so did high storage temperature (up to 7.3 times). The hazard ratio, defined as the ratio of the estimated daily intake and the reference dose, was calculated, and it suggests that the total PFAS exposure risk due to consumption of bubble tea should be of concern.