Chronic aerobic exercise training attenuates aortic stiffening and endothelial dysfunction through preserving aortic mitochondrial function in aged rats

Adipocyte-endothelial cell interplay in adipose tissue physiology

Adipose tissue (AT) expansion through hyperplasia or hypertrophy requires vascular remodeling that involves angiogenesis. There is quite some evidence that obese white AT (WAT) displays altered vasculature. Some studies suggest that this is associated with hypoxia, which is thought to play a role in inducing inflammatory activation of the excessively expanding WAT. Increasing evidence, based on genetic manipulations or treatments with inhibitory or activator pharmaceuticals, demonstrates that AT angiogenesis is crucial for AT metabolic function, and thereby for whole body metabolism and metabolic health. Despite some contradiction between studies, disturbance of WAT angiogenesis in obesity could be an important factor driving WAT dysfunction and the comorbidities of obesity. Endothelial cells (ECs) contribute to healthy WAT metabolism via transport of fatty acids and other plasma components, secretory signaling molecules, and extracellular vesicles (EVs). This communication is crucial for adipocyte metabolism and underscores the key role that the AT endothelium plays in systemic energy homeostasis and healthy metabolism. Adipocytes communicate towards the neighboring endothelium through several mechanisms. The pro-inflammatory status of hypertrophic adipocytes in obesity is reflected in ECs activation, which promotes chronic inflammation. On the other hand, adiponectin secreted by the adipocytes is important for healthy endothelial function, and adipocytes also secrete other pro- or anti-angiogenic effector molecules and a wealth of EVs - however, their detailed roles in signaling towards the endothelium are yet poorly understood. To conclude, targeting AT angiogenesis and promoting the healthy communication between adipocytes and ECs represent potentially promising strategies to treat obesity and its comorbidities.

Effects of regular exercise on vascular function with aging: Does sex matter?

Vascular aging, featuring endothelial dysfunction and large elastic artery stiffening, is a major risk factor for the development of age-associated cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Vascular aging is largely mediated by an excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and increased inflammation leading to reduced bioavailability of the vasodilatory molecule nitric oxide and remodeling of the arterial wall. Other cellular mechanisms (i.e., mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired stress response, deregulated nutrient sensing, cellular senescence), termed "hallmarks" or "pillars" of aging, may also contribute to vascular aging. Gonadal aging, which largely impacts women but also impacts some men, modulates the vascular aging process. Regular physical activity, including both aerobic and resistance exercise, is a first-line strategy for reducing CVD risk with aging. Although exercise is an effective intervention to counter vascular aging, there is considerable variation in the vascular response to exercise training with aging. Aerobic exercise improves large elastic artery stiffening in both middle-aged/older men and women and enhances endothelial function in middle-aged/older men by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation and preserving nitric oxide bioavailability; however, similar aerobic exercise training improvements are not consistently observed in estrogen-deficient postmenopausal women. Sex differences in adaptations to exercise may be related to gonadal aging and declines in estrogen in women that influence cellular-molecular mechanisms, disconnecting favorable signaling in the vasculature induced by exercise training. The present review will summarize the current state of knowledge on vascular adaptations to regular aerobic and resistance exercise with aging, the underlying mechanisms involved, and the moderating role of biological sex.

Impact of physical activity on brain oxidative metabolism and intrinsic capacities in young swiss mice fed a high fat diet

Type 2 diabetes and obesity characterized by hallmarks of insulin resistance along with an imbalance in brain oxidative metabolism would impair intrinsic capacities (ICs), a new concept for assessing mental and physical functioning. Here, we explored the impact of physical activity on antioxidant responses and oxidative metabolism in discrete brain areas of HFD or standard diet (STD) fed mice but also its consequences on specific domains of ICs. 6-week-old Swiss male mice were exposed to a STD or a HFD for 16 weeks and half of the mice in each group had access to an activity wheel and the other half did not. As expected HFD mice displayed peripheral insulin resistance but also a persistent inhibition of aconitase activity in cortices revealing an increase in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Animals with access to the running wheel displayed an improvement of insulin sensitivity regardless of the diet factor whereas ROS production remained impaired. Moreover, although the access of the running wheel did not influence mitochondrial biomass, in the oxidative metabolism area, it produced a slight decrease in brain SOD1 and catalase expression notably in HFD fed mice. At the behavioural level, physical exercise produced anxiolytic/antidepressant-like responses and improved motor coordination in both STD and HFD fed mice. However, this non-pharmacological intervention failed to enhance cognitive performance. These findings paint a contrasting landscape about physical exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention for positively orienting the aging trajectory.

Pleiotropic and multi-systemic actions of physical exercise on PGC-1α signaling during the aging process

Physical training is a potent therapeutic approach for improving mitochondrial health through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1α) signaling pathways. However, comprehensive information regarding the physical training impact on PGC-1α in the different physiological systems with advancing age is not fully understood. This review sheds light on the frontier-of-knowledge data regarding the chronic effects of exercise on the PGC-1α signaling pathways in rodents and humans. We address the molecular mechanisms involved in the different tissues, clarifying the precise biological action of PGC-1α, restricted to the aged cell type. Distinct exercise protocols (short and long-term) and modalities (aerobic and resistance exercise) increase the transcriptional and translational PGC-1α levels in adipose tissue, brain, heart, liver, and skeletal muscle in animal models, suggesting that this versatile molecule induces pleiotropic responses. However, PGC-1α function in some human tissues (adipose tissue, heart, and brain) remains challenging for further investigations. PGC-1α is not a simple transcriptional coactivator but supports a biochemical environment of mitochondrial dynamics, controlling physiological processes (primary metabolism, tissue remodeling, autophagy, inflammation, and redox balance). Acting as an adaptive mechanism, the long-term effects of PGC-1α following exercise may reflect the energy demand to coordinate multiple organs and contribute to cellular longevity.

Exercise and mitochondrial mechanisms in patients with sarcopenia

Sarcopenia is a severe loss of muscle mass and functional decline during aging that can lead to reduced quality of life, limited patient independence, and increased risk of falls. The causes of sarcopenia include inactivity, oxidant production, reduction of antioxidant defense, disruption of mitochondrial activity, disruption of mitophagy, and change in mitochondrial biogenesis. There is evidence that mitochondrial dysfunction is an important cause of sarcopenia. Oxidative stress and reduction of antioxidant defenses in mitochondria form a vicious cycle that leads to the intensification of mitochondrial separation, suppression of mitochondrial fusion/fission, inhibition of electron transport chain, reduction of ATP production, an increase of mitochondrial DNA damage, and mitochondrial biogenesis disorder. On the other hand, exercise adds to the healthy mitochondrial network by increasing markers of mitochondrial fusion and fission, and transforms defective mitochondria into efficient mitochondria. Sarcopenia also leads to a decrease in mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy markers, and mitochondrial network efficiency by increasing the level of ROS and apoptosis. In contrast, exercise increases mitochondrial biogenesis by activating genes affected by PGC1-ɑ (such as CaMK, AMPK, MAPKs) and altering cellular calcium, ATP-AMP ratio, and cellular stress. Activation of PGC1-ɑ also regulates transcription factors (such as TFAM, MEFs, and NRFs) and leads to the formation of new mitochondrial networks. Hence, moderate-intensity exercise can be used as a non-invasive treatment for sarcopenia by activating pathways that regulate the mitochondrial network in skeletal muscle.

The Effects of Exercise Training on Mitochondrial Function in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Mitochondria dysfunction is implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Exercise training is potentially an effective non-pharmacological strategy to restore mitochondrial health in CVD. However, how exercise modifies mitochondrial functionality is inconclusive. We conducted a systematic review using the PubMed; Scopus and Web of Science databases to investigate the effect of exercise training on mitochondrial function in CVD patients. Search terms included “mitochondria”, “exercise”, “aerobic capacity”, and “cardiovascular disease” in varied combination. The search yielded 821 records for abstract screening, of which 20 articles met the inclusion criteria. We summarized the effect of exercise training on mitochondrial morphology, biogenesis, dynamics, oxidative capacity, antioxidant capacity, and quality. Amongst these parameters, only oxidative capacity was suitable for a meta-analysis, which demonstrated a significant effect size of exercise in improving mitochondrial oxidative capacity in CVD patients (SMD = 4.78; CI = 2.99 to 6.57; p < 0.01), but with high heterogeneity among the studies (I2 = 75%, p = 0.003). Notably, aerobic exercise enhanced succinate-involved oxidative phosphorylation. The majority of the results suggested that exercise improves morphology and biogenesis, whereas findings on dynamic, antioxidant capacity, and quality, were inadequate or inconclusive. A further randomized controlled trial is clearly required to explain how exercise modifies the pathway of mitochondrial quantity and quality in CVD patients.

Impact of Non-Pharmacological Interventions on the Mechanisms of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis remains the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide characterized by the deposition of lipids and fibrous elements in the form of atheroma plaques in vascular areas which are hemodynamically overloaded. The global burden of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is steadily increasing and is considered the largest known non-infectious pandemic. The management of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is increasing the cost of health care worldwide, which is a concern for researchers and physicians and has caused them to strive to find effective long-term strategies to improve the efficiency of treatments by managing conventional risk factors. Primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is the preferred method to reduce cardiovascular risk. Fasting, a Mediterranean diet, and caloric restriction can be considered useful clinical tools. The protective impact of physical exercise over the cardiovascular system has been studied in recent years with the intention of explaining the mechanisms involved; the increase in heat shock proteins, antioxidant enzymes and regulators of cardiac myocyte proliferation concentration seem to be the molecular and biochemical shifts that are involved. Developing new therapeutic strategies such as vagus nerve stimulation, either to prevent or slow the disease’s onset and progression, will surely have a profound effect on the lives of millions of people.

Effect of Physical Activity/Exercise on Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Muscle and Vascular Aging

Functional status is considered the main determinant of healthy aging. Impairment in skeletal muscle and the cardiovascular system, two interrelated systems, results in compromised functional status in aging. Increased oxidative stress and inflammation in older subjects constitute the background for skeletal muscle and cardiovascular system alterations. Aged skeletal muscle mass and strength impairment is related to anabolic resistance, mitochondrial dysfunction, increased oxidative stress and inflammation as well as a reduced antioxidant response and myokine profile. Arterial stiffness and endothelial function stand out as the main cardiovascular alterations related to aging, where increased systemic and vascular oxidative stress and inflammation play a key role. Physical activity and exercise training arise as modifiable determinants of functional outcomes in older persons. Exercise enhances antioxidant response, decreases age-related oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory signals, and promotes the activation of anabolic and mitochondrial biogenesis pathways in skeletal muscle. Additionally, exercise improves endothelial function and arterial stiffness by reducing inflammatory and oxidative damage signaling in vascular tissue together with an increase in antioxidant enzymes and nitric oxide availability, globally promoting functional performance and healthy aging. This review focuses on the role of oxidative stress and inflammation in aged musculoskeletal and vascular systems and how physical activity/exercise influences functional status in the elderly.

Healthy versus Unhealthy Adipose Tissue Expansion: the Role of Exercise

Although the hallmark of obesity is the expansion of adipose tissue, not all adipose tissue expansion is the same. Expansion of healthy adipose tissue is accompanied by adequate capillary angiogenesis and mitochondria-centered metabolic integrity, whereas expansion of unhealthy adipose tissue is associated with capillary and mitochondrial derangement, resulting in deposition of immune cells (M1-stage macrophages) and excess production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Accumulation of these dysfunctional adipose tissues has been linked to the development of obesity comorbidities, such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular disease, which are leading causes of human mortality and morbidity in modern society. Mechanistically, vascular rarefaction and mitochondrial incompetency (for example, low mitochondrial content, fragmented mitochondria, defective mitochondrial respiratory function, and excess production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species) are frequently observed in adipose tissue of obese patients. Recent studies have demonstrated that exercise is a potent behavioral intervention for preventing and reducing obesity and other metabolic diseases. However, our understanding of potential cellular mechanisms of exercise, which promote healthy adipose tissue expansion, is at the beginning stage. In this review, we hypothesize that exercise can induce unique physiological stimuli that can alter angiogenesis and mitochondrial remodeling in adipose tissues and ultimately promote the development and progression of healthy adipogenesis. We summarize recent reports on how regular exercise can impose differential processes that lead to the formation of either healthy or unhealthy adipose tissue and discuss key knowledge gaps that warrant future research.

Exercise improves vascular health: Role of mitochondria

Vascular mitochondria constantly integrate signals from environment and respond accordingly to match vascular function to metabolic requirements of the organ tissues, while mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to vascular aging and pathologies such as atherosclerosis, stenosis, and hypertension. As an effective lifestyle intervention, exercise induces extensive mitochondrial adaptations through vascular mechanical stress and the increased production and release of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide that activate multiple intracellular signaling pathways, among which peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) plays a critical role. PGC-1α coordinates mitochondrial quality control mechanisms to maintain a healthy mitochondrial pool and promote endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity in vasculature. The mitochondrial adaptations to exercise improve bioenergetics, balance redox status, protect endothelial cells against detrimental insults, increase vascular plasticity, and ameliorate aging-related vascular dysfunction, thus benefiting vascular health. This review highlights recent findings of mitochondria as a central hub integrating exercise-afforded vascular benefits and its underlying mechanisms. A better understanding of the mitochondrial adaptations to exercise will not only shed light on the mechanisms of exercise-induced cardiovascular protection, but may also provide new clues to mitochondria-oriented precise exercise prescriptions for cardiovascular health.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Ameliorates Diabetic Arterial Stiffening via AMPK Pathway

Background and Purpose: Macrovascular complication of diabetes mellitus, characterized by increased aortic stiffness, is a major cause leading to many adverse clinical outcomes. It has been reported that ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) can improve glucose tolerance, enhance insulin activity, and restore the impaired endothelial functions in animal models. The aim of this study was to explore whether Rb1 could alleviate the pathophysiological process of arterial stiffening in diabetes and its potential mechanisms. Experimental Approach: Diabetes was induced in male C57BL/6 mice by administration of streptozotocin. These mice were randomly selected for treatment with Rb1 (10-60 mg/kg, i. p.) once daily for 8 weeks. Aortic stiffness was assessed using ultrasound and measurement of blood pressure and relaxant responses in the aortic rings. Mechanisms of Rb1 treatment were studied in MOVAS-1 VSMCs cultured in a high-glucose medium. Key Results: Rb1 improved DM-induced arterial stiffening and the impaired aortic compliance and endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Rb1 ameliorated DM-induced aortic remodeling characterized by collagen deposition and elastic fibers disorder. MMP2, MMP9, and TGFβ1/Smad2/3 pathways were involved in this process. In addition, Rb1-mediated improvement of arterial stiffness was partly achieved via inhibiting oxidative stress in DM mice, involving regulating NADPH oxidase. Finally, Rb1 could blunt the inhibition effects of DM on AMPK phosphorylation. Conclusion and Implications: Rb1 may represent a novel prevention strategy to alleviate collagen deposition and degradation to prevent diabetic macroangiopathy and diabetes-related complications.

Vascular Ageing and Aerobic Exercise

Impairment of vascular function, in particular endothelial dysfunction and large elastic artery stiffening, represents a major link between ageing and cardiovascular risk. Clinical and experimental studies identified numerous mechanisms responsible for age-related decline of endothelial function and arterial compliance. Since most of these mechanisms are related to oxidative stress or low-grade inflammation, strategies that suppress oxidative stress and inflammation could be effective for preventing age-related changes in arterial function. Indeed, aerobic physical activity, which has been shown to improve intracellular redox balance and mitochondrial health and reduce levels of systemic inflammatory markers, also improves endothelial function and arterial distensibility and reduces risk of cardiovascular diseases. The present paper provides a brief overview of processes underlying age-related changes in arterial function, as well as the mechanisms through which aerobic exercise might prevent or interrupt these processes, and thus attenuate vascular ageing.

Exercise training mitigates ER stress and UCP2 deficiency-associated coronary vascular dysfunction in atherosclerosis

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and uncoupling protein-2 (UCP2) activation are opposing modulators of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis. Exercise reduces atherosclerosis plaques and enhances endothelial function. Our aim was to understand how exercise affects ER stress and UCP2 activation, and how that relates to endothelial dysfunction in an atherosclerotic murine model. Wild type (C57BL/6, WT) and apolipoprotein-E-knockout (ApoE^tm1Unc, ApoE KO) mice underwent treadmill exercise training (EX) or remained sedentary for 12 weeks. Acetylcholine (ACh)-induced endothelium-dependent vasodilation was determined in the presence of an eNOS inhibitor (L-NAME), UCP2 inhibitor (genipin), and ER stress inducer (tunicamycin). UCP2, ER stress markers and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling were quantified by western blotting. p67^phox and superoxide were visualized using immunofluorescence and DHE staining. Nitric oxide (NO) was measured by nitrate/nitrite assay. ACh-induced vasodilation was attenuated in coronary arterioles of ApoE KO mice but improved in ApoE KO-EX mice. Treatment of coronary arterioles with L-NAME, tunicamycin, and genipin significantly attenuated ACh-induced vasodilation in all mice except for ApoE KO mice. Exercise reduced expression of ER stress proteins, TXNIP/NLRP3 inflammasome signaling cascades, and Bax expression in the heart of ApoE KO-EX mice. Further, exercise diminished superoxide production and NADPH oxidase p67^phox expression in coronary arterioles while simultaneously increasing UCP2 expression and nitric oxide (NO) production in the heart of ApoE KO-EX mice. Routine exercise alleviates endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerotic coronary arterioles in an eNOS, UCP2, and ER stress signaling specific manner, and resulting in reduced TXNIP/NLRP3 inflammasome activity and oxidative stress.

Novel Insights and Current Evidence for Mechanisms of Atherosclerosis: Mitochondrial Dynamics as a Potential Therapeutic Target

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the main cause of death worldwide. Atherosclerosis is the underlying pathological basis of CVD. Mitochondrial homeostasis is maintained through the dynamic processes of fusion and fission. Mitochondria are involved in many cellular processes, such as steroid biosynthesis, calcium homeostasis, immune cell activation, redox signaling, apoptosis, and inflammation, among others. Under stress conditions, mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial cristae remodeling, and mitochondrial ROS (mitoROS) production increase, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) decreases, calcium homeostasis is imbalanced, and mitochondrial permeability transition pore open (mPTP) and release of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) are activated. mtDNA recognized by TLR9 can lead to NF-κB pathway activation and pro-inflammatory factor expression. At the same time, TLR9 can also activate NLRP3 inflammasomes and release interleukin, an event that eventually leads to tissue damage and inflammatory responses. In addition, mitochondrial dysfunction may amplify the activation of NLRP3 through the production of mitochondrial ROS, which together aggravate accumulating mitochondrial damage. In addition, mtDNA defects or gene mutation can lead to mitochondrial oxidative stress. Finally, obesity, diabetes, hypertension and aging are risk factors for the progression of CVD, which are closely related to mitochondrial dynamics. Mitochondrial dynamics may represent a new target in the treatment of atherosclerosis. Antioxidants, mitochondrial inhibitors, and various new therapies to correct mitochondrial dysfunction represent a few directions for future research on therapeutic intervention and amelioration of atherosclerosis.

Effect of Oxidative Stress on Diaphragm Dysfunction and Exercise Intervention in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) can cause extrapulmonary injury such as diaphragm dysfunction. Oxidative stress is one of the main factors causing diaphragm dysfunction in COPD. Exercise plays a positive role in the prevention and treatment of diaphragm dysfunction in COPD, and the changes in diaphragm structure and function induced by exercise are closely related to the regulation of oxidative stress. Therefore, on the basis of the review of oxidative stress and the changes in diaphragm structure and function in COPD, this article analyzed the effects of exercise on oxidative stress and diaphragm dysfunction in COPD and explored the possible mechanism by which exercise improves oxidative stress. Studies have found that diaphragm dysfunction in COPD includes the decline of muscle strength, endurance, and activity. Oxidative stress mainly affects the structure and function of the diaphragm in COPD through protein oxidation, protease activation and calcium sensitivity reduction. The effects of exercise on oxidative stress level and diaphragm dysfunction may differ depending on the intensity, duration, and style of exercise. The mechanism of exercise on oxidative stress in the diaphragm of COPD may include improving antioxidant capacity, reducing oxidase activity and improving mitochondrial function.

Mitochondrial contributions to vascular endothelial dysfunction, arterial stiffness, and cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) affects one in three adults and remains the leading cause of death in America. Advancing age is a major risk factor for CVD. Recent plateaus in CVD-related mortality rates in high-income countries after decades of decline highlight a critical need to identify novel therapeutic targets and strategies to mitigate and manage the risk of CVD development and progression. Vascular dysfunction, characterized by endothelial dysfunction and large elastic artery stiffening, is independently associated with an increased CVD risk and incidence and is therefore an attractive target for CVD prevention and management. Vascular mitochondria have emerged as an important player in maintaining vascular homeostasis. As such, age- and disease-related impairments in mitochondrial function contribute to vascular dysfunction and consequent increases in CVD risk. This review outlines the role of mitochondria in vascular function and discusses the ramifications of mitochondrial dysfunction on vascular health in the setting of age and disease. The adverse vascular consequences of increased mitochondrial-derived reactive oxygen species, impaired mitochondrial quality control, and defective mitochondrial calcium cycling are emphasized, in particular. Current evidence for both lifestyle and pharmaceutical mitochondrial-targeted strategies to improve vascular function is also presented.

Glycine and N-acetylcysteine (GlyNAC) supplementation in older adults improves glutathione deficiency, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, insulin resistance, endothelial dysfunction, genotoxicity, muscle strength, and cognition: Results of a pilot clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress (OxS) and mitochondrial dysfunction are implicated as causative factors for aging. Older adults (OAs) have an increased prevalence of elevated OxS, impaired mitochondrial fuel-oxidation (MFO), elevated inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, insulin resistance, cognitive decline, muscle weakness, and sarcopenia, but contributing mechanisms are unknown, and interventions are limited/lacking. We previously reported that inducing deficiency of the antioxidant tripeptide glutathione (GSH) in young mice results in mitochondrial dysfunction, and that supplementing GlyNAC (combination of glycine and N-acetylcysteine [NAC]) in aged mice improves naturally-occurring GSH deficiency, mitochondrial impairment, OxS, and insulin resistance. This pilot trial in OA was conducted to test the effect of GlyNAC supplementation and withdrawal on intracellular GSH concentrations, OxS, MFO, inflammation, endothelial function, genotoxicity, muscle and glucose metabolism, body composition, strength, and cognition.

METHODS

A 36-week open-label clinical trial was conducted in eight OAs and eight young adults (YAs). After all the participants underwent an initial (pre-supplementation) study, the YAs were released from the study. OAs were studied again after GlyNAC supplementation for 24 weeks, and GlyNAC withdrawal for 12 weeks. Measurements included red-blood cell (RBC) GSH, MFO; plasma biomarkers of OxS, inflammation, endothelial function, glucose, and insulin; gait-speed, grip-strength, 6-min walk test; cognitive tests; genomic-damage; glucose-production and muscle-protein breakdown rates; and body-composition.

RESULTS

GlyNAC supplementation for 24 weeks in OA corrected RBC-GSH deficiency, OxS, and mitochondrial dysfunction; and improved inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, insulin-resistance, genomic-damage, cognition, strength, gait-speed, and exercise capacity; and lowered body-fat and waist-circumference. However, benefits declined after stopping GlyNAC supplementation for 12 weeks.

CONCLUSIONS

GlyNAC supplementation for 24-weeks in OA was well tolerated and lowered OxS, corrected intracellular GSH deficiency and mitochondrial dysfunction, decreased inflammation, insulin-resistance and endothelial dysfunction, and genomic-damage, and improved strength, gait-speed, cognition, and body composition. Supplementing GlyNAC in aging humans could be a simple and viable method to promote health and warrants additional investigation.

Decellularization of porcine carotid arteries using low-concentration sodium dodecyl sulfate

BACKGROUND

The decellularized scaffold is a promising material for producing tissue-engineered vascular grafts (TEVGs) because of its complex, native-like three-dimensional structure and mechanical properties. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), one of the most commonly used decellularization reagents, appears to be more effective than other detergents for removing cells from dense tissues. The concentrations of SDS used in previous studies and their effects on decellularization are not consistent.

METHODS

In this study, porcine carotid arteries were decellularized using detergent-based protocols using Triton X-100 followed by SDS at different concentrations and exposing time. Cell removal efficiency and composition were evaluated by histological analysis, and DNA and collagen quantification. Ultrastructure, mechanical properties, pore size distribution, and in vivo biocompatibility of decellularized arteries were also evaluated.

RESULTS

The DNA content of decellularized scaffolds treated with 0.3% SDS for 72 h or 0.5% SDS for 48 h was significantly less than that treated with 1% SDS for 30 h. There was a significant loss of soluble collagen after treatment with 1% SDS relative to native arteries. The extensive loss of elastin and glycosaminoglycans was observed in decellularized arteries treated with 0.5% SDS or 1% SDS. The basement membrane and biomechanics were also damaged by these two protocols. Moreover, decellularized scaffolds became more porous with many large pores after treatment with 0.3% SDS.

CONCLUSION

Low-concentration SDS could be a suitable choice for artery decellularization. Decellularized porcine carotid arteries, prepared using Triton X-100 followed by 0.3% SDS, may be a promising biological scaffold for TEVGs.

Lifelong voluntary aerobic exercise prevents age- and Western diet- induced vascular dysfunction, mitochondrial oxidative stress and inflammation in mice

KEY POINTS

The results of the present study establish the temporal pattern of age-related vascular dysfunction across the adult lifespan in sedentary mice consuming a non-Western diet, and the underlying mechanisms The results demonstrate that consuming a Western diet accelerates and exacerbates vascular ageing across the lifespan in sedentary mice They also show that lifelong voluntary aerobic exercise has remarkable protective effects on vascular function throughout the lifespan, in the setting of ageing alone, as well as ageing compounded by Western diet consumption Overall, the results indicate that amelioration of mitochondrial oxidative stress and inflammation are key mechanisms underlying the voluntary aerobic exercise-associated preservation of vascular function across the lifespan in both the presence and absence of a Western dietary pattern ABSTRACT: Advancing age is the major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, driven largely by vascular endothelial dysfunction (impaired endothelium-dependent dilatation, EDD) and aortic stiffening (increased aortic pulse wave velocity, aPWV). In humans, vascular ageing occurs in the presence of differences in diet and physical activity, but the interactive effects of these factors are unknown. We assessed carotid artery EDD and aPWV across the lifespan in mice consuming standard (normal) low-fat chow (NC) or a high-fat/high-sucrose Western diet (WD) in the absence (sedentary, SED) or presence (voluntary wheel running, VWR) of aerobic exercise. Ageing impaired nitric oxide-mediated EDD (peak EDD 88 ± 12% 6 months P = 0.003 vs. 59 ± 9% 27 months NC-SED), which was accelerated by WD (60 ± 18% 6 months WD-SED). In NC mice, aPWV increased 32% with age (423 ± 13 cm/s at 24 months P < 0.001 vs. 321 ± 12 cm/s at 6 months) and absolute values were an additional ∼10% higher at any age in WD mice (P = 0.042 vs. NC-SED). Increases in aPWV with age in NC and WD mice were associated with 30-65% increases in aortic intrinsic wall stiffness (6 vs. 19-27 months, P = 0.007). Lifelong aerobic exercise prevented age- and WD-related vascular dysfunction across the lifespan, and this protection appeared to be mediated by mitigation of vascular mitochondrial oxidative stress and inflammation. Our results depict the temporal impairment of vascular function over the lifespan in mice, acceleration and exacerbation of that dysfunction with WD consumption, the remarkable protective effects of voluntary aerobic exercise, and the underlying mechanisms.

The contribution of uncoupling protein 2 to mitochondrial Ca2+ homeostasis in health and disease - A short revisit

Considering the versatile functions attributed to uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) in health and disease, a profound understanding of the protein's molecular actions under physiological and pathophysiological conditions is indispensable. This review aims to revisit and shed light on the fundamental molecular functions of UCP2 in mitochondria, with particular emphasis on its intricate role in regulating mitochondrial calcium (Ca²⁺) uptake. UCP2's modulating effect on various vital processes in mitochondria makes it a crucial regulator of mitochondrial homeostasis in health and disease.

Environmental stress influences mitochondrial metabolism in vascular cells: consequences for angiogenesis

While the important and varied roles that vascular cells play in both health and disease is well recognised, the focus on potential therapeutic targets continually shifts as new players emerge. Here, we outline how mitochondria may be viewed as more than simply energy-generating organelles, but instead as important sentinels of metabolic health and effectors of appropriate responses to physiological challenges.

Influence of sprint exercise on aortic pulse wave velocity and femoral artery shear patterns

PURPOSE

Aortic stiffness may affect shear patterns in the peripheral vasculature. This study examined if sprint exercise, which typically increases aortic stiffness is associated with increased peripheral retrograde blood flow and impaired microvascular function.

METHODS

Twenty participants (10 women; age: 27 ± 5 years) underwent arterial stiffness, shear rate, and microvascular function assessment at three time points: baseline; following time control; ~ 2 min post a 30-s cycle ergometer sprint against 7.0% body mass. Aortic stiffness was assessed using carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV). Superficial femoral artery (SFA) diameter and blood velocity were assessed using Doppler-ultrasound and were used to calculate shear rates and resistance index (RI). SFA wave reflections were obtained via wave intensity analysis. Vastus medialis microvascular function was measured as tissue saturation index reactivity pre-post exercise via near-infrared spectroscopy.

RESULTS

cfPWV increased by + 0.8 ± 0.7 m·s^-1 following exercise (p < 0.001). Retrograde shear was reduced following exercise compared with time control (- 4.9 ± 3.8 s^-1; p < 0.001), while tissue saturation index was increased post-exercise from baseline (+ 2.3 ± 4.6%; p = 0.04). Reductions in SFA wave reflections (- 1.70 ± 1.96 aU) and RI (- 0.17 ± 0.13 aU) were also noted following exercise (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

These data suggest sprint exercise-mediated changes in peripheral shear patterns and microvascular function in the exercised vasculature occur independent from increases in aortic stiffness. Exercise-induced reductions in SFA retrograde shear may be related to decreased wave reflections and peripheral vascular resistance.

Physical activity and exercise: Strategies to manage frailty

Frailty, a consequence of the interaction of the aging process and certain chronic diseases, compromises functional outcomes in the elderly and substantially increases their risk for developing disabilities and other adverse outcomes. Frailty follows from the combination of several impaired physiological mechanisms affecting multiple organs and systems. And, though frailty and sarcopenia are related, they are two different conditions. Thus, strategies to preserve or improve functional status should consider systemic function in addition to muscle conditioning. Physical activity/exercise is considered one of the main strategies to counteract frailty-related physical impairment in the elderly. Exercise reduces age-related oxidative damage and chronic inflammation, increases autophagy, and improves mitochondrial function, myokine profile, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) signaling pathway, and insulin sensitivity. Exercise interventions target resistance (strength and power), aerobic, balance, and flexibility work. Each type improves different aspects of physical functioning, though they could be combined according to need and prescribed as a multicomponent intervention. Therefore, exercise intervention programs should be prescribed based on an individual's physical functioning and adapted to the ensuing response.

Targeting mitochondrial fitness as a strategy for healthy vascular aging

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of death worldwide and aging is the primary risk factor for CVD. The development of vascular dysfunction, including endothelial dysfunction and stiffening of the large elastic arteries (i.e., the aorta and carotid arteries), contribute importantly to the age-related increase in CVD risk. Vascular aging is driven in large part by oxidative stress, which reduces bioavailability of nitric oxide and promotes alterations in the extracellular matrix. A key upstream driver of vascular oxidative stress is age-associated mitochondrial dysfunction. This review will focus on vascular mitochondria, mitochondrial dysregulation and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and discuss current evidence for prevention and treatment of vascular aging via lifestyle and pharmacological strategies that improve mitochondrial health. We will also identify promising areas and important considerations ('research gaps') for future investigation.

Characteristics of penile growth in pubertal rats and a non-invasive method to lengthen the penis

BACKGROUND

Males with short penises may suffer from sexual dysfunction and psychological problems. However, currently, managing short penis is a huge challenge.

OBJECTIVES

To explore whether inhibition of lysyl oxidase (LOX) activity (anti-LOX) combined with a vacuum device could lengthen the penis of pubertal rat.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male rats of different ages were purchased, their exposed penile lengths and weights were measured, and protein expression and lysyl oxidase activity in the corpus cavernosum were analyzed. Fifteen-day-old rats were then purchased and divided into six groups: control, Anti-lysyl oxidase, -200 mm Hg (vacuum device under -200 mm Hg value), -200 mm Hg + Anti-lysyl oxidase, -300 mm Hg, and -300 mm Hg + Anti-lysyl oxidase groups. After the intervention duration of 7 weeks, rats' penile length was measured and erectile function was assessed. The corpus cavernosum was harvested for histopathology and molecular assessments.

RESULTS

Exposed penile length and weight significantly increased with age, especially between 4 and 8 weeks. Both the protein expression and lysyl oxidase activity in corpus cavernosum were the highest at 2 weeks; however, they quickly decreased with age and slowly declined after 8 weeks. Anti-lysyl oxidase significantly increased the penile length by 10.79% over controlled rats, -200 mm Hg + Anti-lysyl oxidase lengthened it by 14.05%, and -300 mm Hg + Anti-lysyl oxidase increased it by 19.84%. Anti-lysyl oxidase significantly reduced lysyl oxidase activity to decrease pyridinoline concentration; however, it did not change desmosine (P = .28), hydroxyproline (P = .14), and total elastin (P = .06) levels. Anti-lysyl oxidase with or without a vacuum device did not diminish erectile function or impair the normal microstructure of corpus cavernosum.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The rats' penile growth peaks occurred between 4 and 8 weeks. Anti-lysyl oxidase with a vacuum device promoted penile lengthening by inhibiting pyridinoline production to induce tunica albuginea remodeling. The penile lengthening effect was more obvious in pubertal rats than the adult rats. None of the procedures decreased erectile function.

Late-life voluntary wheel running reverses age-related aortic stiffness in mice: a translational model for studying mechanisms of exercise-mediated arterial de-stiffening

Aortic stiffening, assessed as pulse-wave velocity (PWV), increases with age and is an important antecedent to, and independent predictor of, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and other clinical disorders of aging. Aerobic exercise promotes lower levels of aortic stiffness in older adults, but the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood, largely due to inherent challenges of mechanistic studies of large elastic arteries in humans. Voluntary wheel running (VWR) is distinct among experimental animal exercise paradigms in that it allows investigation of the physiologic effects of aerobic training without potential confounding influences of aversive molecular signaling related to forced exercise. In this study, we investigated whether VWR in mice may be a suitable model for mechanistic studies (i.e., "reverse translation") of the beneficial effects of exercise on arterial stiffness in humans. We found that 10 weeks of VWR in old mice (~ 28 months) reversed age-related elevations in aortic PWV assessed in vivo (Old VWR: 369 ± 19 vs. old sedentary: 439 ± 20 cm/s, P < 0.05). The de-stiffening effects of VWR were accompanied by normalization of age-related increases in ex vivo mechanical stiffness of aortic segments and aortic accumulation of collagen-I and advanced glycation end products, as well as lower levels of aortic superoxide and nitrotyrosine. Our results suggest that late-life VWR in mice recapitulates the aortic de-stiffening effects of exercise in humans and indicates important mechanistic roles for decreased oxidative stress and extracellular matrix remodeling. Therefore, VWR is a suitable model for further study of the mechanisms underlying beneficial effects of exercise on arterial stiffness.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 protects against abdominal aortic aneurysm formation by reducing reactive oxygen species, vascular inflammation, and apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells

Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) is an enzyme that detoxifies aldehydes by converting them to carboxylic acids. ALDH2 deficiency is known to increase oxidative stress. Increased oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) pathogenesis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) promote degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) apoptosis. Reducing oxidative stress by an ALDH2 activator could have therapeutic potential for limiting AAA development. We hypothesized that ALDH2 deficiency could increase the risk for AAA by decreasing ROS elimination and that an ALDH2 activator could provide an alternative option for AAA treatment. The National Center for Biotechnology (NCBI) Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database was used. Human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs) were used for the in vitro experiments. Gene-targeted ALDH2*2 KI knock-in mice on a C57BL/6J background and apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE KO) mice were obtained. An animal model of AAA was constructed using osmotic minipumps to deliver 1000 ng/kg/min angiotensin II (AngII) for 28 days. Patients with AAA had significantly lower ALDH2 expression levels than normal subjects. ALDH2*2 KI mice were susceptible to AngII administration, exhibiting significantly increased AAA incidence rates and increased aortic diameters. Alda-1, an ALDH2 activator, reduced AngII-induced ROS production, NF-kB activation, and apoptosis in HASMCs. Alda-1 attenuated AngII-induced aneurysm formation and decreased aortic expansion in ApoE KO mice. We concluded that ALDH2 deficiency is associated with the development of AAAs in humans and a murine disease model. ALDH2 deficiency increases susceptibility to AngII-induced AAA formation by attenuating anti-ROS effects and increasing VSMC apoptosis and vascular inflammation. Alda-1 was shown to attenuate the progression of experimental AAA in a murine model.

Beneficial Effects of Exercise on Subendothelial Matrix Stiffness are Short-Lived

Aerobic exercise helps to maintain cardiovascular health in part by mitigating age-induced arterial stiffening. However, the long-term effects of exercise regimens on aortic stiffness remain unknown, especially in the intimal extracellular matrix layer known as the subendothelial matrix. To examine how the stiffness of the subendothelial matrix changes following exercise cessation, mice were exposed to an 8 week swimming regimen followed by an 8 week sedentary rest period. Whole vessel and subendothelial matrix stiffness were measured after both the exercise and rest periods. After swimming, whole vessel and subendothelial matrix stiffness decreased, and after 8 weeks of rest, these values returned to baseline. Within the same time frame, the collagen content in the intima layer and the presence of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in the whole vessel were also affected by the exercise and the rest periods. Overall, our data indicate that consistent exercise is necessary for maintaining compliance in the subendothelial matrix.

The Role of Genetic Profile in Functional Performance Adaptations to Exercise Training or Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Background: Variations in genotype may contribute to heterogeneity in functional adaptations to exercise. Methods: A systematic search of eight databases was conducted, and 9,696 citations were screened. Results: Eight citations from seven studies measuring 10 single-nucleotide polymorphisms and nine different functional performance test outcomes were included in the review. There was one observational study of physical activity and six experimental studies of aerobic or resistance training. The ACE (D) allele, ACTN3 (RR) genotype, UCP2 (GG) genotype, IL-6-174 (GG) genotype, TNF-α-308 (GG) genotype, and IL-10-1082 (GG) genotype all predicted significantly superior adaptations in at least one functional outcome in older men and women after prescribed exercise or in those with higher levels of physical activity. Conclusion: There is a small amount of evidence that older adults may have better functional outcomes after exercise/physical activity if they have specific alleles related to musculoskeletal function or inflammation. However, more robust trials are needed.

Beneficial effects of resveratrol and exercise training on cardiac and aortic function and structure in the 3xTg mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Background: Studies have indicated an association between Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and increased risk of developing cardiovascular complications. Lifestyle modifiable factors, such as exercise and diet, are known to prevent cardio-cerebral disease. Recent studies demonstrate that hearts from early onset triple-transgenic AD mice exhibit pathologies, but it is not clear whether cardiovascular function is altered in this model. Methods: In this study, we measured in vivo cardiovascular function in 7-month-old male 3xTg mice and age-matched wild-type (WT) mice using high-frequency high-resolution ultrasound imaging. Results: Our findings indicated that aortic root measurements and interventricular septal dimensions were similar in 3xTg and wild-type mice. Systolic function, expressed as ejection fraction and fractional shortening, were decreased in 3xTg mice. Late (A) ventricular filling velocities, the early/atrial (E/A) ratio, and mitral valve deceleration time, all indices of diastolic function, were increased in 3xTg mice compared to WT mice. Treadmill exercise training and resveratrol supplementation in the diet for 5 months improved ejection fraction, fractional shortening, and restored diastolic deceleration times. Pulse wave velocity was ~33% higher in 3xTg, and accompanied by a significant increase in elastin fiber fragmentation within the aortic wall, which was associated with decrease in elastin content and fiber length. Aortic wall and adventitia thickness were increased in 3xTg mice compared to the WT group. Exercise training and resveratrol supplementation, or both, improved overall aortic morphology with no change in pulse wave velocity. Conclusion: Taken together, the results indicate that the aberrations in cardiac function and aortic elastin morphology observed in the 3xTg mouse model of AD can be prevented with exercise training and treatment with resveratrol. The benefits of regular exercise training and resveratrol supplementation of heart and aortic structure in the 3xTg mouse support the value of healthy lifestyle factors on cardiovascular health.

Influence of Physical Exercise on Advanced Glycation End Products Levels in Patients Living With the Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Introduction: Combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) used to treat acquired immunodeficiency virus (HIV) induces a number of adverse effects, such as insulin resistance and dyslipidemia, which ultimately increases the cardiovascular risk. Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) have been implicated in the etiology of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and other chronic diseases. It is known that physical exercise improves the lipid profile, insulin resistance and reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases. However, the impact of physical exercise on AGE levels in HIV-infected patients has not been so far investigated. Therefore, this study compared AGEs levels in people with and without HIV and verified the effect of physical training on serum AGE levels.

Methods: Participants were initially assigned into three groups: healthy control (CTL, n = 35), physically inactive HIV-infected (In-HIV, n = 33) and physically active HIV-infected (Ac-HIV, n = 19). The In-HIV group underwent physical training for 3 months, consisting of 60-min sessions of multimodal supervised exercise (aerobic, resistance and flexibility) with moderate intensity (50–80% heart rate reserve), performed 3 times/week. AGEs were measured in serum by fluorescence spectrometry.

Results: At baseline, serum AGEs fluorescence level was significantly higher in inactive HIV-patients when compared to controls or active HIV-patients (In-HIV: 0.93 ± 0.08 vs. controls: 0.68 ± 0.13 and Ac-HIV: 0.59 ± 0.04 A.U.; P < 0.001). Triglycerides were also higher in In-HIV than CTL (182.8 ± 102 vs. 132.8 ± 52.3 mg/dL; P < 0.05). Waist circumference was lower in Ac-HIV, compared to In-HIV and controls (83.9 ± 10.4 vs. 92.9 ± 13.5 and 98.3 ± 12.4, respectively; P < 0.05). Body mass, fasting blood glucose, LDL, HDL, and total cholesterol were similar between groups. After training, AGE levels decreased (Baseline: 0.93 ± 0.08 vs. 3 months follow-up: 0.59 ± 0.04 AU; P < 0.001), no further difference being detected vs. CTL or Ac-HIV. Conclusion: HIV-infected patients under cART exhibited elevated AGEs levels compared to healthy individuals and physically active patients. Short-term aerobic training of moderate intensity counteracted this condition.

A pyridoindole antioxidant SMe1EC2 regulates contractility, relaxation ability, cation channel activity, and protein-carbonyl modifications in the aorta of young and old rats with or without diabetes mellitus

We studied the effects of treatment with SMe1EC, a hexahydropyridoindole antioxidant, on vascular reactivity, endothelial function, and oxidonitrosative stress level of thoracic aorta in young and old rats with or without diabetes mellitus. The rats were grouped as young control (YC 3 months old), old control (OC 15 months old), young diabetic (YD), old diabetic (OD), young control treated (YCT), old control treated (OCT), young diabetic treated (YDT), and old diabetic treated (ODT). Diabetes was induced by streptozotocin injection and subsequently SMe1EC2 (10 mg/kg/day, p.o.) was administered to YCT, OCT, YDT, and ODT rats for 5 months. In young and old rats, diabetes resulted in hypertension, weight loss, hyperglycemia, and hypertriglyceridemia, which were partially prevented by SMe1EC2. SMe1EC2 also inhibited the diabetes-induced increase in aorta levels of AGEs (advanced glycosylation end-protein adducts), 4-HNE (4-hydroxy-nonenal-histidine), 3-NT (3-nitrotyrosine), and RAGEs (receptors for AGEs). The contractions of the aorta rings to phenylephrine (Phe) and KCL did not significantly change, but acetylcholine (ACh) and salbutamol relaxations were reduced in OC compared to YC rats. Diabetes induction increased Phe contractions in YC and OC rats, KCL contractions in YC rats, and did not cause further inhibition in already inhibited ACh and salbutamol relaxations in OC rats. We have achieved the lowest levels of ACh relaxation in YD rats compared to other groups. SMe1EC2 did not change the response of aorta to ACh, salbutamol and Phe in YC rats, and ameliorated ACh relaxations in OC and YD but not in OD rats. In YDT and ODT rats, increased Phe and KCL contractions, high blood pressure, and impaired salbutamol relaxations were amended by SMe1EC2. Phe contractions observed in YD and OD rats as well as KCl contractions observed in OC rats were the lowest levels when the rats were treated with SMe1EC2. When the bath solution was shifted to cyclopiazonic acid (CYP) or CYP plus Ca²⁺-free medium, the contraction induced by a single dose of Phe (3 × 10^-6 M) was more inhibited in YD and OD than in YC but not in OC rats. In SMe1EC2-treated rats, neither the presence of CFM nor CFM plus CYP exhibited a significant change in response of aorta to a single dose of Phe. These findings suggest that α1-adrenergic receptor signaling is activated in both age groups of diabetic rats, diabetes activates K⁺-depolarization and calcium mobilization via Ca_V especially in the aorta of young rats, and sensitizes the aorta of old rats to the regulating effect of SMe1EC2. ACh relaxations were inhibited in YC rats, increased in OC rats and unchanged in YD and OD rats when aortic rings pretreated with TEA, an inhibitor of calcium-activated K⁺ channels (K_Ca), or 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), an inhibitor of voltage-sensitive K⁺ channels (K_V). ACh relaxations were inhibited in YCT, OCT, and YDT rats in the presence of 4-AP or TEA. In ODT rats, 4-AP did not change ACh relaxation but TEA inhibited. These findings suggest that the contribution of K_v and K_Ca to ACh relaxation is likely upregulated by SMe1EC2 when the relaxations were inhibited by aging or diabetes. We conclude that SMe1EC2 might be a promising agent for aging and diabetes related vascular disorders.

Exercise ameliorates endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated vascular dysfunction in mesenteric arteries in atherosclerosis

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is closely associated with atherosclerosis, but the effects of exercise on ER stress-mediated endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis is not yet fully understood. We assessed endothelium-dependent vasodilation in isolated mesenteric arteries from wild type (WT), WT with exercise (WT-EX), ApoE knockout (ApoE KO), and ApoE KO mice with exercise (ApoE KO-EX). Vasodilation to acetylcholine (ACh) was elicited in the presence of inhibitors of ER stress, eNOS, caspase-1, and UCP-2 (Tudca, L-NAME, AC-YVARD-cmk, and Genipin, respectively) and the ER stress inducer (Tunicamycin). Immunofluorescence was used to visualize the expression of CHOP, as an indicator of ER stress, in superior mesenteric arteries (SMA). Dilation to ACh was attenuated in ApoE KO but was improved in ApoE KO-EX. Incubation of Tudca and AC-YVARD-cmk improved ACh-induced vasodilation in ApoE KO. L-NAME, tunicamycin, and Genipin attenuated vasodilation in WT, WT-EX and ApoE KO-EX, but not in ApoE KO. Exercise training reversed the increase in CHOP expression in the endothelium of SMA of ApoE KO mice. We conclude that ER stress plays a significant role in endothelial dysfunction of resistance arteries in atherosclerosis and that exercise attenuates ER stress and regulates its critical downstream signaling pathways including eNOS, UCP-2 and caspase-1.

Voluntary aerobic exercise increases arterial resilience and mitochondrial health with aging in mice

Mitochondrial dysregulation and associated excessive reactive oxygen species (mtROS) production is a key source of oxidative stress in aging arteries that reduces baseline function and may influence resilience (ability to withstand stress). We hypothesized that voluntary aerobic exercise would increase arterial resilience in old mice. An acute mitochondrial stressor (rotenone) caused greater (further) impairment in peak carotid EDD in old (~27 mo., OC, n=12; -32.5±-10.5%) versus young (~7 mo., YC n=11; -5.4±- 3.7%) control male mice, whereas arteries from young and old exercising (YVR n=10 and OVR n=11, 10-wk voluntary running; -0.8±-2.1% and -8.0±4.9%, respectively) mice were protected. Ex-vivo simulated Western diet (WD, high glucose and palmitate) caused greater impairment in EDD in OC (-28.5±8.6%) versus YC (-16.9±5.2%) and YVR (-15.3±2.3%), whereas OVR (-8.9±3.9%) were more resilient (not different versus YC). Simultaneous ex-vivo treatment with mitochondria-specific antioxidant MitoQ attenuated WD-induced impairments in YC and OC, but not YVR or OVR, suggesting that exercise improved resilience to mtROS-mediated stress. Exercise normalized age-related alterations in aortic mitochondrial protein markers PGC-1α, SIRT-3 and Fis1 and augmented cellular antioxidant and stress response proteins. Our results indicate that arterial aging is accompanied by reduced resilience and mitochondrial health, which are restored by voluntary aerobic exercise.

Mitochondrial impairments contribute to spatial learning and memory dysfunction induced by chronic tramadol administration in rat: Protective effect of physical exercise

Despite the worldwide use of tramadol, few studies have been conducted about its effects on memory and mitochondrial function, and controversial results have been reported. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in physical exercise as a protective approach to neuronal and cognitive impairments. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of physical exercise on spatial learning and memory and brain mitochondrial function in tramadol-treated rats. After completion of 2-week (short-term) and 4-week (long-term) treadmill exercise regimens, male Wistar rats received tramadol (20, 40, 80mg/kg/day) intraperitoneally for 30days. Then spatial learning and memory was assessed by Morris water maze test (MWM). Moreover, brain mitochondrial function was evaluated by determination of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial swelling and cytochrome c release from mitochondria. Chronic administration of tramadol impaired spatial learning and memory as well as brain mitochondrial function as indicated by increased ROS level, MMP collapse, increased mitochondrial swelling and cytochrome c release from mitochondria. Conversely, treadmill exercise significantly attenuated the impairments of spatial learning and memory and brain mitochondrial dysfunction induced by tramadol. The results revealed that chronic tramadol treatment caused memory impairments through induction of brain mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, pre-exposure to physical exercise markedly mitigated these impairments through its positive effects on brain mitochondrial function.

Exercise training reverses age-induced diastolic dysfunction and restores coronary microvascular function

KEY POINTS

In a rat model of ageing that is free of atherosclerosis or hypertension, E/A, a diagnostic measure of diastolic filling, decreases, and isovolumic relaxation time increases, indicating that both active and passive ventricular relaxation are impaired with advancing age. Resting coronary blood flow and coronary functional hyperaemia are reduced with age, and endothelium-dependent vasodilatation declines with age in coronary resistance arterioles. Exercise training reverses age-induced declines in diastolic and coronary microvascular function. Thus, microvascular dysfunction and inadequate coronary perfusion are likely mechanisms of diastolic dysfunction in aged rats. Exercise training, initiated at an advanced age, reverses age-related diastolic and microvascular dysfunction; these data suggest that late-life exercise training can be implemented to improve coronary perfusion and diastolic function in the elderly.

ABSTRACT

The risk for diastolic dysfunction increases with advancing age. Regular exercise training ameliorates age-related diastolic dysfunction; however, the underlying mechanisms have not been identified. We investigated whether (1) microvascular dysfunction contributes to the development of age-related diastolic dysfunction, and (2) initiation of late-life exercise training reverses age-related diastolic and microvascular dysfunction. Young and old rats underwent 10 weeks of exercise training or remained as sedentary, cage-controls. Isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT), early diastolic filling (E/A), myocardial performance index (MPI) and aortic stiffness (pulse wave velocity; PWV) were evaluated before and after exercise training or cage confinement. Coronary blood flow and vasodilatory responses of coronary arterioles were evaluated in all groups at the end of training. In aged sedentary rats, compared to young sedentary rats, a 42% increase in IVRT, a 64% decrease in E/A, and increased aortic stiffness (PWV: 6.36 ± 0.47 vs.4.89 ± 0.41, OSED vs. YSED, P < 0.05) was accompanied by impaired coronary blood flow at rest and during exercise. Endothelium-dependent vasodilatation was impaired in coronary arterioles from aged rats (maximal relaxation to bradykinin: 56.4 ± 5.1% vs. 75.3 ± 5.2%, OSED vs. YSED, P < 0.05). After exercise training, IVRT, a measure of active ventricular relaxation, did not differ between old and young rats. In old rats, exercise training reversed the reduction in E/A, reduced aortic stiffness, and eliminated impairment of coronary blood flow responses and endothelium-dependent vasodilatation. Thus, age-related diastolic and microvascular dysfunction are reversed by late-life exercise training. The restorative effect of exercise training on coronary microvascular function may result from improved endothelial function.

Vascular Adaptations to Habitual Exercise in Older Adults: Time for the Sex Talk

Regular exercise is promoted as a therapeutic strategy for age-associated endothelial dysfunction. Improvements in endothelial function are observed with endurance exercise in older men, but are diminished or absent in older women. This article examines the hypothesis that sex hormones modulate vascular adaptations to exercise training by influencing antioxidant defense systems, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and intracellular signaling.

Chronic Exercise Training Improved Aortic Endothelial and Mitochondrial Function via an AMPKα2-Dependent Manner

Chronic exercise training is known to protect the vasculature; however, the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. The present study hypothesized that exercise may improve aortic endothelial and mitochondrial function through an adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase α2 (AMPKα2)-dependent manner. Ten-week-old AMPKα2 knockout (AMPKα2^−/−) mice and age-matched wild-type (WT) mice were subjected to daily treadmill running for 6 weeks, and the thoracic aorta from these mice were used for further examination. Our results showed that exercise significantly promoted vasodilatation and increased expression and phosphorylation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), concomitant with increased AMPKα2 expression in WT mice. These effects were not observed in AMPKα2^−/− mice. Furthermore, exercise training increased thoracic aortic mitochondrial content as indicated by increased Complex I and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in WT mice but not in AMPKα2^−/− mice. This may be caused by decreased mitochondrial autophagy since the expression of BH3 domain-containing BCL2 family members BNIP3-like (BNIP3L) and LC3B were decreased in WT mice with exercise. And these changes were absent with AMPKα2 deletion in mice. Importantly, exercise increased the expression of manganous superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and catalase, suggesting that mitochondrial antioxidative capacity was increased. Notably, the improved antioxidative capacity was lost in AMPKα2^−/− mice with exercise. In conclusion, this study illustrated that AMPKα2 plays a critical role in exercise-related vascular protection via increasing endothelial and mitochondrial function in the artery.

Resveratrol and exercise

Although it is recommended for a healthy lifestyle, moderate exercise is known to lead to oxidative stress, inflammation and muscle injury. Hence there are efforts to develop dietary strategies to counter the oxidative stress caused by physical activity. Recently, there has been an interest in the capability of resveratrol (RES) to modulate physical performance and prevent oxidative stress. Despite the inconsistency among reports regarding the topic, it has been suggested that RES delays fatigue by hindering lipid peroxidation. It is hypothesized that RES administration produces favorable effects on hepatic cell rejuvenation, exerts a regulatory effect on glucose metabolism, and preserves liver glycogen reserves that are diminished during physical activity. Consequently, there is a growing interest in the association between RES and exercise. The aim of the current review is to interpret the association between RES and exercise.

Irisin Lowers Blood Pressure by Improvement of Endothelial Dysfunction via AMPK-Akt-eNOS-NO Pathway in the Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat

BACKGROUND

Exercise is a major nonpharmacological treatment for hypertension, but its underlying mechanisms are still not completely elucidated. Irisin, a polypeptide containing 112 amino acids, which is secreted mainly by skeletal muscle cells during exercise, exerts a protective role in metabolic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus and obesity. Because of the close relationship between irisin and metabolic diseases, we hypothesized that irisin may play a role in the regulation of blood pressure.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Blood pressures of male Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) were monitored through the carotid artery. Our study found that acute intravenous injection of irisin reduced blood pressure in SHRs, but not WKY rats. Irisin, by itself, had no direct vasorelaxing effect in phenylephrine-preconstricted mesenteric arteries from SHRs. However, irisin augmented the acetylcholine-induced vasorelaxation in mesenteric arteries from SHRs that could be reversed by Nω-nitro-l-arginine-methyl ester (L-NAME; 100 μmol/L), indicating a role of nitric oxide (NO) in this action. Indeed, irisin increased NO production and phosphorylation of endothelial nirtic oxide synthase (eNOS) in endothelial cells. 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was involved in the vasorelaxing effect of irisin because compound C (20 μmol/L), an AMPK inhibitor, blocked the irisin-mediated increase in phosphorylation of eNOS and protein kinase B (Akt) in endothelial cells and vasodilation in mesenteric arteries.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that acute administration of irisin lowers blood pressure of SHRs by amelioration of endothelial dysfunction of the mesenteric artery through the AMPK-Akt-eNOS-NO signaling pathway.

Protective effects of physical exercise on MDMA-induced cognitive and mitochondrial impairment

Debate continues about the effect of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) on cognitive and mitochondrial function through the CNS. It has been shown that physical exercise has an important protective effect on cellular damage and death. Therefore, we investigated the effect of physical exercise on MDMA-induced impairments of spatial learning and memory as well as MDMA effects on brain mitochondrial function in rats. Male wistar rats underwent short-term (2 weeks) or long-term (4 weeks) treadmill exercise. After completion of exercise duration, acquisition and retention of spatial memory were evaluated by Morris water maze (MWM) test. Rats were intraperitoneally (I.P) injected with MDMA (5, 10, and 15mg/kg) 30min before the first training trial in 4 training days of MWM. Different parameters of brain mitochondrial function were measured including the level of ROS production, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial swelling, mitochondrial outermembrane damage, the amount of cytochrome c release from the mitochondria, and ADP/ATP ratio. MDMA damaged the spatial learning and memory in a dose-dependent manner. Brain mitochondria isolated from the rats treated with MDMA showed significant increase in ROS formation, collapse of MMP, mitochondrial swelling, and outer membrane damage, cytochrome c release from the mitochondria, and finally increased ADP/ATP ratio. This study also found that physical exercise significantly decreased the MDMA-induced impairments of spatial learning and memory and also mitochondrial dysfunction. The results indicated that MDMA-induced neurotoxicity leads to brain mitochondrial dysfunction and subsequent oxidative stress is followed by cognitive impairments. However, physical exercise could reduce these deleterious effects of MDMA through protective effects on brain mitochondrial function.

Effects of exercise training and resveratrol on vascular health in aging

Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death in the western world with aging being one of the strongest predictors of cardiovascular events. Aging is associated with impaired vascular function due to endothelial dysfunction and altered redox balance, partly caused by an increased formation of reactive oxygen species combined with a reduction in the endogenous antioxidant capacity. The consequence of these alterations is a reduced bioavailability of nitric oxide (NO) with implications for aspects such as control of vascular tone and low grade inflammation. However, it is not only aging per se but also the accumulative influence of physical inactivity and other life-style factors, which negatively affect the vascular system. Regular physical activity improves NO bioavailability, the redox balance and the plasma lipid profile and, at a functional level, reduces or even reverses a majority of the observed detrimental effects of aging on vascular function. The effects of aging and physical activity on vascular function are, in part, related to alterations in cellular signaling through sirtuin-1, AMPK and the estrogen receptor. The polyphenol resveratrol can activate these same pathways and has, in animals and in vitro models, been shown to act as a partial mimetic of physical activity. However, support for beneficial effects of resveratrol in human is weak and studies even show that resveratrol supplementation, similarly to supplementation with other antioxidants, can counteract the positive effects of physical activity. Regular physical activity remains the most effective way of maintaining and improving vascular health status and caution should be taken regarding potential interference of supplements on training adaptations.

Mechanical heterogeneities in the subendothelial matrix develop with age and decrease with exercise

Arterial stiffening occurs with age and is associated with lack of exercise. Notably both age and lack of exercise are major cardiovascular risk factors. While it is well established that bulk arterial stiffness increases with age, more recent data suggest that the intima, the innermost arterial layer, also stiffens during aging. Micro-scale mechanical characterization of individual layers is important because cells primarily sense the matrix that they are in contact with and not necessarily the bulk stiffness of the vessel wall. To investigate the relationship between age, exercise, and subendothelial matrix stiffening, atomic force microscopy was utilized here to indent the subendothelial matrix of the thoracic aorta from young, aged-sedentary, and aged-exercised mice, and elastic modulus values were compared to conventional pulse wave velocity measurements. The subendothelial matrix elastic modulus was elevated in aged-sedentary mice compared to young or aged-exercised mice, and the macro-scale stiffness of the artery was found to linearly correlate with the subendothelial matrix elastic modulus. Notably, we also found that with age, there exists an increase in the point-to-point variations in modulus across the subendothelial matrix, indicating non-uniform stiffening. Importantly, this heterogeneity is reversible with exercise. Given that vessel stiffening is known to cause aberrant endothelial cell behavior, and the spatial heterogeneities we find exist on a length scale much smaller than the size of a cell, these data suggest that further investigation in the heterogeneity of the subendothelial matrix elastic modulus is necessary to fully understand the effects of physiological matrix stiffening on cell function.

Exercise Modulates Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Aging and Cardiovascular Diseases

Despite the wealth of epidemiological and experimental studies indicating the protective role of regular physical activity/exercise training against the sequels of aging and cardiovascular diseases, the molecular transducers of exercise/physical activity benefits are not fully identified but should be further investigated in more integrative and innovative approaches, as they bear the potential for transformative discoveries of novel therapeutic targets. As aging and cardiovascular diseases are associated with a chronic state of oxidative stress and inflammation mediated via complex and interconnected pathways, we will focus in this review on the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions of exercise, mainly exerted on adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, immune system, and cardiovascular system by modulating anti-inflammatory/proinflammatory cytokines profile, redox-sensitive transcription factors such as nuclear factor kappa B, activator protein-1, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha, antioxidant and prooxidant enzymes, and repair proteins such as heat shock proteins, proteasome complex, oxoguanine DNA glycosylase, uracil DNA glycosylase, and telomerase. It is important to note that the effects of exercise vary depending on the type, intensity, frequency, and duration of exercise as well as on the individual's characteristics; therefore, the development of personalized exercise programs is essential.

Contribution of mitochondrial function to exercise-induced attenuation of renal dysfunction in spontaneously hypertensive rats

It is well known that exercise training exhibits renal protective effects in animal models of hypertension and chronic renal failure. However, the mechanisms regulating these effects of exercise training remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the role of mitochondrial function in exercise-induced attenuation of renal injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). The adult male SHR and age-matched normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) were given moderate-intensity exercise for 12 weeks or treated with MitoQ10 for 8 weeks. In this work, exercise training in SHR reduced blood pressure, and effectively attenuated renal dysfunction, marked by reduced creatinine excretion, albuminuria, blood urea nitrogen, and glomerular sclerosis. Exercise training in SHR reduced MDA levels in plasma and kidneys and suppressed formation of 3-nitrotyrosine in kidneys. Exercise training suppressed mitochondrial ROS and [Formula: see text] formation, enhanced ATP formation, reduced mitochondrial swelling, and restored electron transport chain enzyme activity in kidneys of SHR. Furthermore, exercise training upregulated protein expression of uncoupling protein 2 and manganese superoxide dismutase in kidneys of SHR. In addition, treatment with mitochondria-targeted antioxidant MitoQ10 exhibited similar renal protective effects in SHR. In conclusion, chronic aerobic exercise training preserved mitochondrial function and abated oxidative stress in the kidneys of SHR, which may in part explain the protective effect of exercise on renal function and structure in hypertensive individuals.

Vascular AMPK as an attractive target in the treatment of vascular complications of obesity

The key for the survival of all organisms is the regulation and control of energy metabolism. Thus, several strategies have evolved in each tissue in order to balance nutrient supply with energy demand. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is now recognized as a key participant in energy metabolism. It ensures an appropriate energetic supply by promoting energy conserving pathways in detriment of anabolic processes not essential for cell survival. Vascular AMPK plays a critical role in the regulation of blood flow and vascular tone through several mechanisms, including vasodilation by stimulating nitric oxide release in endothelial cells. Since obesity leads to endothelial damage and AMPK dysregulation, AMPK activation might be an important strategy to restore vascular function in cardiometabolic alterations. In the present review we focus on the role of vascular AMPK in both endothelial and smooth muscle cells, paying special attention to its dysregulation in obesity- and high-fat diet-related complications, as well as to the mechanisms and benefits of vascular AMPK activation.

Age-associated pro-inflammatory remodeling and functional phenotype in the heart and large arteries

The aging population is increasing dramatically. Aging–associated stress simultaneously drives proinflammatory remodeling, involving angiotensin II and other factors, in both the heart and large arteries. The structural remodeling and functional changes that occur with aging include cardiac and vascular wall stiffening, systolic hypertension and suboptimal ventricular-arterial coupling, features that are often clinically silent and thus termed a silent syndrome. These age-related effects are the result of responses initiated by cardiovascular proinflammatory cells. Local proinflammatory signals are coupled between the heart and arteries due to common mechanical and humoral messengers within a closed circulating system. Thus, targeting proinflammatory signaling molecules would be a promising approach to improve age-associated suboptimal ventricular-arterial coupling, a major predisposing factor for the pathogenesis of clinical cardiovascular events such as heart failure.

Experimental studies of the molecular pathways regulated by exercise and resveratrol in heart, skeletal muscle and the vasculature

Regular exercise contributes to healthy aging and the prevention of chronic disease. Recent research has focused on the development of molecules, such as resveratrol, that activate similar metabolic and stress response pathways as exercise training. In this review, we describe the effects of exercise training and resveratrol on some of the organs and tissues that act in concert to transport oxygen throughout the body. In particular, we focus on animal studies that investigate the molecular signaling pathways induced by these interventions. We also compare and contrast the effects of exercise and resveratrol in diseased states.