Dendritic cell expression of the C-type lectin receptor CD209a: A novel innate parasite-sensing mechanism inducing Th17 cells that drive severe immunopathology in murine schistosome infection

Rapid genetic adaptation to a novel ecosystem despite a large founder event

Introduced and invasive species make excellent natural experiments for investigating rapid evolution. Here, we describe the effects of genetic drift and rapid genetic adaptation in pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) that were accidentally introduced to the Great Lakes via a single introduction event 31 generations ago. Using whole-genome resequencing for 134 fish spanning five sample groups across the native and introduced range, we estimate that the source population's effective population size was 146,886 at the time of introduction, whereas the founding population's effective population size was just 72-a 2040-fold decrease. As expected with a severe founder event, we show reductions in genome-wide measures of genetic diversity, specifically a 37.7% reduction in the number of SNPs and an 8.2% reduction in observed heterozygosity. Despite this decline in genetic diversity, we provide evidence for putative selection at 47 loci across multiple chromosomes in the introduced populations, including missense variants in genes associated with circadian rhythm, immunological response and maturation, which match expected or known phenotypic changes in the Great Lakes. For one of these genes, we use a species-specific agent-based model to rule out genetic drift and conclude our results support a strong response to selection occurring in a period gene (per2) that plays a predominant role in determining an organism's daily clock, matching large day length differences experienced by introduced salmon during important phenological periods. Together, these results inform how populations might evolve rapidly to new environments, even with a small pool of standing genetic variation.

The balance between gasdermin D and STING signaling shapes the severity of schistosome immunopathology

There is significant disease heterogeneity among mouse strains infected with the helminth Schistosoma mansoni. Here, we uncover a unique balance in two critical innate pathways governing the severity of disease. In the low-pathology setting, parasite egg-stimulated dendritic cells (DCs) induce robust interferon (IFN)β production, which is dependent on the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)/stimulator of interferon genes (STING) cytosolic DNA sensing pathway and results in a Th2 response with suppression of proinflammatory cytokine production and Th17 cell activation. IFNβ induces signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)1, which suppresses CD209a, a C-type lectin receptor associated with severe disease. In contrast, in the high-pathology setting, enhanced DC expression of the pore-forming protein gasdermin D (Gsdmd) results in reduced expression of cGAS/STING, impaired IFNβ, and enhanced pyroptosis. Our findings demonstrate that cGAS/STING signaling represents a unique mechanism inducing protective type I IFN, which is counteracted by Gsdmd.

Pattern recognition receptor signaling and innate immune responses to schistosome infection

Schistosomiasis remains to be a significant public health problem in tropical and subtropical regions. Despite remarkable progress that has been made in the control of the disease over the past decades, its elimination remains a daunting challenge in many countries. This disease is an inflammatory response-driven, and the positive outcome after infection depends on the regulation of immune responses that efficiently clear worms and allow protective immunity to develop. The innate immune responses play a critical role in host defense against schistosome infection and pathogenesis. Initial pro-inflammatory responses are essential for clearing invading parasites by promoting appropriate cell-mediated and humoral immunity. However, elevated and prolonged inflammatory responses against the eggs trapped in the host tissues contribute to disease progression. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of innate immune responses is important for developing effective therapies and vaccines. Here, we update the recent advances in the definitive host innate immune response to schistosome infection, especially highlighting the critical roles of pattern recognition receptors and cytokines. The considerations for further research are also provided.

TIPD: A Probability Distribution-Based Method for Trajectory Inference from Single-Cell RNA-Seq Data

Single-cell RNA-seq technology provides an unprecedented opportunity to allow researchers to study the biological heterogeneity during cell differentiation and development with higher resolution. Although many computational methods have been proposed to infer cell lineages from single-cell RNA-seq data, constructing accurate cell trajectories remains a challenge. We develop a novel trajectory inference method-based probability distribution (TIPD) to describe the heterogeneity of cell population. TIPD combines signalling entropy and clustering results of the gene expression profile to describe the probability distributions of heterogeneous states in a cell population. It does not require external knowledge to determine the direction of the differentiation trajectories, so its application is not limited by the annotations of the data set. We also propose a new distance metric to measure the distance of the probability distributions of the identified heterogeneous states. On this distance matrix, a minimum spanning tree (MST) is built to reorganize the order of cell clusters. The constructed MST is calculated based on systems-level information, so it is consistent with the real biological process. We validated our method on four previously published single-cell RNA-seq data sets including the linear structure and branch structure. The results showed that TIPD successfully reconstructed the differentiation trajectories that are highly consistent with the known differentiation trajectories and outperformed the other four state-of-the-art methods under different assessment criteria.

Association of IL-9, IL-10, and IL-17 Cytokines With Hepatic Fibrosis in Human Schistosoma mansoni Infection

This is a case series study to evaluate immunological markers associated with schistosomiasis advanced fibrosis, including 69 patients from an endemic area from the State of Sergipe and from the Hepatology Service of the University Hospital in Sergipe, Brazil. Hepatic fibrosis was classified based on Niamey protocol for ultrasonography (US). Immune response to Schistosoma mansoni antigens was evaluated by stimulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from these patients with either adult worm (SWAP-10 μg/ml) or egg (SEA-10 μg/ml) antigens or purified protein derivative of turberculin (PPD-10 μg/ml) or phytohemagglutinin (PHA-1 μg/ml) for 72 h. The levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-10, and IL-17 were measured in these supernatants by ELISA and IL-9 by Luminex. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in IL-17, IL10, and CD209 genes were genotyped using TaqMan probe by qPCR. Higher levels of IL-9, IL-10, and IL-17 were found in PBMC supernatants of patients with advanced hepatic fibrosis. Direct correlations were detected between IL-9 and IL-17 levels with US spleen sizes, portal vein diameters, and periportal thickening. The CD209 rs2287886 AG polymorphism patients produce higher IL-17 levels. Together, these data suggest a role of these cytokines in the immunopathogenesis of advanced fibrosis in human schistosomiasis.

Association of IL-9, IL-10, and IL-17 Cytokines With Hepatic Fibrosis in Human Schistosoma mansoni Infection

This is a case series study to evaluate immunological markers associated with schistosomiasis advanced fibrosis, including 69 patients from an endemic area from the State of Sergipe and from the Hepatology Service of the University Hospital in Sergipe, Brazil. Hepatic fibrosis was classified based on Niamey protocol for ultrasonography (US). Immune response to Schistosoma mansoni antigens was evaluated by stimulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from these patients with either adult worm (SWAP-10 μg/ml) or egg (SEA-10 μg/ml) antigens or purified protein derivative of turberculin (PPD-10 μg/ml) or phytohemagglutinin (PHA-1 μg/ml) for 72 h. The levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-10, and IL-17 were measured in these supernatants by ELISA and IL-9 by Luminex. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in IL-17, IL10, and CD209 genes were genotyped using TaqMan probe by qPCR. Higher levels of IL-9, IL-10, and IL-17 were found in PBMC supernatants of patients with advanced hepatic fibrosis. Direct correlations were detected between IL-9 and IL-17 levels with US spleen sizes, portal vein diameters, and periportal thickening. The CD209 rs2287886 AG polymorphism patients produce higher IL-17 levels. Together, these data suggest a role of these cytokines in the immunopathogenesis of advanced fibrosis in human schistosomiasis.

Interactome analysis of CD5 and CD6 ectodomains with tegumental antigens from the helminth parasite Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato

Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) is a cestode parasite affecting both human and livestock health. Recombinant ectodomains of human scavenger receptors CD5 (rshCD5) and CD6 (rshCD6) were previously reported to bind its tegumental antigens and to exert prophylactic effects in a murine model of infection. Although the properties of mammalian scavenger receptors include the binding to diverse pathogen-derived structures, their interaction with helminth parasites has been scarcely explored. Therefore, we report here a search for CD5 and CD6 interactors within E. granulosus s.l. antigens. Mass spectrometry analysis of pull-downs from soluble tegumental components with biotinylated rshCD5 and rshCD6 resulted in 17 and 11 overrepresented interactors, respectively, 8 of which were shared. The interactors included previously reported protective molecules against E. granulosus s.l. and/or other helminths. Similar studies performed with 11-mer peptides mapping to each of the three extracellular scavenger domains of CD5 and CD6 allowed an estimated molecular topology of the interactions. In conclusion, the fact that most helminth interactors identified for rshCD5 and rshCD6 were already reported as vaccine candidates or pharmacological targets against different helminthiases, supports the view that their beneficial effects in experimental infection results from binding to multiple relevant tegumental antigens.

The C-type Lectin Receptor-Driven, Th17 Cell-Mediated Severe Pathology in Schistosomiasis: Not All Immune Responses to Helminth Parasites Are Th2 Dominated

Schistosomiasis is a major helminthic disease in which damage to the affected organs is orchestrated by a pathogenic host CD4 T helper (Th) cell-mediated immune response against parasite eggs. In the case of the species Schistosoma mansoni, the resulting granulomatous inflammation and fibrosis takes place in the liver and intestines. The magnitude of disease varies greatly from individual to individual but in a minority of patients, there is severe disease and death. S. mansoni infection in a murine model similarly results in marked strain variation of immunopathology. In the most commonly examined mouse strain, C57BL/6 (BL/6), there is relatively mild hepatic pathology arising in a Th2-dominated cytokine environment. In contrast, CBA mice develop decisively more severe lesions largely driven by proinflammatory IL-17-producing Th17 cells. Dendritic cells (DCs) from CBA mice differ sharply with those from BL/6 mice in that they vastly over-express the C-type lectin receptor (CLR) CD209a (SIGNR5), a homolog of human DC-SIGN, which senses glycans such as those produced by schistosome eggs. Silencing of CD209a, and recent studies with CD209a KO CBA mice have shown that this receptor is crucial to induce the pathogenic Th17 cell response; indeed, CD209a KO mice display markedly reduced immunopathology akin to that seen in BL/6 mice. Mechanistically, CD209a synergizes with the related CLRs Dectin-2 and Mincle to stimulate increased DC production of IL-1β and IL-23, necessary for pathogenic Th17 cell development. These findings denote key molecular underpinnings of disease variability based on selection and function of contrasting Th cell subsets.

The ectodomains of the lymphocyte scavenger receptors CD5 and CD6 interact with tegumental antigens from Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato and protect mice against secondary cystic echinococcosis

Background

Scavenger Receptors (SRs) from the host’s innate immune system are known to bind multiple ligands to promote the removal of non-self or altered-self targets. CD5 and CD6 are two highly homologous class I SRs mainly expressed on all T cells and the B1a cell subset, and involved in the fine tuning of activation and differentiation signals delivered by the antigen-specific receptors (TCR and BCR, respectively), to which they physically associate. Additionally, CD5 and CD6 have been shown to interact with and sense the presence of conserved pathogen-associated structures from bacteria, fungi and/or viruses.

Methodology/Principal findings

We report herein the interaction of CD5 and CD6 lymphocyte surface receptors with Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.). Binding studies show that both soluble and membrane-bound forms of CD5 and CD6 bind to intact viable protoscoleces from E. granulosus s.l. through recognition of metaperiodate-resistant tegumental components. Proteomic analyses allowed identification of thioredoxin peroxidase for CD5, and peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (cyclophilin) and endophilin B1 (antigen P-29) for CD6, as their potential interactors. Further in vitro assays demonstrate that membrane-bound or soluble CD5 and CD6 forms differentially modulate the pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine release induced following peritoneal cells exposure to E. granulosus s.l. tegumental components. Importantly, prophylactic infusion of soluble CD5 or CD6 significantly ameliorated the infection outcome in the mouse model of secondary cystic echinococcosis.

Conclusions/Significance

Taken together, the results expand the pathogen binding properties of CD5 and CD6 and provide novel evidence for their therapeutic potential in human cystic echinococcosis.

Scavenger Receptors (SRs) are constituents of host’s innate immune system able to sense and remove altered-self and/or pathogen components. Data on their interaction with helminth parasites is scarce. In this work, we describe that CD5 and CD6 -two lymphoid SRs previously reported to interact with conserved structures from bacteria, fungi and viruses- recognize tegumental components in the cestode parasite Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.). Moreover, both receptors differentially modulate the cytokine release by host cells exposed to E. granulosus s.l. tegumental components. Importantly, the infusion of soluble forms of CD5 or CD6 improve infection outcomes in a murine model of secondary cystic echinococcosis. In summary, our results expand the pathogen binding properties of CD5 and CD6 and suggest their therapeutic potential against helminth infections.

Schistosoma "Eggs-Iting" the Host: Granuloma Formation and Egg Excretion

Schistosomiasis is a major cause of morbidity in humans invoked by chronic infection with parasitic trematodes of the genus Schistosoma. Schistosomes have a complex life-cycle involving infections of an aquatic snail intermediate host and a definitive mammalian host. In humans, adult male and female worms lie within the vasculature. Here, they propagate and eggs are laid. These eggs must then be released from the host to continue the life cycle. Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum reside in the mesenteric circulation of the intestines with egg excreted in the feces. In contrast, S. haematobium are present in the venus plexus of the bladder, expelling eggs in the urine. In an impressive case of exploitation of the host immune system, this process of Schistosome “eggs-iting” the host is immune dependent. In this article, we review the formation of the egg granuloma and explore how S. mansoni eggs laid in vasculature must usurp immunity to induce regulated inflammation, to facilitate extravasation through the intestinal wall and to be expelled in the feces. We highlight the roles of immune cell populations, stromal factors, and egg secretions in the process of egg excretion to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge regarding a vastly unexplored mechanism.

Evaluation of serum levels of IL-9 and IL-17 in human Schistosoma mansoni infection and their relationship with periportal fibrosis

Serum levels of IL-9 and IL-17 cytokines were evaluated in patients in the acute, chronic phases and clinical forms of human schistosomiasis and in different classifications of periportal fibrosis. No significant differences between the groups of the disease with serum levels of cytokine were found. However, this study discusses the results of some cytokines that have not fully defined roles in the pathology of human schistosomiasis. Furthermore, an examination was made of subjects in the acute phase. This is an important group that is difficult to identify in areas where the disease is endemic. More studies are being undertaken to study the role of IL-9 and IL-17 in human Schistosoma mansoni infection and their relationship with the immunopathogenesis of disease.