Type III secretion system cluster 3 is required for maximal virulence of Burkholderia pseudomallei in a hamster infection model

Nucleic Acid Amplification Free-QCM-DNA Biosensor for Burkholderia pseudomallei Detection

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a gram-negative bacterium that causes the infectious disease melioidosis, a disease that can still be fatal despite appropriate treatment. The bacterium contains the gene clusters for the type III secretion system (TTSS), which are essential for its pathogenicity. This gene was often employed for accurate diagnosis through the laborious process of gene amplification. This work intends to develop a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM)-based TTSS gene detection method without gene amplification approaches to simplify the diagnosis process. In this study, it was demonstrated that a 540 bp sequence flanked by BglI restriction sites within the TTSS1 on the B. pseudomallei genome is an effective target for specific detection of the bacteria. After cultivation and genome extraction, the bacteria can be detected by digesting its genome with BglI in which the TTSS1 fragment is detected by a QCM-DNA biosensor, eliminating the need for nucleic acid amplification. A specific probe designed to bind to the TTSSI fragment was utilized as the receptor on the QCM-DNA biosensor which provided the ability to detect the fragment. The limit of detection of the QCM-DNA biosensor was 0.4 µM of the synthetic DNA target oligonucleotide. The system was also capable of specifically detecting the BglI digested-DNA fragment of B. pseudomallei species with significantly higher signal than B. thailandensis. This study provides evidence for an effective QCM-DNA biosensor that can identify B. pseudomallei without the need for nucleic acid amplification.

Transitioning from Soil to Host: Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Burkholderia pseudomallei Response to Different Niches

Burkholderia pseudomallei, a soil and water saprophyte, is responsible for the tropical human disease melioidosis. A hundred years since its discovery, there is still much to learn about B. pseudomallei proteins that are essential for the bacterium's survival in and interaction with the infected host, as well as their roles within the bacterium's natural soil habitat. To address this gap, bacteria grown under conditions mimicking the soil environment were subjected to transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis. A dual RNA-seq approach was used on total RNA from spleens isolated from a B. pseudomallei mouse infection model at 5 days postinfection. Under these conditions, a total of 1,434 bacterial genes were induced, with 959 induced in the soil environment and 475 induced in bacteria residing within the host. Genes encoding metabolism and transporter proteins were induced when the bacteria were present in soil, while virulence factors, metabolism, and bacterial defense mechanisms were upregulated during active infection of mice. On the other hand, capsular polysaccharide and quorum-sensing pathways were inhibited during infection. In addition to virulence factors, reactive oxygen species, heat shock proteins, siderophores, and secondary metabolites were also induced to assist bacterial adaptation and survival in the host. Overall, this study provides crucial insights into the transcriptome-level adaptations which facilitate infection by soil-dwelling B. pseudomallei. Targeting novel therapeutics toward B. pseudomallei proteins required for adaptation provides an alternative treatment strategy given its intrinsic antimicrobial resistance and the absence of a vaccine. IMPORTANCE Burkholderia pseudomallei, a soil-dwelling bacterium, is the causative agent of melioidosis, a fatal infectious disease of humans and animals. The bacterium has a large genome consisting of two chromosomes carrying genes that encode proteins with important roles for survival in diverse environments as well as in the infected host. While a general mechanism of pathogenesis has been proposed, it is not clear which proteins have major roles when the bacteria are in the soil and whether the same proteins are key to successful infection and spread. To address this question, we grew the bacteria in soil medium and then in infected mice. At 5 days postinfection, bacteria were recovered from infected mouse organs and their gene expression was compared against that of bacteria grown in soil medium. The analysis revealed a list of genes expressed under soil growth conditions and a different set of genes encoding proteins which may be important for survival, replication, and dissemination in an infected host. These proteins are a potential resource for understanding the full adaptation mechanism of this pathogen. In the absence of a vaccine for melioidosis and with treatment being reliant on combinatorial antibiotic therapy, these proteins may be ideal targets for designing antimicrobials to treat melioidosis.

A virulence activator of a surface attachment protein in Burkholderia pseudomallei acts as a global regulator of other membrane-associated virulence factors

Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp), causing a highly fatal disease called melioidosis, is a facultative intracellular pathogen that attaches and invades a variety of cell types. We previously identified BP1026B_I0091 as a surface attachment protein (Sap1) and an essential virulence factor, contributing to Bp pathogenesis in vitro and in vivo. The expression of sap1 is regulated at different stages of Bp intracellular lifecycle by unidentified regulator(s). Here, we identified SapR (BP1026B_II1046) as a transcriptional regulator that activates sap1, using a high-throughput transposon mutagenesis screen in combination with Tn-Seq. Consistent with phenotypes of the Δsap1 mutant, the ΔsapR activator mutant exhibited a significant reduction in Bp attachment to the host cell, leading to subsequent decreased intracellular replication. RNA-Seq analysis further revealed that SapR regulates sap1. The regulation of sap1 by SapR was confirmed quantitatively by qRT-PCR, which also validated the RNA-Seq data. SapR globally regulates genes associated with the bacterial membrane in response to diverse environments, and some of the genes regulated by SapR are virulence factors that are required for Bp intracellular infection (e.g., type III and type VI secretion systems). This study has identified the complex SapR regulatory network and its importance as an activator of an essential Sap1 attachment factor.

Identification of a PadR-type regulator essential for intracellular pathogenesis of Burkholderia pseudomallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp) is the causative agent of melioidosis, a disease endemic to the tropics. Melioidosis manifests in various ways ranging from acute skin lesions to pneumonia and, in rare cases, infection of the central nervous system. Bp is a facultative intracellular pathogen and it can infect various cell types. The Bp intracellular lifecycle has been partially elucidated and is highly complex. Herein, we have identified a transcriptional regulator, BP1026B_II1198, that is differentially expressed as Bp transits through host cells. A deletion mutant of BP1026B_II1198 was attenuated in RAW264.7 cell and BALB/c mouse infection. To further characterize the function of this transcriptional regulator, we endeavored to determine the regulon of BP1026B_II1198. RNA-seq analysis showed the global picture of genes regulated while ChIP-seq analysis identified two specific BP1026B_II1198 binding regions on chromosome II. We investigated the transposon mutants of these genes controlled by BP1026B_II1198 and confirmed that these genes contribute to pathogenesis in RAW264.7 murine macrophage cells. Taken together, the data presented here shed light on the regulon of BP1026B_II1198 and its role during intracellular infection and highlights an integral portion of the highly complex regulation network of Bp during host infection.

The Burkholderia pseudomallei intracellular 'TRANSITome'

Prokaryotic cell transcriptomics has been limited to mixed or sub-population dynamics and individual cells within heterogeneous populations, which has hampered further understanding of spatiotemporal and stage-specific processes of prokaryotic cells within complex environments. Here we develop a 'TRANSITomic' approach to profile transcriptomes of single Burkholderia pseudomallei cells as they transit through host cell infection at defined stages, yielding pathophysiological insights. We find that B. pseudomallei transits through host cells during infection in three observable stages: vacuole entry; cytoplasmic escape and replication; and membrane protrusion, promoting cell-to-cell spread. The B. pseudomallei 'TRANSITome' reveals dynamic gene-expression flux during transit in host cells and identifies genes that are required for pathogenesis. We find several hypothetical proteins and assign them to virulence mechanisms, including attachment, cytoskeletal modulation, and autophagy evasion. The B. pseudomallei 'TRANSITome' provides prokaryotic single-cell transcriptomics information enabling high-resolution understanding of host-pathogen interactions.

Comparative virulence of three different strains of Burkholderia pseudomallei in an aerosol non-human primate model

Melioidosis, caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, is a major cause of sepsis and mortality in endemic regions of Southeast Asia and Northern Australia. B. pseudomallei is a potential bioterrorism agent due to its high infectivity, especially via inhalation, and its inherent resistance to antimicrobials. There is currently no vaccine for melioidosis and antibiotic treatment can fail due to innate drug resistance, delayed diagnosis and treatment, or insufficient duration of treatment. A well-characterized animal model that mimics human melioidosis is needed for the development of new medical countermeasures. This study first characterized the disease progression of melioidosis in the African green monkey (AGM) and rhesus macaque (RM) for non-human primate model down-selection. All AGMs developed acute lethal disease similar to that described in human acute infection following exposure to aerosolized B. pseudomallei strain HBPUB10134a. Only 20% of RMs succumbed to acute disease. Disease progression, immune response and pathology of two other strains of B. pseudomallei, K96243 and MSHR5855, were also compared using AGMs. These three B. pseudomallei strains represent a highly virulent strain from Thailand (HBPUB101034a), a highly virulent strains from Australia (MSHR5855), and a commonly used laboratory strains originating from Thailand (K96243). Animals were observed for clinical signs of infection and blood samples were analyzed for cytokine responses, blood chemistry and leukocyte changes in order to characterize bacterial infection. AGMs experienced fever after exposure to aerosolized B. pseudomallei at the onset of acute disease. Inflammation, abscesses and/or pyogranulomas were observed in lung with all three strains of B. pseudomallei. Inflammation, abscesses and/or pyogranulomas were observed in lymph nodes, spleen, liver and/or kidney with B. pseudomallei, HBPUB10134a and K96243. Additionally, the Australian strain MSHR5855 induced brain lesions in one AGM similar to clinical cases of melioidosis seen in Australia. Elevated serum levels of IL-1β, IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-6, MCP-1, G-CSF, HGF, IFNγ, MIG, I-TAC, and MIP-1β at terminal end points can be significantly correlated with non-survivors with B. pseudomallei infection in AGM. The AGM model represents an acute model of B. pseudomallei infection for all three strains from two geographical locations and will be useful for efficacy testing of vaccines and therapeutics against melioidosis. In summary, a dysregulated immune response leading to excessive persistent inflammation and inflammatory cell death is the key driver of acute melioidosis. Early intervention in these pathways will be necessary to counter B. pseudomallei and mitigate the pathological consequences of melioidosis.

Melioidosis, caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, is endemic in tropical regions globally and is an emerging threat in non-tropical areas worldwide. Its mortality rate is high in endemic areas due to its high infectivity, antimicrobial resistance, lack of available vaccines and limited treatment options. Animal model development and pathogenicity studies of various isolates are critical for the development of countermeasures against this pathogen. In this study, we compared the virulence of three different isolates of B. pseudomallei from two geographical locations in an aerosol non-human primate model. We found that early elevations of both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediators, as well as the persistence of these mediators in the terminal phase of bacterial infection correlate with mortality. Histopathological analysis showed that the severity of lesions in various organs also correlates with the virulence of the B. pseudomallei strains, HBPUB10134a, MSHR5855 and K96243. Thus, a dysregulated immune response leading to excessive IL-1β and IL-6 at terminal end points and necrosis are key drivers of acute melioidosis. Development of drugs targeting these host response processes will be necessary to counter B. pseudomallei and mitigate the pathological consequences of melioidosis. This non-human primate model will facilitate the screening of vaccines and novel therapeutics.

Comprehensive genome analysis of a pangolin-associated Paraburkholderia fungorum provides new insights into its secretion systems and virulence

Background

Paraburkholderia fungorum (P. fungorum) is a Gram-negative environmental species that has been commonly used as a beneficial microorganism in agriculture as an agent for biocontrol and bioremediation. Its use in agriculture is controversial as many people believe that it could harm human health; however, there is no clear evidence to support.

Methodology

The pangolin P. fungorum (pangolin Pf) genome has a genomic size of approximately 7.7 Mbps with N50 of 69,666 bps. Our study showed that pangolin Pf is a Paraburkholderia fungorum supported by evidence from the core genome SNP-based phylogenetic analysis and the ANI analysis. Functional analysis has shown that the presence of a considerably large number of genes related to stress response, virulence, disease, and defence. Interestingly, we identified different types of secretion systems in the genome of pangolin Pf, which are highly specialized and responsible for a bacterium’s response to its environment and in physiological processes such as survival, adhesion, and adaptation. The pangolin Pf also shared some common virulence genes with the known pathogenic member of the Burkholderiales. These genes play important roles in adhesion, motility, and invasion.

Conclusion

This study may provide better insights into the functions, secretion systems and virulence of this pangolin-associated bacterial strain. The addition of this genome sequence is also important for future comparative analysis and functional work of P. fungorum.

ScmR, a Global Regulator of Gene Expression, Quorum Sensing, pH Homeostasis, and Virulence in Burkholderia thailandensis

The nonpathogenic soil saprophyte Burkholderia thailandensis is a member of the Burkholderia pseudomallei /B. thailandensis/B. mallei group, which also comprises the closely related human pathogens B. pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei responsible for the melioidosis and glanders diseases, respectively. ScmR, a recently identified LysR-type transcriptional regulator in B. thailandensis, acts as a global transcriptional regulator throughout the stationary phase and modulates the production of a wide range of secondary metabolites, including N-acyl-l-homoserine lactones and 4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-alkylquinolines and virulence in the Caenorhabditis elegans nematode worm host model, as well as several quorum sensing (QS)-dependent phenotypes. We have investigated the role of ScmR in B. thailandensis strain E264 during the exponential phase. We used RNA sequencing transcriptomic analyses to identify the ScmR regulon, which was compared to the QS-controlled regulon, showing a considerable overlap between the ScmR-regulated genes and those controlled by QS. We characterized several genes modulated by ScmR using quantitative reverse transcription-PCR or mini-CTX-lux transcriptional reporters, including the oxalate biosynthetic gene obc1 required for pH homeostasis, the orphan LuxR-type transcriptional regulator BtaR5-encoding gene, and the bsa (Burkholderia secretion apparatus) type III secretion system genes essential for both B. pseudomallei and B. mallei pathogenicity, as well as the scmR gene itself. We confirmed that the transcription of scmR is under QS control, presumably ensuring fine-tuned modulation of gene expression. Finally, we demonstrated that ScmR influences virulence using the fruit fly model host Drosophila melanogaster We conclude that ScmR represents a central component of the B. thailandensis QS regulatory network.IMPORTANCE Coordination of the expression of genes associated with bacterial virulence and environmental adaptation is often dependent on quorum sensing (QS). The QS circuitry of the nonpathogenic bacterium Burkholderia thailandensis, widely used as a model system for the study of the human pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei, is complex. We found that the LysR-type transcriptional regulator, ScmR, which is highly conserved and involved in the control of virulence/survival factors in the Burkholderia genus, is a global regulator mediating gene expression through the multiple QS systems coexisting in B. thailandensis, as well as QS independently. We conclude that ScmR represents a key QS modulatory network element, ensuring tight regulation of the transcription of QS-controlled genes, particularly those required for acclimatization to the environment.

Human Melioidosis

The causative agent of melioidosis, Burkholderia pseudomallei, a tier 1 select agent, is endemic in Southeast Asia and northern Australia, with increased incidence associated with high levels of rainfall. Increasing reports of this condition have occurred worldwide, with estimates of up to 165,000 cases and 89,000 deaths per year. The ecological niche of the organism has yet to be clearly defined, although the organism is associated with soil and water. The culture of appropriate clinical material remains the mainstay of laboratory diagnosis. Identification is best done by phenotypic methods, although mass spectrometric methods have been described. Serology has a limited diagnostic role. Direct molecular and antigen detection methods have limited availability and sensitivity. Clinical presentations of melioidosis range from acute bacteremic pneumonia to disseminated visceral abscesses and localized infections. Transmission is by direct inoculation, inhalation, or ingestion. Risk factors for melioidosis include male sex, diabetes mellitus, alcohol abuse, and immunosuppression. The organism is well adapted to intracellular survival, with numerous virulence mechanisms. Immunity likely requires innate and adaptive responses. The principles of management of this condition are drainage and debridement of infected material and appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Global mortality rates vary between 9% and 70%. Research into vaccine development is ongoing.

Peptidyl-Prolyl Isomerase ppiB Is Essential for Proteome Homeostasis and Virulence in Burkholderia pseudomallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei is the causative agent of melioidosis, a disease endemic to Southeast Asia and northern Australia. Mortality rates in these areas are high even with antimicrobial treatment, and there are few options for effective therapy. Therefore, there is a need to identify antibacterial targets for the development of novel treatments. Cyclophilins are a family of highly conserved enzymes important in multiple cellular processes. Cyclophilins catalyze the cis-trans isomerization of xaa-proline bonds, a rate-limiting step in protein folding which has been shown to be important for bacterial virulence. B. pseudomallei carries a putative cyclophilin B gene, ppiB, the role of which was investigated. A B. pseudomallei ΔppiB (BpsΔppiB) mutant strain demonstrates impaired biofilm formation and reduced motility. Macrophage invasion and survival assays showed that although the BpsΔppiB strain retained the ability to infect macrophages, it had reduced survival and lacked the ability to spread cell to cell, indicating ppiB is essential for B. pseudomallei virulence. This is reflected in the BALB/c mouse infection model, demonstrating the requirement of ppiB for in vivo disease dissemination and progression. Proteomic analysis demonstrates that the loss of PpiB leads to pleiotropic effects, supporting the role of PpiB in maintaining proteome homeostasis. The loss of PpiB leads to decreased abundance of multiple virulence determinants, including flagellar machinery and alterations in type VI secretion system proteins. In addition, the loss of ppiB leads to increased sensitivity toward multiple antibiotics, including meropenem and doxycycline, highlighting ppiB inhibition as a promising antivirulence target to both treat B. pseudomallei infections and increase antibiotic efficacy.

Rab32 GTPase, as a direct target of miR-30b/c, controls the intracellular survival of Burkholderia pseudomallei by regulating phagosome maturation

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a gram-negative, facultative intracellular bacterium, which causes a disease known as melioidosis. Professional phagocytes represent a crucial first line of innate defense against invading pathogens. Uptake of pathogens by these cells involves the formation of a phagosome that matures by fusing with early and late endocytic vesicles, resulting in killing of ingested microbes. Host Rab GTPases are central regulators of vesicular trafficking following pathogen phagocytosis. However, it is unclear how Rab GTPases interact with B. pseudomallei to regulate the transport and maturation of bacterial-containing phagosomes. Here, we showed that the host Rab32 plays an important role in mediating antimicrobial activity by promoting phagosome maturation at an early phase of infection with B. pseudomallei. And we demonstrated that the expression level of Rab32 is increased through the downregulation of the synthesis of miR-30b/30c in B. pseudomallei infected macrophages. Subsequently, we showed that B. pseudomallei resides temporarily in Rab32-positive compartments with late endocytic features. And Rab32 enhances phagosome acidification and promotes the fusion of B. pseudomallei-containing phagosomes with lysosomes to activate cathepsin D, resulting in restricted intracellular growth of B. pseudomallei. Additionally, Rab32 mediates phagosome maturation depending on its guanosine triphosphate/guanosine diphosphate (GTP/GDP) binding state. Finally, we report the previously unrecognized role of miR-30b/30c in regulating B. pseudomallei-containing phagosome maturation by targeting Rab32 in macrophages. Altogether, we provide a novel insight into the host immune-regulated cellular pathway against B. pseudomallei infection is partially dependent on Rab32 trafficking pathway, which regulates phagosome maturation and enhances the killing of this bacterium in macrophages.

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a gram-negative intracellular bacterium and the etiological agent of melioidosis. Little is known about the host innate immune system, which is engaged in a continuous battle against this pathogen and may contribute to the outcomes of melioidosis. Recently, Rab32, a Rab GTPase was shown to be a critical regulator of a host defense pathway against intracellular bacterial pathogens. However, the exact mechanism of how Rab32 contributes to the restriction of intracellular pathogens is not completely understood. In this study, we determined that the infection of macrophages with B. pseudomallei resulted in the upregulation of Rab32 expression through the inhibition of miR-30b/30c expression. Subsequently, Rab32 is recruited to the B. pseudomallei-containing phagosomes and promotes the fusion of the phagosomes with lysosomes, which results in the increased exposure of B. pseudomallei to lysosomal acid hydrolases CTSD, thus limiting the intracellular growth of B. pseudomallei at an early phase of infection in macrophages. Our findings establish for the first time that Rab32 plays an important role in suppressing the intracellular replication of B. pseudomallei by modulating phagosome maturation in macrophages, providing a new insight into the host defense mechanisms against B. pseudomallei infection.

Proteomic Profiling of Burkholderia thailandensis During Host Infection Using Bio-Orthogonal Noncanonical Amino Acid Tagging (BONCAT)

Burkholderia pseudomallei and B. mallei are the causative agents of melioidosis and glanders, respectively, and are often fatal to humans and animals. Owing to the high fatality rate, potential for spread by aerosolization, and the lack of efficacious therapeutics, B. pseudomallei and B. mallei are considered biothreat agents of concern. In this study, we investigate the proteome of Burkholderia thailandensis, a closely related surrogate for the two more virulent Burkholderia species, during infection of host cells, and compare to that of B. thailandensis in culture. Studying the proteome of Burkholderia spp. during infection is expected to reveal molecular mechanisms of intracellular survival and host immune evasion; but proteomic profiling of Burkholderia during host infection is challenging. Proteomic analyses of host-associated bacteria are typically hindered by the overwhelming host protein content recovered from infected cultures. To address this problem, we have applied bio-orthogonal noncanonical amino acid tagging (BONCAT) to B. thailandensis, enabling the enrichment of newly expressed bacterial proteins from virtually any growth condition, including host cell infection. In this study, we show that B. thailandensis proteins were selectively labeled and efficiently enriched from infected host cells using BONCAT. We also demonstrate that this method can be used to label bacteria in situ by fluorescent tagging. Finally, we present a global proteomic profile of B. thailandensis as it infects host cells and a list of proteins that are differentially regulated in infection conditions as compared to bacterial monoculture. Among the identified proteins are quorum sensing regulated genes as well as homologs to previously identified virulence factors. This method provides a powerful tool to study the molecular processes during Burkholderia infection, a much-needed addition to the Burkholderia molecular toolbox.

Complete Genome Sequence of the Environmental Burkholderia pseudomallei Sequence Type 131 Isolate MSHR1435, Associated with a Chronic Melioidosis Infection

The Burkholderia pseudomallei isolate MSHR1435 is a fully virulent environmental sequence type 131 (ST131) isolate that is epidemiologically associated with a 17.5-year chronic melioidosis infection. The completed genome will serve as a reference for studies of environmental ecology, virulence, and chronic B. pseudomallei infections.

Melioidosis

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a Gram-negative environmental bacterium and the aetiological agent of melioidosis, a life-threatening infection that is estimated to account for ∼89,000 deaths per year worldwide. Diabetes mellitus is a major risk factor for melioidosis, and the global diabetes pandemic could increase the number of fatalities caused by melioidosis. Melioidosis is endemic across tropical areas, especially in southeast Asia and northern Australia. Disease manifestations can range from acute septicaemia to chronic infection, as the facultative intracellular lifestyle and virulence factors of B. pseudomallei promote survival and persistence of the pathogen within a broad range of cells, and the bacteria can manipulate the host's immune responses and signalling pathways to escape surveillance. The majority of patients present with sepsis, but specific clinical presentations and their severity vary depending on the route of bacterial entry (skin penetration, inhalation or ingestion), host immune function and bacterial strain and load. Diagnosis is based on clinical and epidemiological features as well as bacterial culture. Treatment requires long-term intravenous and oral antibiotic courses. Delays in treatment due to difficulties in clinical recognition and laboratory diagnosis often lead to poor outcomes and mortality can exceed 40% in some regions. Research into B. pseudomallei is increasing, owing to the biothreat potential of this pathogen and increasing awareness of the disease and its burden; however, better diagnostic tests are needed to improve early confirmation of diagnosis, which would enable better therapeutic efficacy and survival.

Antibodies against In Vivo-Expressed Antigens Are Sufficient To Protect against Lethal Aerosol Infection with Burkholderia mallei and Burkholderia pseudomallei

Burkholderia mallei, a facultative intracellular bacterium and tier 1 biothreat, causes the fatal zoonotic disease glanders. The organism possesses multiple genes encoding autotransporter proteins, which represent important virulence factors and targets for developing countermeasures in pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria. In the present study, we investigated one of these autotransporters, BatA, and demonstrate that it displays lipolytic activity, aids in intracellular survival, is expressed in vivo, elicits production of antibodies during infection, and contributes to pathogenicity in a mouse aerosol challenge model. A mutation in the batA gene of wild-type strain ATCC 23344 was found to be particularly attenuating, as BALB/c mice infected with the equivalent of 80 median lethal doses cleared the organism. This finding prompted us to test the hypothesis that vaccination with the batA mutant strain elicits protective immunity against subsequent infection with wild-type bacteria. We discovered that not only does vaccination provide high levels of protection against lethal aerosol challenge with B. mallei ATCC 23344, it also protects against infection with multiple isolates of the closely related organism and causative agent of melioidosis, Burkholderia pseudomallei Passive-transfer experiments also revealed that the protective immunity afforded by vaccination with the batA mutant strain is predominantly mediated by IgG antibodies binding to antigens expressed exclusively in vivo Collectively, our data demonstrate that BatA is a target for developing medical countermeasures and that vaccination with a mutant lacking expression of the protein provides a platform to gain insights regarding mechanisms of protective immunity against B. mallei and B. pseudomallei, including antigen discovery.

Effects of sodium chloride on heat resistance, oxidative susceptibility, motility, biofilm and plaque formation of Burkholderia pseudomallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei is an environmental saprophyte and the causative agent of melioidosis, a severe infectious disease prevalent in tropical areas, including southeast Asia and northern Australia. In Thailand, the highest incidence of melioidosis is in the northeast region, where saline soil and water are abundant. We hypothesized that B. pseudomallei develops an ability to thrive in saline conditions and gains a selective ecological advantage over other soil-dwelling microorganisms. However, little is known about how an elevated NaCl concentration affects survival and adaptive changes in this pathogen. In this study, we examined the adaptive changes in six isolates of B. pseudomallei after growth in Luria-Bertani medium containing different concentrations of NaCl at 37°C for 6 hr. The bacteria were then investigated for resistance to heat at 50°C and killing by hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ). In addition, flagellar production, biofilm formation, and the plaque formation efficiency of B. pseudomallei after culture in saline conditions were observed. In response to exposure to 150 and 300 mmol L^-1 NaCl, all B. pseudomallei isolates showed significantly increased thermal tolerance, oxidative resistance, and plaque-forming efficiency. However, NaCl exposure notably decreased the number of B. pseudomallei flagella. Taken together, these results provide insight into the adaptations of B. pseudomallei that might be crucial for survival and persistence in the host and/or endemic environments with high salinity.

Type III Secretion in the Melioidosis Pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a Gram-negative intracellular pathogen and the causative agent of melioidosis, a severe disease of both humans and animals. Melioidosis is an emerging disease which is predicted to be vastly under-reported. Type III Secretion Systems (T3SSs) are critical virulence factors in Gram negative pathogens of plants and animals. The genome of B. pseudomallei encodes three T3SSs. T3SS-1 and -2, of which little is known, are homologous to Hrp2 secretion systems of the plant pathogens Ralstonia and Xanthomonas. T3SS-3 is better characterized and is homologous to the Inv/Mxi-Spa secretion systems of Salmonella spp. and Shigella flexneri, respectively. Upon entry into the host cell, B. pseudomallei requires T3SS-3 for efficient escape from the endosome. T3SS-3 is also required for full virulence in both hamster and murine models of infection. The regulatory cascade which controls T3SS-3 expression and the secretome of T3SS-3 have been described, as well as the effect of mutations of some of the structural proteins. Yet only a few effector proteins have been functionally characterized to date and very little work has been carried out to understand the hierarchy of assembly, secretion and temporal regulation of T3SS-3. This review aims to frame current knowledge of B. pseudomallei T3SSs in the context of other well characterized model T3SSs, particularly those of Salmonella and Shigella.

Within-Host Evolution of Burkholderia pseudomallei during Chronic Infection of Seven Australasian Cystic Fibrosis Patients

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder characterized by progressive lung function decline. CF patients are at an increased risk of respiratory infections, including those by the environmental bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis. Here, we compared the genomes of B. pseudomallei isolates collected between ~4 and 55 months apart from seven chronically infected CF patients. Overall, the B. pseudomallei strains showed evolutionary patterns similar to those of other chronic infections, including emergence of antibiotic resistance, genome reduction, and deleterious mutations in genes involved in virulence, metabolism, environmental survival, and cell wall components. We documented the first reported B. pseudomallei hypermutators, which were likely caused by defective MutS. Further, our study identified both known and novel molecular mechanisms conferring resistance to three of the five clinically important antibiotics for melioidosis treatment. Our report highlights the exquisite adaptability of microorganisms to long-term persistence in their environment and the ongoing challenges of antibiotic treatment in eradicating pathogens in the CF lung. Convergent evolution with other CF pathogens hints at a degree of predictability in bacterial evolution in the CF lung and potential targeted eradication of chronic CF infections in the future.IMPORTANCEBurkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, is an environmental opportunistic bacterium that typically infects immunocompromised people and those with certain risk factors such as cystic fibrosis (CF). Patients with CF tend to develop chronic melioidosis infections, for reasons that are not well understood. This report is the first to describe B. pseudomallei evolution within the CF lung during chronic infection. We show that the pathways by which B. pseudomallei adapts to the CF lung are similar to those seen in better-studied CF pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Burkholderia cepacia complex species. Adaptations include the accumulation of antibiotic resistance, loss of nonessential genes, metabolic alterations, and virulence factor attenuation. Known and novel mechanisms of resistance to three of the five antibiotics used in melioidosis treatment were identified. Similar pathways of evolution in CF pathogens, including B. pseudomallei, provide exciting avenues for more-targeted treatment of chronic, recalcitrant infections.

Structural diversity of Burkholderia pseudomallei lipopolysaccharides affects innate immune signaling

Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp) causes the disease melioidosis. The main cause of mortality in this disease is septic shock triggered by the host responding to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) components of the Gram-negative outer membrane. Bp LPS is thought to be a weak inducer of the host immune system. LPS from several strains of Bp were purified and their ability to induce the inflammatory mediators TNF-α and iNOS in murine macrophages at low concentrations was investigated. Innate and adaptive immunity qPCR arrays were used to profile expression patterns of 84 gene targets in response to the different LPS types. Additional qPCR validation confirmed large differences in macrophage response. LPS from a high-virulence serotype B strain 576a and a virulent rough central nervous system tropic strain MSHR435 greatly induced the innate immune response indicating that the immunopathogenesis of these strains is different than in infections with strains similar to the prototype strain 1026b. The accumulation of autophagic vesicles was also increased in macrophages challenged with highly immunogenic Bp LPS. Gene induction and concomitant cytokine secretion profiles of human PBMCs in response to the various LPS were also investigated. MALDI-TOF/TOF was used to probe the lipid A portions of the LPS, indicating substantial structural differences that likely play a role in host response to LPS. These findings add to the evolving knowledge of host-response to bacterial LPS, which can be used to better understand septic shock in melioidosis patients and in the rational design of vaccines.

Attenuation of a select agent-excluded Burkholderia pseudomallei capsule mutant in hamsters

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a Tier 1 select agent and potential bioweapon. Given it is potential to cause a lethal respiratory disease, research with fully virulent B. pseudomallei is conducted in Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) laboratory spaces. The logistical, financial, and administrative burden of Tier 1 select agent BSL-3 research has created an interest in mitigating such burdens through the use of either attenuated B. pseudomallei strains at BSL-2, or research with surrogate species, such as Burkholderia thailandensis. Previously, attenuated B. pseudomallei auxotroph mutants (asd and purM) have been approved for exclusion from select agent requirements, allowing for in vitro studies to be conducted at BSL-2. Acapsular B. pseudomallei mutants are known to be strongly attenuated in a variety of animal models, and yet acapsular B. pseudomallei mutants do not require nutritional supplementation, and can be studied within cultured macrophages, performing phenotypically similarly to parent strains. We demonstrate that the loss of a 30.8 kb region of the wcb capsule operon allows for a dramatic >4.46 log attenuation in a hamster intraperitoneal infection model, and report that this strain, JW270, has met criteria for exclusion from select agent requirements.

Characterization of lesion formation in marmosets following inhalational challenge with different strains of Burkholderia pseudomallei

The marmoset model of melioidosis was used to explore whether there was any difference in the disease presentation and/or the lesion formation following inhalational challenge with one of four strains of Burkholderia pseudomallei (K96243, 1026b, HBPUB10303a and HBPUB10134a). Marmosets were challenged with a range of bacterial doses and bacterial load, histological and physiological features were determined temporally following lethal disease. Melioidosis presented as an acute, febrile disease with bacteraemia, bacterial dissemination, necrotizing hepatitis, splenitis and pneumonia which was independent of the challenge strain. Generally, there were no major differences in the manifestation of melioidosis following challenge by the different strains of B. pseudomallei; however, there were some differences in the time to death and the severity of the pathological features. The pathological features observed in the liver and spleen of animals challenged with B. pseudomallei strain 1026b were statistically less severe (P < 0.05) and less frequent. However, more severe foci of disease were evident in the lungs of animals challenged with strain 1026b. In all cases, the lesions developed from small areas of bacteria-infected macrophages surrounded by non-infected neutrophils into large lesions with both immune cell types infected. The marmoset model was a useful tool enabling the distinction of subtle difference in the pathological response to B. pseudomallei.

Characterization of New Virulence Factors Involved in the Intracellular Growth and Survival of Burkholderia pseudomallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, has complex and poorly understood extracellular and intracellular lifestyles. We used transposon-directed insertion site sequencing (TraDIS) to retrospectively analyze a transposon library that had previously been screened through a BALB/c mouse model to identify genes important for growth and survival in vivo. This allowed us to identify the insertion sites and phenotypes of negatively selected mutants that were previously overlooked due to technical constraints. All 23 unique genes identified in the original screen were confirmed by TraDIS, and an additional 105 mutants with various degrees of attenuation in vivo were identified. Five of the newly identified genes were chosen for further characterization, and clean, unmarked bpsl2248, tex, rpiR, bpsl1728, and bpss1528 deletion mutants were constructed from the wild-type strain K96243. Each of these mutants was tested in vitro and in vivo to confirm their attenuated phenotypes and investigate the nature of the attenuation. Our results confirm that we have identified new genes important to in vivo virulence with roles in different stages of B. pseudomallei pathogenesis, including extracellular and intracellular survival. Of particular interest, deletion of the transcription accessory protein Tex was shown to be highly attenuating, and the tex mutant was capable of providing protective immunity against challenge with wild-type B. pseudomallei, suggesting that the genes identified in our TraDIS screen have the potential to be investigated as live vaccine candidates.

The Burkholderia pseudomallei Proteins BapA and BapC Are Secreted TTSS3 Effectors and BapB Levels Modulate Expression of BopE

Many Gram-negative pathogens use a type III secretion system (TTSS) for the injection of bacterial effector proteins into host cells. The injected effector proteins play direct roles in modulation of host cell pathways for bacterial benefit. Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, expresses three different TTSSs. One of these systems, the TTSS3, is essential for escape from host endosomes and therefore intracellular survival and replication. Here we have characterized three putative TTSS3 proteins; namely BapA, BapB and BapC. By employing a tetracysteine (TC)-FlAsH^™ labelling technique to monitor the secretion of TC-tagged fusion proteins, BapA and BapC were shown to be secreted during in vitro growth in a TTSS3-dependant manner, suggesting a role as TTSS3 effectors. Furthermore, we constructed B. pseudomallei bapA, bapB and bapC mutants and used the well-characterized TTSS3 effector BopE as a marker of secretion to show that BapA, BapB and BapC are not essential for the secretion process. However, BopE transcription and secretion were significantly increased in the bapB mutant, suggesting that BapB levels modulate BopE expression. In a BALB/c mouse model of acute melioidosis, the bapA, bapB and bapC mutants showed a minor reduction of in vivo fitness. Thus, this study defines BapA and BapC as novel TTSS3 effectors, BapB as a regulator of BopE production, and all three as necessary for full B. pseudomallei in vivo fitness.

Comprehensive identification of virulence factors required for respiratory melioidosis using Tn-seq mutagenesis

Respiratory melioidosis is a disease presentation of the biodefense pathogen, Burkholderia pseudomallei, which is frequently associated with a lethal septicemic spread of the bacteria. We have recently developed an improved respiratory melioidosis model to study the pathogenesis of Burkholderia pseudomallei in the lung (intubation-mediated intratracheal [IMIT] inoculation), which more closely models descriptions of human melioidosis, including prominent septicemic spread from the lung and reduced involvement of the upper respiratory tract. We previously demonstrated that the Type 3 Secretion System cluster 3 (T3SS3) is a critical virulence determinant for B. pseudomallei when delivered directly into the lung. We decided to comprehensively identify all virulence determinants required for respiratory melioidosis using the Tn-seq phenotypic screen, as well as to investigate which virulence determinants are required for dissemination to the liver and spleen. While previous studies have used Tn-seq to identify essential genes for in vitro cultured B. pseudomallei, this represents the first study to use Tn-seq to identify genes required for in vivo fitness. Consistent with our previous findings, we identified T3SS3 as the largest genetic cluster required for fitness in the lung. Furthermore, we identified capsular polysaccharide and Type 6 Secretion System cluster 5 (T6SS5) as the two additional major genetic clusters facilitating respiratory melioidosis. Importantly, Tn-seq did not identify additional, novel large genetic systems supporting respiratory melioidosis, although these studies identified additional small gene clusters that may also play crucial roles in lung fitness. Interestingly, other previously identified virulence determinants do not appear to be required for lung fitness, such as lipopolysaccharide. The role of T3SS3, capsule, and T6SS5 in lung fitness was validated by competition studies, but only T3SS3 was found to be important for respiratory melioidosis when delivered as a single strain challenge, suggesting that competition studies may provide a higher resolution analysis of fitness factors in the lung. The use of Tn-seq phenotypic screening also provided key insights into the selective pressure encountered in the liver.

A Unique Set of the Burkholderia Collagen-Like Proteins Provides Insight into Pathogenesis, Genome Evolution and Niche Adaptation, and Infection Detection

Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei, classified as category B priority pathogens, are significant human and animal pathogens that are highly infectious and broad-spectrum antibiotic resistant. Currently, the pathogenicity mechanisms utilized by Burkholderia are not fully understood, and correct diagnosis of B. pseudomallei and B. mallei infection remains a challenge due to limited detection methods. Here, we provide a comprehensive analysis of a set of 13 novel Burkholderia collagen-like proteins (Bucl) that were identified among B. pseudomallei and B. mallei select agents. We infer that several Bucl proteins participate in pathogenesis based on their noncollagenous domains that are associated with the components of a type III secretion apparatus and membrane transport systems. Homology modeling of the outer membrane efflux domain of Bucl8 points to a role in multi-drug resistance. We determined that bucl genes are widespread in B. pseudomallei and B. mallei; Fischer’s exact test and Cramer’s V² values indicate that the majority of bucl genes are highly associated with these pathogenic species versus nonpathogenic B. thailandensis. We designed a bucl-based quantitative PCR assay which was able to detect B. pseudomallei infection in a mouse with a detection limit of 50 CFU. Finally, chromosomal mapping and phylogenetic analysis of bucl loci revealed considerable genomic plasticity and adaptation of Burkholderia spp. to host and environmental niches. In this study, we identified a large set of phylogenetically unrelated bucl genes commonly found in Burkholderia select agents, encoding predicted pathogenicity factors, detection targets, and vaccine candidates.

Altered Proteome of Burkholderia pseudomallei Colony Variants Induced by Exposure to Human Lung Epithelial Cells

Burkholderia pseudomallei primary diagnostic cultures demonstrate colony morphology variation associated with expression of virulence and adaptation proteins. This study aims to examine the ability of B. pseudomallei colony variants (wild type [WT] and small colony variant [SCV]) to survive and replicate intracellularly in A549 cells and to identify the alterations in the protein expression of these variants, post-exposure to the A549 cells. Intracellular survival and cytotoxicity assays were performed followed by proteomics analysis using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. B. pseudomallei SCV survive longer than the WT. During post-exposure, among 259 and 260 protein spots of SCV and WT, respectively, 19 were differentially expressed. Among SCV post-exposure up-regulated proteins, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (CbbA) and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase were associated with adhesion and virulence. Among the down-regulated proteins, enolase (Eno) is implicated in adhesion and virulence. Additionally, post-exposure expression profiles of both variants were compared with pre-exposure. In WT pre- vs post-exposure, 36 proteins were differentially expressed. Of the up-regulated proteins, translocator protein, Eno, nucleoside diphosphate kinase (Ndk), ferritin Dps-family DNA binding protein and peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase B were implicated in invasion and virulence. In SCV pre- vs post-exposure, 27 proteins were differentially expressed. Among the up-regulated proteins, flagellin, Eno, CbbA, Ndk and phenylacetate-coenzyme A ligase have similarly been implicated in adhesion, invasion. Protein profiles differences post-exposure provide insights into association between morphotypic and phenotypic characteristics of colony variants, strengthening the role of B. pseudomallei morphotypes in pathogenesis of melioidosis.

Burkholderia pseudomallei type III secretion system cluster 3 ATPase BsaS, a chemotherapeutic target for small-molecule ATPase inhibitors

Melioidosis is an infectious disease of high mortality for humans and other animal species; it is prevalent in tropical regions worldwide. The pathogenesis of melioidosis depends on the ability of its causative agent, the Gram-negative bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, to enter and survive in host cells. B. pseudomallei can escape from the phagosome into the cytosol of phagocytic cells where it replicates and acquires actin-mediated motility, avoiding killing by the autophagy-dependent process, LC3 (microtubule-associated protein light chain 3)-associated phagocytosis (LAP). The type III secretion system cluster 3 (TTSS3) facilitates bacterial escape from phagosomes, although the mechanism has not been fully elucidated. Given the recent identification of small-molecule inhibitors of the TTSS ATPase, we sought to determine the potential of the predicted TTSS3 ATPase, encoded by bsaS, as a target for chemotherapeutic treatment of infection. A B. pseudomallei bsaS deletion mutant was generated and used as a control against which to assess the effect of inhibitor treatment. Infection of RAW 264.7 cells with wild-type bacteria and subsequent treatment with the ATPase inhibitor compound 939 resulted in reduced intracellular bacterial survival, reduced escape from phagosomes, and increased colocalization with both LC3 and the lysosomal marker LAMP1 (lysosome-associated membrane protein 1). These changes were similar to those observed for infection of RAW 264.7 cells with the bsaS deletion mutant. We propose that treatment with the ATPase inhibitor compound 939 decreased intracellular bacterial survival through a reduced ability of bacteria to escape from phagosomes and increased killing via LAP. Therefore, small-molecule inhibitors of the TTSS3 ATPase have potential as therapeutic treatments against melioidosis.

Quantitative proteomic analysis of Burkholderia pseudomallei Bsa type III secretion system effectors using hypersecreting mutants

Burkholderia pseudomallei is an intracellular pathogen and the causative agent of melioidosis, a severe disease of humans and animals. One of the virulence factors critical for early stages of infection is the Burkholderia secretion apparatus (Bsa) Type 3 Secretion System (T3SS), a molecular syringe that injects bacterial proteins, called effectors, into eukaryotic cells where they subvert cellular functions to the benefit of the bacteria. Although the Bsa T3SS itself is known to be important for invasion, intracellular replication, and virulence, only a few genuine effector proteins have been identified and the complete repertoire of proteins secreted by the system has not yet been fully characterized. We constructed a mutant lacking bsaP, a homolog of the T3SS "gatekeeper" family of proteins that exert control over the timing and magnitude of effector protein secretion. Mutants lacking BsaP, or the T3SS translocon protein BipD, were observed to hypersecrete the known Bsa effector protein BopE, providing evidence of their role in post-translational control of the Bsa T3SS and representing key reagents for the identification of its secreted substrates. Isobaric Tags for Relative and Absolute Quantification (iTRAQ), a gel-free quantitative proteomics technique, was used to compare the secreted protein profiles of the Bsa T3SS hypersecreting mutants of B. pseudomallei with the isogenic parent strain and a bsaZ mutant incapable of effector protein secretion. Our study provides one of the most comprehensive core secretomes of B. pseudomallei described to date and identified 26 putative Bsa-dependent secreted proteins that may be considered candidate effectors. Two of these proteins, BprD and BapA, were validated as novel effector proteins secreted by the Bsa T3SS of B. pseudomallei.

Type 3 secretion system cluster 3 is a critical virulence determinant for lung-specific melioidosis

Burkholderia pseudomallei, the bacterial agent of melioidosis, causes disease through inhalation of infectious particles, and is classified as a Tier 1 Select Agent. Optical diagnostic imaging has demonstrated that murine respiratory disease models are subject to significant upper respiratory tract (URT) colonization. Because human melioidosis is not associated with URT colonization as a prominent presentation, we hypothesized that lung-specific delivery of B. pseudomallei may enhance our ability to study respiratory melioidosis in mice. We compared intranasal and intubation-mediated intratracheal (IMIT) instillation of bacteria and found that the absence of URT colonization correlates with an increased bacterial pneumonia and systemic disease progression. Comparison of the LD₅₀ of luminescent B. pseudomallei strain, JW280, in intranasal and IMIT challenges of albino C57BL/6J mice identified a significant decrease in the LD₅₀ using IMIT. We subsequently examined the LD₅₀ of both capsular polysaccharide and Type 3 Secretion System cluster 3 (T3SS3) mutants by IMIT challenge of mice and found that the capsule mutant was attenuated 6.8 fold, while the T3SS3 mutant was attenuated 290 fold, demonstrating that T3SS3 is critical to respiratory melioidosis. Our previously reported intranasal challenge studies, which involve significant URT colonization, did not identify a dissemination defect for capsule mutants; however, we now report that capsule mutants exhibit significantly reduced dissemination from the lung following lung-specific instillation, suggesting that capsule mutants are competent to spread from the URT, but not the lung. We also report that a T3SS3 mutant is defective for dissemination following lung-specific delivery, and also exhibits in vivo growth defects in the lung. These findings highlight the T3SS3 as a critical virulence system for respiratory melioidosis, not only in the lung, but also for subsequent spread beyond the lung using a model system uniquely capable to characterize the fate of lung-delivered pathogen.

Respiratory melioidosis is a lethal disease presentation of the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, which is found in tropical regions worldwide. Respiratory melioidosis has also been highlighted as a concern in the biodefense community given the potential for weaponization of B. pseudomallei. This study demonstrates that respiratory melioidosis models can significantly vary in their disease presentations in mice, depending on whether the upper respiratory tract represents an initial site of infection. We have demonstrated that lung-specific infections of mice, which avoid nasal cavity colonization, result in a course of disease with greater maturation of pneumonia and systemic spread, and we propose that this represents a critical advance in the field of studying respiratory melioidosis. We further characterize that the capsule virulence determinant, previously considered important for respiratory melioidosis, has reduced significance when characterized in the context of lung-specific disease, while the Type 3 Secretion System cluster 3 is a critical virulence determinant for B. pseudomallei required for efficient colonization of the lung as well as spread to other tissues.

Melioidosis: molecular aspects of pathogenesis

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a gram-negative bacterium that causes melioidosis, a multifaceted disease that is highly endemic in southeast Asia and northern Australia. This facultative intracellular pathogen possesses a large genome that encodes a wide array of virulence factors that promote survival in vivo by manipulating host cell processes and disarming elements of the host immune system. Antigens and systems that play key roles in B. pseudomallei virulence include capsular polysaccharide, lipopolysaccharide, adhesins, specialized secretion systems, actin-based motility and various secreted factors. This review provides an overview of the current and steadily expanding knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms used by this organism to survive within a host and their contribution to the pathogenesis of melioidosis.

Functional characterizations of effector protein BipC, a type III secretion system protein, in Burkholderia pseudomallei pathogenesis

OBJECTIVES

The bsa locus of Burkholderia pseudomallei encodes several proteins that are components of the type III secretion system (TTSS). BipC was postulated as one of the TTSS-3 effector proteins, but its role in the pathogenesis of B. pseudomallei infection is not well understood. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine its role(s) in the virulence of B. pseudomallei pathogenesis.

METHODS

A bipC TTSS-3-deficient strain of B. pseudomallei and complemented strains were generated to assess the role of BipC as a type III translocation apparatus. Human cell lines and a mouse model of melioidosis were used for in vitro and in vivo assays, respectively.

RESULTS

A significant 2-fold reduction was demonstrated in the percentage of adherence, invasion, intracellular survival, and phagosomal escape of the bipC mutant. Interestingly, microscopic studies have shown that BipC was capable of delayed B. pseudomallei actin-based motility. The virulence of the mutant strain in a murine model of melioidosis demonstrated that the bipC mutant was less virulent, compared with the wild type.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that BipC possesses virulence determinants that play significant roles in host cell invasion and immune evasion.

Characterization and analysis of the Burkholderia pseudomallei BsaN virulence regulon

Background

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a facultative intracellular pathogen and the causative agent of melioidosis. A conserved type III secretion system (T3SS3) and type VI secretion system (T6SS1) are critical for intracellular survival and growth. The T3SS3 and T6SS1 genes are coordinately and hierarchically regulated by a TetR-type regulator, BspR. A central transcriptional regulator of the BspR regulatory cascade, BsaN, activates a subset of T3SS3 and T6SS1 loci.

Results

To elucidate the scope of the BsaN regulon, we used RNAseq analysis to compare the transcriptomes of wild-type B. pseudomallei KHW and a bsaN deletion mutant. The 60 genes positively-regulated by BsaN include those that we had previously identified in addition to a polyketide biosynthesis locus and genes involved in amino acid biosynthesis. BsaN was also found to repress the transcription of 51 genes including flagellar motility loci and those encoding components of the T3SS3 apparatus. Using a promoter-lacZ fusion assay in E. coli, we show that BsaN together with the chaperone BicA directly control the expression of the T3SS3 translocon, effector and associated regulatory genes that are organized into at least five operons (BPSS1516-BPSS1552). Using a mutagenesis approach, a consensus regulatory motif in the promoter regions of BsaN-regulated genes was shown to be essential for transcriptional activation.

Conclusions

BsaN/BicA functions as a central regulator of key virulence clusters in B. pseudomallei within a more extensive network of genetic regulation. We propose that BsaN/BicA controls a gene expression program that facilitates the adaption and intracellular survival of the pathogen within eukaryotic hosts.

The multiple roles of hypothetical gene BPSS1356 in Burkholderia pseudomallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei is an opportunistic pathogen and the causative agent of melioidosis. It is able to adapt to harsh environments and can live intracellularly in its infected hosts. In this study, identification of transcriptional factors that associate with the β' subunit (RpoC) of RNA polymerase was performed. The N-terminal region of this subunit is known to trigger promoter melting when associated with a sigma factor. A pull-down assay using histidine-tagged B. pseudomallei RpoC N-terminal region as bait showed that a hypothetical protein BPSS1356 was one of the proteins bound. This hypothetical protein is conserved in all B. pseudomallei strains and present only in the Burkholderia genus. A BPSS1356 deletion mutant was generated to investigate its biological function. The mutant strain exhibited reduced biofilm formation and a lower cell density during the stationary phase of growth in LB medium. Electron microscopic analysis revealed that the ΔBPSS1356 mutant cells had a shrunken cytoplasm indicative of cell plasmolysis and a rougher surface when compared to the wild type. An RNA microarray result showed that a total of 63 genes were transcriptionally affected by the BPSS1356 deletion with fold change values of higher than 4. The expression of a group of genes encoding membrane located transporters was concurrently down-regulated in ΔBPSS1356 mutant. Amongst the affected genes, the putative ion transportation genes were the most severely suppressed. Deprivation of BPSS1356 also down-regulated the transcriptions of genes for the arginine deiminase system, glycerol metabolism, type III secretion system cluster 2, cytochrome bd oxidase and arsenic resistance. It is therefore obvious that BPSS1356 plays a multiple regulatory roles on many genes.

Type three secretion system-mediated escape of Burkholderia pseudomallei into the host cytosol is critical for the activation of NFκB

Background

Burkholderia pseudomallei is the causative agent of melioidosis, a potentially fatal disease endemic in Southeast Asia and Northern Australia. This Gram-negative pathogen possesses numerous virulence factors including three “injection type” type three secretion systems (T3SSs). B. pseudomallei has been shown to activate NFκB in HEK293T cells in a Toll-like receptor and MyD88 independent manner that requires T3SS gene cluster 3 (T3SS3 or T3SS_Bsa). However, the mechanism of how T3SS3 contributes to NFκB activation is unknown.

Results

Known T3SS3 effectors are not responsible for NFκB activation. Furthermore, T3SS3-null mutants are able to activate NFκB almost to the same extent as wildtype bacteria at late time points of infection, corresponding to delayed escape into the cytosol. NFκB activation also occurs when bacteria are delivered directly into the cytosol by photothermal nanoblade injection.

Conclusions

T3SS3 does not directly activate NFκB but facilitates bacterial escape into the cytosol where the host is able to sense the presence of the pathogen through cytosolic sensors leading to NFκB activation.

A high-content imaging assay for the quantification of the Burkholderia pseudomallei induced multinucleated giant cell (MNGC) phenotype in murine macrophages

BACKGROUND

Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp), a Gram-negative, motile, facultative intracellular bacterium is the causative agent of melioidosis in humans and animals. The Bp genome encodes a repertoire of virulence factors, including the cluster 3 type III secretion system (T3SS-3), the cluster 1 type VI secretion system (T6SS-1), and the intracellular motility protein BimA, that enable the pathogen to invade both phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells. A unique hallmark of Bp infection both in vitro and in vivo is its ability to induce cell-to-cell fusion of macrophages to form multinucleated giant cells (MNGCs), which to date are semi-quantitatively reported following visual inspection.

RESULTS

In this study we report the development of an automated high-content image acquisition and analysis assay to quantitate the Bp induced MNGC phenotype. Validation of the assay was performed using T6SS-1 (∆hcp1) and T3SS-3 (∆bsaZ) mutants of Bp that have been previously reported to exhibit defects in their ability to induce MNGCs. Finally, screening of a focused small molecule library identified several Histone Deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors that inhibited Bp-induced MNGC formation of macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

We have successfully developed an automated HCI assay to quantitate MNGCs induced by Bp in macrophages. This assay was then used to characterize the phenotype of the Bp mutants for their ability to induce MNGC formation and identify small molecules that interfere with this process. Successful application of chemical genetics and functional reverse genetics siRNA approaches in the MNGC assay will help gain a better understanding of the molecular targets and cellular mechanisms responsible for the MNGC phenotype induced by Bp, by other bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, or by exogenously added cytokines.

Caspase-1-dependent and -independent cell death pathways in Burkholderia pseudomallei infection of macrophages

The cytosolic pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei and causative agent of melioidosis has been shown to regulate IL-1β and IL-18 production through NOD-like receptor NLRP3 and pyroptosis via NLRC4. Downstream signalling pathways of those receptors and other cell death mechanisms induced during B. pseudomallei infection have not been addressed so far in detail. Furthermore, the role of B. pseudomallei factors in inflammasome activation is still ill defined. In the present study we show that caspase-1 processing and pyroptosis is exclusively dependent on NLRC4, but not on NLRP3 in the early phase of macrophage infection, whereas at later time points caspase-1 activation and cell death is NLRC4- independent. In the early phase we identified an activation pathway involving caspases-9, -7 and PARP downstream of NLRC4 and caspase-1. Analyses of caspase-1/11-deficient infected macrophages revealed a strong induction of apoptosis, which is dependent on activation of apoptotic initiator and effector caspases. The early activation pathway of caspase-1 in macrophages was markedly reduced or completely abolished after infection with a B. pseudomallei flagellin FliC or a T3SS3 BsaU mutant. Studies using cells transfected with the wild-type and mutated T3SS3 effector protein BopE indicated also a role of this protein in caspase-1 processing. A T3SS3 inner rod protein BsaK mutant failed to activate caspase-1, revealed higher intracellular counts, reduced cell death and IL-1β secretion during early but not during late macrophage infection compared to the wild-type. Intranasal infection of BALB/c mice with the BsaK mutant displayed a strongly decreased mortality, lower bacterial loads in organs, and reduced levels of IL-1β, myeloperoxidase and neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. In conclusion, our results indicate a major role for a functional T3SS3 in early NLRC4-mediated caspase-1 activation and pyroptosis and a contribution of late caspase-1-dependent and -independent cell death mechanisms in the pathogenesis of B. pseudomallei infection.

Inflammasome activation is important for host defence against bacterial infection. Many gram-negative pathogens use secretion systems to inject bacterial proteins such as flagellin or structural components of the secretion machinery itself into the host cytosol leading to caspase-1 activation and pyroptotic cell death. However, little is known about the B. pseudomallei factors that trigger caspase-1 activation as well as downstream signalling pathways and effector mechanisms of caspase-1. Here, we identified the B. pseudomallei T3SS3 inner rod protein BsaK as an early activator of caspase-1-dependent cell death and IL-1β secretion in primary macrophages and as a virulence factor in murine melioidosis. We could show that upon infection of macrophages, caspase-7 is activated downstream of the NLRC4/caspase-1 inflammasome and requires caspase-9 processing. Although caspase-7 was essential for cleavage of the DNA damage sensor PARP during pyroptosis, it did neither contribute to cytokine production nor B. pseudomallei growth restriction by promoting early macrophage death. In addition to a rapid NLRC4/caspase-1- dependent induction of pyroptosis in wild-type macrophages, we observed a delayed activation of classical apoptosis in macrophages lacking caspase-1/11. Thus, initiation of different cell death pathways seems to be an effective strategy to limit intracellular B. pseudomallei infection.

Comparative Burkholderia pseudomallei natural history virulence studies using an aerosol murine model of infection

Melioidosis is an endemic disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei. Concerns exist regarding B. pseudomallei use as a potential bio-threat agent causing persistent infections and typically manifesting as severe pneumonia capable of causing fatal bacteremia. Development of suitable therapeutics against melioidosis is complicated due to high degree of genetic and phenotypic variability among B. pseudomallei isolates and lack of data establishing commonly accepted strains for comparative studies. Further, the impact of strain variation on virulence, disease presentation, and mortality is not well understood. Therefore, this study evaluate and compare the virulence and disease progression of B. pseudomallei strains K96243 and HBPUB10303a, following aerosol challenge in a standardized BALB/c mouse model of infection. The natural history analysis of disease progression monitored conditions such as weight, body temperature, appearance, activity, bacteremia, organ and tissue colonization (pathological and histological analysis) and immunological responses. This study provides a detailed, direct comparison of infection with different B. pseudomallei strains and set up the basis for a standardized model useful to test different medical countermeasures against Burkholderia species. Further, this protocol serves as a guideline to standardize other bacterial aerosol models of infection or to define biomarkers of infectious processes caused by other intracellular pathogens.

The twin arginine translocation system is essential for aerobic growth and full virulence of Burkholderia thailandensis

The twin arginine translocation (Tat) system in bacteria is responsible for transporting folded proteins across the cytoplasmic membrane, and in some bacteria, Tat-exported substrates have been linked to virulence. We report here that the Tat machinery is present in Burkholderia pseudomallei, B. mallei, and B. thailandensis, and we show that the system is essential for aerobic but not anaerobic growth. Switching off of the Tat system in B. thailandensis grown anaerobically resulted in filamentous bacteria, and bacteria showed increased sensitivity to some β-lactam antibiotics. In Galleria mellonella and zebrafish infection models, the Tat conditional mutant was attenuated. The aerobic growth-restricted phenotype indicates that Tat substrates may play a functional role in oxygen-dependent energy conservation. In other bacteria, aerobic growth restriction in Tat mutants has been attributed to the inability to translocate PetA, the Rieske iron-sulfur protein which forms part of the quinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase complex. Here, we show that PetA is not responsible for aerobic growth restriction in B. thailandensis. However, we have identified an operon encoding 2 proteins of unknown function (BTH_I2176 and BTH_I2175) that play a role in aerobic growth restriction, and we present evidence that BTH_I2176 is Tat translocated.

Evolutionary analysis of Burkholderia pseudomallei identifies putative novel virulence genes, including a microbial regulator of host cell autophagy

Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, contains a large pathogen genome (7.2 Mb) with ∼2,000 genes of putative or unknown function. Interactions with potential hosts and environmental factors may induce rapid adaptations in these B. pseudomallei genes, which can be discerned through evolutionary analysis of multiple B. pseudomallei genomes. Here we show that several previously uncharacterized B. pseudomallei genes bearing genetic signatures of rapid adaptation (positive selection) can induce diverse cellular phenotypes when expressed in mammalian cells. Notably, several of these phenotypes are plausibly related to virulence, including multinuclear giant cell formation, apoptosis, and autophagy induction. Specifically, we show that BPSS0180, a type VI cluster-associated gene, is capable of inducing autophagy in both phagocytic and nonphagocytic mammalian cells. Following infection of macrophages, a B. pseudomallei mutant disrupted in BPSS0180 exhibited significantly decreased colocalization with LC3 and impaired intracellular survival; these phenotypes were rescued by introduction of an intact BPSS0180 gene. The results suggest that BPSS0180 may be a novel inducer of host cell autophagy that contributes to B. pseudomallei intracellular growth. More generally, our study highlights the utility of applying evolutionary principles to microbial genomes to identify novel virulence genes.

Comparative assessment of the intracellular survival of the Burkholderia pseudomallei bopC mutant

Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, is a Gram-negative saprophytic bacterium capable of surviving within phagocytic cells. To assess the role of BopC (a type III secreted effector protein) in the pathogenesis of B. pseudomallei, a B. pseudomallei bopC mutant was used to infect J774A.1 macrophage-like cells. The bopC mutant showed significantly reduced intracellular survival in infected macrophages compared to wild-type B. pseudomallei. In addition, the bopC mutant displayed delayed escape from endocytic vesicles compared with the wild-type strain. This indicates that BopC is important, and at least in part, needed for intracellular survival of B. pseudomallei.

Within-host evolution of Burkholderia pseudomallei over a twelve-year chronic carriage infection

Burkholderia pseudomallei causes the potentially fatal disease melioidosis. It is generally accepted that B. pseudomallei is a noncommensal bacterium and that any culture-positive clinical specimen denotes disease requiring treatment. Over a 23-year study of melioidosis cases in Darwin, Australia, just one patient from 707 survivors has developed persistent asymptomatic B. pseudomallei carriage. To better understand the mechanisms behind this unique scenario, we performed whole-genome analysis of two strains isolated 139 months apart. During this period, B. pseudomallei underwent several adaptive changes. Of 23 point mutations, 78% were nonsynonymous and 43% were predicted to be deleterious to gene function, demonstrating a strong propensity for positive selection. Notably, a nonsense mutation inactivated the universal stress response sigma factor RpoS, with pleiotropic implications. The genome underwent substantial reduction, with four deletions in chromosome 2 resulting in the loss of 221 genes. The deleted loci included genes involved in secondary metabolism, environmental survival, and pathogenesis. Of 14 indels, 11 occurred in coding regions and 9 resulted in frameshift mutations that dramatically affected predicted gene products. Disproportionately, four indels affected lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis and modification. Finally, we identified a frameshift mutation in both P314 isolates within wcbR, an important component of the capsular polysaccharide I locus, suggesting virulence attenuation early in infection. Our study illustrates a unique clinical case that contrasts a high-consequence infectious agent with a long-term commensal infection and provides further insights into bacterial evolution within the human host.

Some bacterial pathogens establish long-term infections that are difficult or impossible to eradicate with current treatments. Rapid advances in genome sequencing technologies provide a powerful tool for understanding bacterial persistence within the human host. Burkholderia pseudomallei is considered a highly pathogenic bacterium because infection is commonly fatal. Here, we document within-host evolution of B. pseudomallei in a unique case of human infection with ongoing chronic carriage. Genomic comparison of isolates obtained 139 months (11.5 years) apart showed a strong signal of adaptation within the human host, including inactivation of virulence and immunogenic factors, and deletion of pathways involved in environmental survival. Two global regulatory genes were mutated in the 139-month isolate, indicating extensive regulatory changes favoring bacterial persistence. Our study provides insights into B. pseudomallei pathogenesis and, more broadly, identifies parallel evolutionary mechanisms that underlie chronic persistence of all bacterial pathogens.

Development of Burkholderia mallei and pseudomallei vaccines

Burkholderia mallei and Burkholderia pseudomallei are Gram-negative bacteria that cause glanders and melioidosis, respectively. Inhalational infection with either organism can result in severe and rapidly fatal pneumonia. Inoculation by the oral and cutaneous routes can also produce infection. Chronic infection may develop after recovery from acute infection with both agents, and control of infection with antibiotics requires prolonged treatment. Symptoms for both meliodosis and glanders are non-specific, making diagnosis difficult. B. pseudomallei can be located in the environment, but in the host, B. mallei and B. psedomallei are intracellular organisms, and infection results in similar immune responses to both agents. Effective early innate immune responses are critical to controlling the early phase of the infection. Innate immune signaling molecules such as TLR, NOD, MyD88, and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ and TNF-α play key roles in regulating control of infection. Neutrophils and monocytes are critical cells in the early infection for both microorganisms. Both monocytes and macrophages are necessary for limiting dissemination of B. pseudomallei. In contrast, the role of adaptive immune responses in controlling Burkholderia infection is less well understood. However, T cell responses are critical for vaccine protection from Burkholderia infection. At present, effective vaccines for prevention of glanders or meliodosis have not been developed, although recently development of Burkholderia vaccines has received renewed attention. This review will summarize current and past approaches to develop B. mallei and B. pseudomalllei vaccines, with emphasis on immune mechanisms of protection and the challenges facing the field. At present, immunization with live attenuated bacteria provides the most effective and durable immunity, and it is important therefore to understand the immune correlates of protection induced by live attenuated vaccines. Subunit vaccines have typically provided less robust immunity, but are safer to administer to a wider variety of people, including immune compromised individuals because they do not reactivate or cause disease. The challenges facing B. mallei and B. pseudomalllei vaccine development include identification of broadly protective antigens, design of efficient vaccine delivery and adjuvant systems, and a better understanding of the correlates of protection from both acute and chronic infection.

Burkholderia vaccines: are we moving forward?

The genus Burkholderia consists of diverse species which includes both "friends" and "foes." Some of the "friendly" Burkholderia spp. are extensively used in the biotechnological and agricultural industry for bioremediation and biocontrol. However, several members of the genus including B. pseudomallei, B. mallei, and B. cepacia, are known to cause fatal disease in both humans and animals. B. pseudomallei and B. mallei are the causative agents of melioidosis and glanders, respectively, while B. cepacia infection is lethal to cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Due to the high rate of infectivity and intrinsic resistance to many commonly used antibiotics, together with high mortality rate, B. mallei and B. pseudomallei are considered to be potential biological warfare agents. Treatments of the infections caused by these bacteria are often unsuccessful with frequent relapse of the infection. Thus, we are at a crucial stage of the need for Burkholderia vaccines. Although the search for a prophylactic therapy candidate continues, to date development of vaccines has not advanced beyond research to human clinical trials. In this article, we review the current research on development of safe vaccines with high efficacy against B. pseudomallei, B. mallei, and B. cepacia. It can be concluded that further research will enable elucidation of the potential benefits and risks of Burkholderia vaccines.

Capsule influences the deposition of critical complement C3 levels required for the killing of Burkholderia pseudomallei via NADPH-oxidase induction by human neutrophils

Burkholderia pseudomallei is the causative agent of melioidosis and is a major mediator of sepsis in its endemic areas. Because of the low LD(50) via aerosols and resistance to multiple antibiotics, it is considered a Tier 1 select agent by the CDC and APHIS. B. pseudomallei is an encapsulated bacterium that can infect, multiply, and persist within a variety of host cell types. In vivo studies suggest that macrophages and neutrophils are important for controlling B. pseudomallei infections, however few details are known regarding how neutrophils respond to these bacteria. Our goal is to describe the capacity of human neutrophils to control highly virulent B. pseudomallei compared to the relatively avirulent, acapsular B. thailandensis using in vitro analyses. B. thailandensis was more readily phagocytosed than B. pseudomallei, but both displayed similar rates of persistence within neutrophils, indicating they possess similar inherent abilities to escape neutrophil clearance. Serum opsonization studies showed that both were resistant to direct killing by complement, although B. thailandensis acquired significantly more C3 on its surface than B. pseudomallei, whose polysaccharide capsule significantly decreased the levels of complement deposition on the bacterial surface. Both Burkholderia species showed significantly enhanced uptake and killing by neutrophils after critical levels of C3 were deposited. Serum-opsonized Burkholderia induced a significant respiratory burst by neutrophils compared to unopsonized bacteria, and neutrophil killing was prevented by inhibiting NADPH-oxidase. In summary, neutrophils can efficiently kill B. pseudomallei and B. thailandensis that possess a critical threshold of complement deposition, and the relative differences in their ability to resist surface opsonization may contribute to the distinct virulence phenotypes observed in vivo.

Burkholderia pseudomallei transcriptional adaptation in macrophages

Background

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a facultative intracellular pathogen of phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells. How the bacterium interacts with host macrophage cells is still not well understood and is critical to appreciate the strategies used by this bacterium to survive and how intracellular survival leads to disease manifestation.

Results

Here we report the expression profile of intracellular B. pseudomallei following infection of human macrophage-like U937 cells. During intracellular growth over the 6 h infection period, approximately 22 % of the B. pseudomallei genome showed significant transcriptional adaptation. B. pseudomallei adapted rapidly to the intracellular environment by down-regulating numerous genes involved in metabolism, cell envelope, motility, replication, amino acid and ion transport system and regulatory function pathways. Reduced expression in catabolic and housekeeping genes suggested lower energy requirement and growth arrest during macrophage infection, while expression of genes encoding anaerobic metabolism functions were up regulated. However, whilst the type VI secretion system was up regulated, expression of many known virulence factors was not significantly modulated over the 6hours of infection.

Conclusions

The transcriptome profile described here provides the first comprehensive view of how B. pseudomallei survives within host cells and will help identify potential virulence factors and proteins that are important for the survival and growth of B. pseudomallei within human cells.

The Madagascar hissing cockroach as a novel surrogate host for Burkholderia pseudomallei, B. mallei and B. thailandensis

BACKGROUND

Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei are gram-negative pathogens responsible for the diseases melioidosis and glanders, respectively. Both species cause disease in humans and animals and have been designated as category B select agents by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Burkholderia thailandensis is a closely related bacterium that is generally considered avirulent for humans. While it can cause disease in rodents, the B. thailandensis 50% lethal dose (LD50) is typically ≥ 104-fold higher than the B. pseudomallei and B. mallei LD50 in mammalian models of infection. Here we describe an alternative to mammalian hosts in the study of virulence and host-pathogen interactions of these Burkholderia species.

RESULTS

Madagascar hissing cockroaches (MH cockroaches) possess a number of qualities that make them desirable for use as a surrogate host, including ease of breeding, ease of handling, a competent innate immune system, and the ability to survive at 37°C. MH cockroaches were highly susceptible to infection with B. pseudomallei, B. mallei and B. thailandensis and the LD50 was <10 colony-forming units (cfu) for all three species. In comparison, the LD50 for Escherichia coli in MH cockroaches was >105 cfu. B. pseudomallei, B. mallei, and B. thailandensis cluster 1 type VI secretion system (T6SS-1) mutants were all attenuated in MH cockroaches, which is consistent with previous virulence studies conducted in rodents. B. pseudomallei mutants deficient in the other five T6SS gene clusters, T6SS-2 through T6SS-6, were virulent in both MH cockroaches and hamsters. Hemocytes obtained from MH cockroaches infected with B. pseudomallei harbored numerous intracellular bacteria, suggesting that this facultative intracellular pathogen can survive and replicate inside of MH cockroach phagocytic cells. The hemolymph extracted from these MH cockroaches also contained multinuclear giant cells (MNGCs) with intracellular B. pseudomallei, which indicates that infected hemocytes can fuse while flowing through the insect's open circulatory system in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrate that MH cockroaches are an attractive alternative to mammals to study host-pathogen interactions and may allow the identification of new Burkholderia virulence determinants. The importance of T6SS-1 as a virulence factor in MH cockroaches and rodents suggests that the primary role of this secretion system is to target evasion of the innate immune system.

Inflammasome-dependent pyroptosis and IL-18 protect against Burkholderia pseudomallei lung infection while IL-1β is deleterious

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a Gram-negative bacterium that infects macrophages and other cell types and causes melioidosis. The interaction of B. pseudomallei with the inflammasome and the role of pyroptosis, IL-1β, and IL-18 during melioidosis have not been investigated in detail. Here we show that the Nod-like receptors (NLR) NLRP3 and NLRC4 differentially regulate pyroptosis and production of IL-1β and IL-18 and are critical for inflammasome-mediated resistance to melioidosis. In vitro production of IL-1β by macrophages or dendritic cells infected with B. pseudomallei was dependent on NLRC4 and NLRP3 while pyroptosis required only NLRC4. Mice deficient in the inflammasome components ASC, caspase-1, NLRC4, and NLRP3, were dramatically more susceptible to lung infection with B. pseudomallei than WT mice. The heightened susceptibility of Nlrp3^-/- mice was due to decreased production of IL-18 and IL-1β. In contrast, Nlrc4^-/- mice produced IL-1β and IL-18 in higher amount than WT mice and their high susceptibility was due to decreased pyroptosis and consequently higher bacterial burdens. Analyses of IL-18-deficient mice revealed that IL-18 is essential for survival primarily because of its ability to induce IFNγ production. In contrast, studies using IL-1RI-deficient mice or WT mice treated with either IL-1β or IL-1 receptor agonist revealed that IL-1β has deleterious effects during melioidosis. The detrimental role of IL-1β appeared to be due, in part, to excessive recruitment of neutrophils to the lung. Because neutrophils do not express NLRC4 and therefore fail to undergo pyroptosis, they may be permissive to B. pseudomallei intracellular growth. Administration of neutrophil-recruitment inhibitors IL-1ra or the CXCR2 neutrophil chemokine receptor antagonist antileukinate protected Nlrc4^-/- mice from lethal doses of B. pseudomallei and decreased systemic dissemination of bacteria. Thus, the NLRP3 and NLRC4 inflammasomes have non-redundant protective roles in melioidosis: NLRC4 regulates pyroptosis while NLRP3 regulates production of protective IL-18 and deleterious IL-1β.

The disease melioidosis is caused by the intracellular bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, a potential bioterrorism agent. Here we examined the interaction of B. pseudomallei with the inflammasome, an important innate immune pathway that regulates at least two host responses protective against infections: 1) secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 and 2) induction of pyroptosis, a form of cell death that restricts intracellular bacteria growth. Using a mouse model of melioidosis we show that two distinct inflammasomes are activated by B. pseudomallei infection. One, containing the Nod-like receptor (NLR) NLRP3, mediates IL-1β and IL-18 induction. The other contains a different NLR called NLRC4 and mediates pyroptosis. Pyroptosis and IL-18 production were equally important for resistance to B. pseudomallei. Surprisingly, IL-1β was found to be deleterious in melioidosis. The detrimental role of IL-1β during melioidosis was due, in part, to excessive recruitment of neutrophils to the lung. We show that neutrophils do not express NLRC4, fail to undergo pyroptosis, and, therefore, may be permissive to B. pseudomallei intracellular replication leading to increased bacterial burden and morbidity/mortality. Thus, the NLRP3 and NLRC4 inflammasomes have non-redundant protective roles in melioidosis: NLRC4 regulates pyroptosis while NLRP3 regulates production of protective IL-18 and deleterious IL-1β.