Toona sinensis and its major bioactive compound gallic acid inhibit LPS-induced inflammation in nuclear factor-κB transgenic mice as evaluated by in vivo bioluminescence imaging

Gallic acid ameliorates synovial inflammation and fibrosis by regulating the intestinal flora and its metabolites

Gallic acid (GA) has been found by a large number of studies to have pharmacological effects such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the underlying therapeutic mechanisms are not fully understood.. Studies have shown that altering the intestinal flora affects host metabolism and effectively mediates the development of synovitis. The aim of this study was to explore the pharmacological effects of GA in the treatment of synovial inflammation and anti-synovial fibrosis in knee osteoarthritis (KOA) and the underlying mechanisms by macrogenomics combined with off-target metabolomics. We established a synovitis model via in vivo and in vitro experiments to observe the effect of GA intervention on synovitis. Moreover, we collected serum and feces from rats and analyzed the changes in intestinal flora by macro-genome sequencing and the changes in metabolites in the serum by untargeted metabolomics. We found that GA reduced the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and decreased the protein expression levels of α-SMA, TGF-β, and Collagen I in synovial tissues and cells, and the composition and function of the intestinal flora were similarly altered. Combined with macrogenomic pathway enrichment analysis and metabolic pathway enrichment analysis, these findings revealed that GA impacts Bacteroidia and Muribaculaceae abundance, and via the following metabolic pathways: sphingolipid metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism, and arginine biology.to ameliorate synovial inflammation and fibrosis in KOA. The therapeutic effect of GA on KOA synovitis and fibrosis is partly attributed to the alleviation of metabolic disorder and the rebalancing of the intestinal flora. These results provides a rationale for the therapeutic application of GA in the treatment of synovitis.

Gallic acid attenuates LPS-induced inflammation in Caco-2 cells by suppressing the activation of the NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathway

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by intestinal barrier dysfunction, inflammatory synergistic effects and excessive tissue injury. Gallic acid (GA) is renowned for its remarkable biological activity, encompassing anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, the underlying mechanisms by which GA protects against intestinal inflammation have not been fully elucidated. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of GA on the inflammation of a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human colon carcinoma cell line (Caco-2) and on the intestinal barrier dysfunction, and explore the underlying molecular mechanism involved. Our findings demonstrate that 5 μg/mL GA restores the downregulation of the mRNA and protein levels of Claudin-1, Occludin, and ZO-1 and decreases the expressions of inflammatory factors such as IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α induced by LPS. In addition, GA exhibits a protective effect by reducing the LPS-enhanced early and late apoptotic ratios, downregulating the mRNA levels of pro-apoptotic factors ( Bax, Bad, Caspase-3, Caspase-8, and Caspase-9), and upregulating the mRNA levels of anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-2 in Caco-2 cells. GA also reduces the levels of reactive oxygen species increased by LPS and restores the activity of antioxidant enzymes, namely, superoxide dismutase and catalase, as well as the level of glutathione. More importantly, GA exerts its anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the LPS-induced phosphorylation of key signaling molecules in the NF-κB/MAPK pathway, including p65, IκB-α, p38, JNK, and ERK, in Caco-2 cells. Overall, our findings show that GA increases the expressions of tight junction proteins, reduces cell apoptosis, relieves oxidative stress and suppresses the activation of the NF-κB/MAPK pathway to reduce LPS-induced intestinal inflammation in Caco-2 cells, indicating that GA has potential as a therapeutic agent for intestinal inflammation.

Integrative metabolomics highlights gut microbiota metabolites as novel NAFLD-related candidate biomarkers in children

Altered gut microbiota and metabolites are important for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in children. We aimed to comprehensively examine the effects of gut metabolites on NAFLD progression. We performed integrative metabolomics (untargeted discovery and targeted validation) analysis of non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and obesity in children. Fecal samples were collected from 75 subjects in the discovery cohort (25 NAFL, 25 NASH, and 25 obese control children) and 145 subjects in an independent validation cohort (53 NAFL, 39 NASH, and 53 obese control children). Among 2,491 metabolites, untargeted metabolomics revealed a complete NAFLD metabolic map containing 318 increased and 123 decreased metabolites. Then, machine learning selected 65 important metabolites that can distinguish the severity of the NAFLD. Furthermore, precision-targeted metabolomics selected 5 novel gut metabolites from 20 typical metabolites. The functionality of candidate metabolites was validated in hepatocyte cell lines. In the end, this study annotated two novel elevated pathogenic metabolites (dodecanoic acid and creatinine) and a relationship between depleted protective gut microbiota (Butyricicoccus and Alistipes), increased inflammation (IL-1β), lipid metabolism (TG), and liver function (ALT and AST). This study demonstrates the role of novel gut metabolites (dodecanoic acid and creatinine), as the fatty acid metabolism regulator contributing to NAFLD development through its influence on inflammation and liver function.

IMPORTANCE

Altered gut microbiota and metabolites are a major cause of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in children. This study demonstrated a complete gut metabolic map of children with NAFLD, containing 318 increased and 123 decreased metabolites by untargeted metabolomic. Multiple validation approaches (machine learning and targeted metabolomic) selected five novel gut metabolites for targeted metabolomics, which can distinguish NAFLD status and severity. The gut microbiota (Butyricicoccus and Alistipes) and metabolites (creatinine and dodecanoic acid) were novel biomarkers associated with impaired liver function and inflammation and validated by experiments of hepatocyte cell lines. The data provide a better understanding of the importance of gut microbiota and metabolite alterations in NAFLD, which implies that the altered gut microbiota and metabolites may represent a potential target to prevent NAFLD development.

Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis F1-7 Alleviates Lipid Accumulation in Atherosclerotic Mice via Modulating Bile Acid Metabolites to Downregulate Intestinal FXR

The dysfunction of intestinal microbiota and bile acid metabolism is related to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. This study we explored the mechanism of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis F1-7 (Bif. animalis F1-7), improving atherosclerosis by regulating the bile acid metabolism and intestinal microbiota in the ApoE-/- mice. The Bif. animalis F1-7 effectively reduced aortic plaque accumulation and improved the serum and liver lipid levels in atherosclerotic mice. The untargeted metabolomics revealed that Bif. animalis F1-7 reduced the glycine-conjugated bile acids and the levels of differential metabolite lithocholic acid (LCA) significantly. Downregulation of LCA decreased the intestinal levels of the farnesoid X-activated receptor (FXR) and regulated the bile acid metabolism through the FXR/FGF15/CYP7A1 pathway. Furthermore, the 16srRNA gene sequencing analysis revealed that structural changes in intestinal microbiota with an increase in the abundance of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Faecalibaculum, Desulfovibrio, and a decrease in Dubosiella, Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1, and Turicibacter following the Bif. animalis F1-7 intervention. Correlation analysis showed that the changes in intestinal microbiota mentioned above were significantly correlated with bile acid metabolism in atherosclerotic mice. In conclusion, this study sheds light on the mechanisms by which Bif. animalis F1-7 regulates atherosclerosis.

Protective Roles and Therapeutic Effects of Gallic Acid in the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases: Current Trends and Future Directions

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are serious life-threatening illnesses and significant problematic issues for public health having a heavy economic burden on all society worldwide. The high incidence of these diseases as well as high mortality rates make them the leading causes of death and disability. Therefore, finding novel and more effective therapeutic methods is urgently required. Gallic acid, an herbal medicine with numerous biological properties, has been utilized in the treatment of various diseases for thousands of years. It has been demonstrated that gallic acid possesses pharmacological potential in regulating several molecular and cellular processes such as apoptosis and autophagy. Moreover, gallic acid has been investigated in the treatment of CVDs both in vivo and in vitro. Herein, we aimed to review the available evidence on the therapeutic application of gallic acid for CVDs including myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury and infarction, drug-induced cardiotoxicity, hypertension, cardiac fibrosis, and heart failure, with a focus on underlying mechanisms.

Gallic acid diminishes pro-inflammatory interferon-γ- and interleukin-17-producing sub-populations in vitro in patients with psoriasis

Psoriasis is an inflammation of the skin mediated via the IL-23/Thl17/IL-17 pathway. We have previously demonstrated that the anthocyanin delphinidin diminishes in vitro the IL-17 and IFN-γ production of peripheral monocytes isolated by psoriasis patients (PBMCs). The degradation product of delphinidin is gallic acid (GA). This phenolic acid compound found in fruits, red wine, or green tea exerts pleiotropic antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Previous research has demonstrated the inhibitory effect of GA on pro-inflammatory transcription factors, such as STAT3, RORγt, and NF-κB, or cytokines as IL-1β and TNF, which contribute to psoriasis development. We investigated the effect of GA in vitro on PBMCs, which were stimulated ex vivo, from 40 individuals (28 diagnosed with psoriasis vulgaris and 12 healthy controls (HCs)). In our experiments, PBMCs were cultured untreated or were activated in the presence of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate/ionomycin with or without GA. We utilized multicolor flow cytometry to assess the production of inteleukin-17 (IL-17) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in T and NK cells. GA did not alter the fractions of IL-17- or IFN-γ-producing T and IFN-γ-producing NK cells in HCs. However, in psoriasis patients, the effect of GA on that cell population was significant. Specifically, GA decreased the frequency of IL-17-producing cells within the CD3⁺ (T) and CD3⁺CD4⁺ (Th) compartment; the frequency of IFN-γ-producing cells within the CD3⁺, CD3⁺CD4⁺, and CD3⁺CD4^- (Tc) compartment, and the frequency of IFN-γ-producing cells within the CD3^-CD56⁺ (NK) compartment. Whether GA's effect also appears in vivo needs to be investigated in future.

Therapeutic Role of Phytophenol Gallic Acid for the Cure of COVID-19 Pathogenesis

The SARS CoV-2 virus, the causative agent of COVID-19 uses the ACE-2 receptor of the host to penetrate and infect the cell, mainly in the pulmonary, renal, and cardiac tissues. The earlier reported Delta and the recent Omicron are the variants of concern. The mutations in the RBD region of spike protein are associated with increased RBD-ACE-2 receptor interaction. This binding affinity between spike protein and the receptor is greater in Omicron than in the Delta variant. Moreover, the Omicron variant has numerous hydrophobic amino acids in the RBD region of the spike protein, which maintain its structural integrity. Gallic acid is a phytophenol and shows high binding affinity toward the ACE-2 receptors, which may be helpful for better outcomes in the treatment of COVID-19 pathogenesis. In the present study, significant data were collected from different databases i.e., PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science by using keywords like anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties of gallic acid, in addition to receptor-based host cell interaction of SARS CoV-2 virus. The finding shows that gallic acid can reduce inflammation by attenuating NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways to suppress the release of ICAM-1, a cell surface glycoprotein; various pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, IL 1-β, IL-6, IL-10, and chemokines like CCL-2,5, CXCL-8 along with tissue infiltration by immune cells. The purpose of this review is to highlight the therapeutic potential of gallic acid in COVID-19 pathogenesis based on its strong anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti- microbial properties.

Nutritional and health-promoting attributes of millet: current and future perspectives

Millet is consumed as a staple food, particularly in developing countries, is part of the traditional diet in a number of relatively affluent countries, and is gaining popularity throughout the world. It is a valuable dietary energy source. In addition to high caloric value, several health-promoting attributes have been reported for millet seeds. This review describes many nutritional characteristics of millet seeds and their derivatives that are important to human health: antioxidant, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory or anti-inflammatory, antibacterial or antimicrobial, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, and anti-carcinogenic potential, and their role as modulators of gut health. There are several varieties, but the main focus of this review is on pearl millet (Cenchrus americanus [synonym Pennisetum glaucum]), one of the most widely eaten millet crops grown in India, though other millet types are also covered. In this article, the health-promoting properties of the natural components (ie, proteins, peptides, polyphenols, polysaccharides, oil, isoflavones, etc.) present in millet seeds are discussed. Although many of these health benefits have been demonstrated using animal models in vitro studies, human intervention-feeding trials are required to confirm several of the potential health benefits of millet seeds. Based on the nutritional and health-promoting attributes known for pearl millet (discussed in this review), finger millet and foxtail millet are suggested as good candidates for use in future nutritional interventions for improved human health.

Biological Activity and Chemical Composition of Detarium microcarpum Guill. and Perr-A Systematic Review

Historically, natural products have been the principal source of medications for the treatment of human diseases. Traditional medical practitioners employ Detarium microcarpum as a treatment for diabetes, malaria, wounds, inflammation, and even cancer. This study emphasizes the importance of harmonizing D. microcarpum research so that results from various sources may be directly compared to reach a scientific conclusion. We searched Google Scholar, Science Direct, Google.com, Wiley, PubMed, Hindawi, and Springer for research papers on Detarium microcarpum. This analysis excludes untrustworthy online data, thesis papers, and review publications on D. microcarpum. The leaves and stem bark were shown to have high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties. The study also discovered that too much consumption is harmful. Polyphenols and flavonoids were the most commonly reported compounds. However, human safety and efficacy are yet to be fully evaluated, and further well-designed clinical trials are needed to confirm preclinical findings. The leaves and stem bark extracts and isolated compound mechanism of action should be investigated. It is necessary to set a standard dose and ensure its safety.

Gallic Acid Alleviates Visceral Pain and Depression via Inhibition of P2X7 Receptor

Chronic visceral pain can occur in many disorders, the most common of which is irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Moreover, depression is a frequent comorbidity of chronic visceral pain. The P2X7 receptor is crucial in inflammatory processes and is closely connected to developing pain and depression. Gallic acid, a phenolic acid that can be extracted from traditional Chinese medicine, has been demonstrated to be anti-inflammatory and anti-depressive. In this study, we investigated whether gallic acid could alleviate comorbid visceral pain and depression by reducing the expression of the P2X7 receptor. To this end, the pain thresholds of rats with comorbid visceral pain and depression were gauged using the abdominal withdraw reflex score, whereas the depression level of each rat was quantified using the sucrose preference test, the forced swimming test, and the open field test. The expressions of the P2X7 receptor in the hippocampus, spinal cord, and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) were assessed by Western blotting and quantitative real-time PCR. Furthermore, the distributions of the P2X7 receptor and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the hippocampus and DRG were investigated in immunofluorescent experiments. The expressions of p-ERK1/2 and ERK1/2 were determined using Western blotting. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was utilized to measure the concentrations of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-10 in the serum. Our results demonstrate that gallic acid was able to alleviate both pain and depression in the rats under study. Gallic acid also reduced the expressions of the P2X7 receptor and p-ERK1/2 in the hippocampi, spinal cords, and DRGs of these rats. Moreover, gallic acid treatment decreased the serum concentrations of IL-1β and TNF-α, while raising IL-10 levels in these rats. Thus, gallic acid may be an effective novel candidate for the treatment of comorbid visceral pain and depression by inhibiting the expressions of the P2X7 receptor in the hippocampus, spinal cord, and DRG.

Polyphenolic Profile, Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Nociceptive Activities of Some African Medicinal Plants

The aim of the present study was to investigate the polyphenolic profile and the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of four traditionally used medicinal plants from Burkina Faso: Parkia biglobosa, Detarium microcarpum, Vitellaria paradoxa and Sclerocarya birrea. The analysis of the main phenolic compounds was performed by the HPLC-UV-MS method. The anti-inflammatory effect of the aqueous bark extracts was investigated by the λ-carrageenan-induced rat paw edema test. The anti-nociceptive activity was evaluated by the Randall−Selitto test under inflammatory conditions. Seven phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, gentisic, vanillic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and syringic acids), and three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin, and quercitrin) were identified in the plant samples. High contents of gallic acid were determined in the D. microcarpum, P. biglobosa and S. birrea extracts (190−300 mg/100 g), and V. paradoxa extract was the richest in epicatechin (173.86 mg/100 g). The λ-carrageenan-induced inflammation was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) by the P. biglobosa and D. microcarpum extracts (400 mg/kg p.o.). Under the inflammatory conditions, a significant anti-nociceptive activity (p < 0.001) was obtained after 2−3 h from the induction of inflammation. The effects of the tested extracts could be related to the presence of polyphenols and could be useful in the management of certain inflammatory diseases.

Exploring the Mechanism through which Phyllanthus emblica L. Extract Exerts Protective Effects against Acute Gouty Arthritis: A Network Pharmacology Study and Experimental Validation

Increased uric acid levels and inflammatory reactions are the main factors considered responsible for the development of gouty arthritis. Phyllanthus emblica L. (PEL) has several promising pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammation and antioxidation. However, only a few studies have investigated its use for treating acute gouty arthritis (AGA), and the mechanism of action of PEL has not yet been clarified. The aim of this study was to verify the protective effects of PEL against gout and explore its underlying mechanism through network pharmacology and animal experiments. The main active components of the extract from PEL including mucic acid, mucic acid lactone, gallic acid, ethyl hexyl phthalate, and glucose were identified by UPLC-ESI-qTOF-MS. Network pharmacological analysis results revealed 13 active compounds in PEL and 85 related targets for the treatment of gout. The core mechanism of action of PEL is mainly associated with inflammation-related pathways, including the HIF-1, PI3K-Akt, TNF, and NOD-like receptor signaling pathways. Previous studies revealed that the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, especially the NLRP3 inflammasome, plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AGA; therefore, we mainly investigated the effect of PEL on the NLRP3/ASC/caspase-1 pathway in gout rats. In the animal experiments, PEL was shown to have a satisfactory antigout effect, as it effectively reduced uric acid (UA) and xanthine oxidase (XOD) levels. In terms of inhibiting AGA-associated inflammatory reactions, our results showed that PEL significantly decreased the expression of NLRP3 and caspase-1 in ankle synoviocytes as well as the levels of downstream inflammatory factors, such as TNF-α, IL-10, and IL-1β in serum. Moreover, the results of our study show that PEL reduced MMP13 expression in the ankle synovium. Overall, the results of this study indicate that PEL exerted a therapeutic effect against AGA. Reducing uric acid levels, inhibiting inflammation, and decreasing the expression of MMP13 may be responsible for the therapeutic effect of PEL, which suggests that PEL can be further developed as a drug for the treatment of gout.

Impact of Food-Derived Bioactive Compounds on Intestinal Immunity

The gastrointestinal system is responsible for the digestion and the absorption of nutrients. At the same time, it is essentially involved in the maintenance of immune homeostasis. The strongest antigen contact in an organism takes place in the digestive system showing the importance of a host to develop mechanisms allowing to discriminate between harmful and harmless antigens. An efficient intestinal barrier and the presence of a large and complex part of the immune system in the gut support the host to implement this task. The continuous ingestion of harmless antigens via the diet requires an efficient immune response to reliably identify them as safe. However, in some cases the immune system accidentally identifies harmless antigens as dangerous leading to various diseases such as celiac disease, inflammatory bowel diseases and allergies. It has been shown that the intestinal immune function can be affected by bioactive compounds derived from the diet. The present review provides an overview on the mucosal immune reactions in the gut and how bioactive food ingredients including secondary plant metabolites and probiotics mediate its health promoting effects with regard to the intestinal immune homeostasis.

Gallic acid: a dietary polyphenol that exhibits anti-neoplastic activities by modulating multiple oncogenic targets

Phytochemicals are being used for thousands of years to prevent dreadful malignancy. Side effects of existing allopathic treatment have also initiated intense research in the field of bioactive phytochemicals. Gallic acid, a natural polyphenolic compound, exists freely as well as in polymeric forms. The anti-cancer properties of gallic acid are indomitable by a variety of cellular pathways such as induction of programmed cell death, cell cycle apprehension, reticence of vasculature and tumor migration, and inflammation. Furthermore, gallic acid is found to show synergism with other existing chemotherapeutic drugs. Therefore, the antineoplastic role of gallic acid suggests its promising therapeutic candidature in the near future. The present review describes all these aspects of gallic acid at a single platform. In addition nanotechnology-mediated approaches are also discussed to enhance bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy.

Gallic acid protects the liver against NAFLD induced by dust exposure and high-fat diet through inhibiting oxidative stress and repressing the inflammatory signaling pathways NF-kβ/TNF-α/IL-6 in Wistar rats

Objective:

The burden of diseases and death related to environmental pollution is becoming a major public health challenge. This study was designed to evaluate the deleterious effects of a combination of dust exposure and high-fat diet on liver function. Gallic acid as a potent antioxidant was used to prevent/alleviate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in rats exposed to dust and HFD.

Materials and Methods:

24 rats were randomly divided into 3 experimental groups: HFD+Clean air, HFD+N/S+Dust and HFD+gallic acid+Dust. Animals were exposed to CA/ dust for six weeks on alternate days. At the end of the experiments, rats were anesthetized and samples were taken to perform molecular, biomedical, and histopathological evaluations.

Results:

Dust exposure induced NAFLD features in rats under HFD. Dust exposure and HFD disrupted liver enzymes and lipid profile. Dust exposure and HFD increased liver MDA level, mRNA expression of NF-Kβ, TNF-α, IL-6, Nrf2, HO1 and miRs122, and 34a. Dust+HFD also decreased liver total antioxidant capacity level. Pretreatment with GA improved almost studied variables in the HFD+GA+Dust group.

Conclusion:

The present study showed that HFD given for 6 weeks and dust exposure induced NAFLD in Wistar rats through inducing oxidative stress. Oxidative stress through activating the inflammatory pathways caused NAFLD features. GA pretreatment by inhibiting oxidative stress, effectively protected liver functions against HFD+Dust induced inflammation.

Krill Oil Combined with Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis F1-7 Alleviates the Atherosclerosis of ApoE-/- Mice

There has been an increasing number of studies on the interaction between active substances and probiotics to improve disease. Both krill oil (KO) and probiotics have the effect of improving atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, but the combined effect has not been explored. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the improvement effect of KO combined with probiotics on atherosclerosis. The atherosclerotic plaque area of ApoE^−/− mice was detected after the intervention of KO, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis F1-7 (Bif. animalis F1-7), and KO combined with Bif. animalis F1-7. The results showed that Bif. animalis F1-7, KO, and KO combined with Bif. animalis F1-7 could significantly reduce the area of atherosclerotic plaque and improve the levels of serum lipids and inflammatory factors. They could regulate the farnesoid X receptor (FXR)/cholesterol 7-alpha hydroxylase (CYP7A1) pathway to reduce lipid accumulation. The intervention groups could also improve the inflammatory response by downregulating the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) pathway. The anti-inflammatory effect of the interaction group was significantly better than that of KO. It proved that Bif. animalis F1-7 might play a synergistic effect in the improvement of inflammation by KO to the alleviation of atherosclerosis.

Targeting interleukin-β by plant-derived natural products: Implications for the treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease

Inflammation is the main contributing factor to atheroma formation in atherosclerosis. Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is an inflammatory mediator found in endothelial cells and resident leukocytes. Canakinumab is a selective monoclonal antibody against IL-1β which attenuates inflammation and concurrently precipitates fatal infections and sepsis. Natural products derived from medicinal plants, herbal remedy and functional foods are widely used nowadays. Experimental and clinical trial evidence supports that some natural products such as curcumin, resveratrol, and quercetin have potential effects on IL-1β suppression. In this review, we tried to document findings that used medicinal plants and plant-based natural products for treating atherosclerosis and its related diseases through the suppression of IL-1β.

Gallic acid mitigates LPS-induced inflammatory response via suppressing NF-κB signalling pathway in IPEC-J2 cells

Gallic acid is a phenolic compound that exhibits antibacterial, antioxidative and anti-inflammatory functions. In a previous study, we found that dietary supplementation with gallic acid decreased incidence of diarrhoea and protected intestinal integrity in weaning piglets. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, a pig intestinal epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2) was used as an in vitro model to explore the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity of gallic acid. IPEC-J2 cells were stimulated with hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to establish oxidative and inflammatory models, respectively. Results showed that H₂ O₂ significantly decreased catalase (CAT) secretion and CAT mRNA abundance in the cells (p < 0.05), while pretreatment with gallic acid did not prevent the decrease in CAT expression induced by H₂ O₂ . However, gallic acid pretreatment mitigated the increased expression of the tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-8 genes caused by LPS in IPEC-J2 cells (p < 0.05). In addition, pretreatment with gallic acid significantly suppressed phosphorylation of NF-κB and IκBα in LPS-stimulated IPEC-J2 cells. Moreover, LPS stimulation decreased the protein abundance of zona occludens 1 (ZO-1) and occludin, while pretreatment with gallic acid preserved expression level of tight junction proteins ZO-1 and occludin in LPS-stimulated IPEC-J2 cells (p < 0.05). In conclusion, gallic acid may mitigate LPS-induced inflammatory responses by inhibiting the NF-κB signalling pathway, exerting positive effects on the barrier function of IPEC-J2 cells.

Polyphenols from food by-products: An alternative or complementary therapy to IBD conventional treatments

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are illnesses characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation and microbial dysbiosis that have emerged as a public health challenge worldwide. It comprises two main conditions: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Currently, conventional therapy to treat IBD are not free from side effects, such as liver and kidney toxicity, drug resistance, and allergic reactions. In view of this, there is growing research for alternative and complementary therapies that, in addition to acting in the prevention or the control of the disease, do not compromise the quality of life and health of individuals. In this sense, a growing body of evidence has confirmed the benefits of natural phenolic compounds in intestinal health. Phenolic compounds or polyphenols are molecules widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom (flowers, vegetables, leaves, and fruits), including plant materials remaining of the handling and food industrial processing, referred to in the scientific literature as by-products, food waste, or bagasse. Since by-products are low-cost, abundant, easily accessible, safe, and rich in bioactive compounds, it becomes an exciting option to extract, concentrate or isolate phenolic compounds to be posteriorly applied in the therapeutic approach of IBD. In this article, we have reviewed the main phenolic compounds present in various plants and by-products that have shown beneficial and/or promising effects in experimental pre-clinical, clinical, and in vitro research with IBD. In addition, we have mentioned and suggested several plants and by-products originated and produced in Latin America that could be part of future research as good sources of specific phenolic compounds to be applied in the prevention and development of alternative treatments for IBD. This review may offer a valuable reference for studies related to IBD administering phenolic compounds from natural, cheap, and easily accessible raw and undervalued materials.

Antioxidant Activity of Sprouts Extracts Is Correlated with Their Anti-Obesity and Anti-Inflammatory Effects in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice

Obesity is closely associated with oxidative stress and chronic inflammation leading to related metabolic diseases. Some natural extracts or polyphenols reportedly possess anti-obesity and anti-inflammatory effects as well as antioxidant activity. In this study, we assessed the correlations between the antioxidant, anti-obesity, and anti-inflammatory activities of plant extracts with potent antioxidant activity in diet-induced obese mice. Sprouts of Cedrela sinensis (CS) and Oenothera biennis L. (OB) were selected as the most potent antioxidant plant based on analysis of in vitro antioxidant activity of the extracts of ten different edible plants. C57BL/6 mice were fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) and orally treated with 50% ethanol extract of CS or OB at 50 or 100 mg/kg body weight 5 days a week for 14 weeks. Body weight gain, weight of adipose tissue, adipocyte size, and levels of lipid metabolism, inflammation, and oxidative stress markers were investigated. The CS or OB extract reduced body weight gain, visceral adipose tissue weight, adipocyte size, and plasma leptin levels, and expressions of adipogenic genes (PPARγ and fatty acid synthase) in the adipose tissue and liver of HFD-fed mice. Both extracts also reduced mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) and oxidative stress-related genes (heme oxygenase- (HO-) 1 and p40^phox). Body weight gain of mice was significantly correlated with visceral adipose tissue weight and adipocyte size. Body weight gain and adipocyte size were significantly correlated with plasma total cholesterol and 8-epi PGF2α levels, mRNA levels of leptin, HO-1, p40^phox, and CD-11 in the adipose tissue, and mRNA levels of TNF-α in the adipose tissue and liver. These results suggest that the CS and OB extracts with potent antioxidant activity may inhibit fat deposition in adipose tissue and subsequent inflammation.

Gallic Acid Ameliorated Impaired Lipid Homeostasis in a Mouse Model of High-Fat Diet-and Streptozotocin-Induced NAFLD and Diabetes through Improvement of β-oxidation and Ketogenesis

Gallic acid (GA) is a simple polyphenol found in food and traditional Chinese medicine. Here, we determined the effects of GA administration in a combined mouse model of high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity and low-dose streptozotocin (STZ)-induced hyperglycemia, which mimics the concurrent non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and type 2 diabetes pathological condition. By combining the results of physiological assessments, pathological examinations, metabolomic studies of blood, urine, liver, and muscle, and measurements of gene expression, we attempted to elucidate the efficacy of GA and the underlying mechanism of action of GA in hyperglycemic and dyslipidemic mice. HFD and STZ induced severe diabetes, NAFLD, and other metabolic disorders in mice. However, the results of liver histopathology and serum biochemical examinations indicated that daily GA treatment alleviated the high blood glucose levels in the mice and decelerated the progression of NAFLD. In addition, our results show that the hepatoprotective effect of GA in diabetic mice occurs in part through a partially preventing disordered metabolic pathway related to glucose, lipids, amino acids, purines, and pyrimidines. Specifically, the mechanism responsible for alleviation of lipid accumulation is related to the upregulation of β-oxidation and ketogenesis. These findings indicate that GA alleviates metabolic diseases through novel mechanisms.

Gallic Acid Alleviates Gouty Arthritis by Inhibiting NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Pyroptosis Through Enhancing Nrf2 Signaling

Gallic acid is an active phenolic acid widely distributed in plants, and there is compelling evidence to prove its anti-inflammatory effects. NLRP3 inflammasome dysregulation is closely linked to many inflammatory diseases. However, how gallic acid affects the NLRP3 inflammasome remains unclear. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the effects of gallic acid on the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis, as well as its effect on gouty arthritis in mice. The results showed that gallic acid inhibited lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and pyroptosis in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed and ATP-, nigericin-, or monosodium urate (MSU) crystal-stimulated macrophages. Additionally, gallic acid blocked NLRP3 inflammasome activation and inhibited the subsequent activation of caspase-1 and secretion of IL-1β. Gallic acid exerted its inhibitory effect by blocking NLRP3-NEK7 interaction and ASC oligomerization, thereby limiting inflammasome assembly. Moreover, gallic acid promoted the expression of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and reduced the production of mitochondrial ROS (mtROS). Importantly, the inhibitory effect of gallic acid could be reversed by treatment with the Nrf2 inhibitor ML385. NRF2 siRNA also abolished the inhibitory effect of gallic acid on IL-1β secretion. The results further showed that gallic acid could mitigate MSU-induced joint swelling and inhibit IL-1β and caspase 1 (p20) production in mice. Moreover, gallic acid could moderate MSU-induced macrophages and neutrophils migration into joint synovitis. In summary, we found that gallic acid suppresses ROS generation, thereby limiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis dependent on Nrf2 signaling, suggesting that gallic acid possesses therapeutic potential for the treatment of gouty arthritis.

Phenethyl Isothiocyanate Protects against High Fat/Cholesterol Diet-Induced Obesity and Atherosclerosis in C57BL/6 Mice

This study concerns obesity-related atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, and chronic inflammation. We studied the anti-obesity and anti-atherosclerosis effects of phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) and explored their underlying mechanisms. We established an animal model of high fat/cholesterol-induced obesity in C57BL/6 mice fed for 13 weeks. We divided the mice into five groups: control (CON), high fat/cholesterol (HFCD), HFCD with 3 mg/kg/day gallic acid (HFCD + G), and HFCD with PEITC (30 and 75 mg/kg/day; HFCD + P30 and P75). The body weight, total cholesterol, and triglyceride were significantly lower in the HFCD + P75 group than in the HFCD group. Hepatic lipid accumulation and atherosclerotic plaque formation in the aorta were significantly lower in both HFCD + PEITC groups than in the HFCD group, as revealed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. To elucidate the mechanism, we identified the expression of genes related to inflammation, reverse cholesterol transport, and lipid accumulation pathway in the liver. The expression levels of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), liver-X-receptor α (LXR-α), and ATP binding cassette subfamily A member 1 (ABCA1) were increased, while those of scavenger receptor A (SR-A1), cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) were decreased in the HFCD + P75 group compared with those in the HFCD group. Moreover, PEITC modulated H3K9 and H3K27 acetylation, H3K4 dimethylation, and H3K27 di-/trimethylation in the HFCD + P75 group. We, therefore, suggest that supplementation with PEITC may be a potential candidate for the treatment and prevention of atherosclerosis and obesity.

Limonoids from the Fresh Young Leaves and Buds of Toona sinensis and Their Potential Neuroprotective Effects

Toona sinensis, popularly known as Chinese toon or Chinese mahogany, is a perennial deciduous arbor belonging to the genus Toona in the Meliaceae family, which is widely distributed and cultivated in eastern and southeastern Asia. Its fresh young leaves and buds have been consumed as a very popular nutritious vegetable in China and confirmed to display a wide variety of biological activities. To investigate the chemical constituents and their potential health benefits from the fresh young leaves and buds of T. sinensis, a phytochemical study on its fresh young leaves and buds was therefore undertaken. In our current investigation, 16 limonoids (1-16), including four new limonoids, toonasinenoids A-D (1-4), and a new naturally occurring limonoid, toonasinenoid E (5), were isolated and characterized from the fresh young leaves and buds of T. sinensis. The chemical structures and absolute configurations of limonoids 1-5 were elucidated by comprehensive spectroscopic data analyses. All known limonoids (6-16) were identified via comparing their experimental spectral data containing mass spectrometry data, ¹H and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance data, and optical rotation values to the data reported in the literature. All known limonoids (6-16) were isolated from T. sinensis for the first time. Furthermore, the neuroprotective effects of all isolated limonoids 1-16 against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced cell death in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were assessed in vitro. Limonoids 1-16 exhibited notable neuroprotective activities, with EC₅₀ values in the range from 0.27 ± 0.03 to 17.28 ± 0.16 μM. These results suggest that regular consumption of the fresh young leaves and buds of T. sinensis might prevent the occurrence and development of Parkinson's disease (PD). Moreover, the isolation and characterization of these limonoids that exhibit notable neuroprotective activities from the fresh young leaves and buds of T. sinensis could be very significant for researching and developing new neuroprotective drugs used for the prevention and treatment of PD.

Impact of Gallic Acid on Gut Health: Focus on the Gut Microbiome, Immune Response, and Mechanisms of Action

Gallic acid (GA) is a naturally occurring polyphenol compound present in fruits, vegetables, and herbal medicines. According to previous studies, GA has many biological properties, including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. GA and its derivatives have multiple industrial uses, such as food supplements or additives. Additionally, recent studies have shown that GA and its derivatives not only enhance gut microbiome (GM) activities, but also modulate immune responses. Thus, GA has great potential to facilitate natural defense against microbial infections and modulate the immune response. However, the exact mechanisms of GA acts on the GM and immune system remain unclear. In this review, first the physicochemical properties, bioavailability, absorption, and metabolism of GA are introduced, and then we summarize recent findings concerning its roles in gastrointestinal health. Furthermore, the present review attempts to explain how GA influences the GM and modulates the immune response to maintain intestinal health.

Four active monomers from Moutan Cortex exert inhibitory effects against oxidative stress by activating Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway

Paeonol, quercetin, β-sitosterol, and gallic acid extracted from Moutan Cortex had been reported to possess anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor activities. This work aimed to illustrate the potential anti-oxidative mechanism of monomers in human liver hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells-induced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and to evaluate whether the hepatoprotective effect of monomers was independence or synergy in mice stimulated by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Monomers protected against oxidative stress in HepG2 cells in a doseresponse manner by inhibiting the generation of reactive oxygen species, increasing total antioxidant capacity, catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, and activating the antioxidative pathway of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2/Kelchlike ECH-associated protein 1 (Nrf2/Keap1) signaling pathway. We found that the in vitro antioxidant capacities of paeonol and quercetin were better than those of β-sitosterol and gallic acid. Furthermore, paeonol apparently diminished the levels of alanine transaminase and aspartate aminotransferase, augmented the contents of glutathione and SOD, promoted the expressions of Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 proteins in mice stimulated by CCl4. In HepG2 cells, paeonol, quercetin, β-sitosterol, and gallic acid play a defensive role against H2O2-induced oxidative stress through activating Nrf2/Keap1 pathway, indicating that these monomers have anti-oxidative properties. Totally, paeonol and quercetin exerted anti-oxidative and hepatoprotective effects, which is independent rather than synergy.

Toona sinensis modulates autophagy and cytokines in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages

Toona sinensis (TS) is a medicinal herb possessing anti-apoptotic, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties and is used to treat diabetes, cancer, and inflammatory diseases. In traditional Chinese medicine theory, TS clears dampness and heat, strengthens the stomach function, and regulates vital energy flow. TS is also used as an astringent and a pesticide. In this study, we aimed to evaluate how TS influences autophagy and cytokines during the inflammatory process in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The treatment groups were pre-supplemented with TS leaf extract; rapamycin was used to enhance autophagy and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to induce inflammation. The expression of autophagy-related proteins was analyzed by western blotting. The survival rate of, and chemokine expression and oxidative stress in the cells were also assessed. TS leaf extract inhibited mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) phosphorylation at site S2448 in the macrophages. At relatively higher concentrations (50 and 75 μg/mL), TS elevated the expression of light chain 3 II (LC3-II), which further modulated autophagy. Pre-supplementation with TS leaf extract elevated the total glutathione (GSH) level and GSH/oxidized GSH (GSSG) ratio, but it decreased the GSSG, total nitric oxide, nitrate, nitrite, malondialdehyde, and superoxide anion levels. TS reversed the effects of LPS-induced cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10. TS did not induce significant toxicity at the studied concentrations. In conclusion, TS leaf extract may modulate autophagy during inflammation. Furthermore, it may prevent cell damage via anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation. Thus, this study supports the ethnomedical use of TS in the prevention of inflammation-related diseases.

Beneficial Effects of Dietary Polyphenols on High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Linking with Modulation of Gut Microbiota

Obesity is caused by an imbalance of energy intake and expenditure. It is characterized by a higher accumulation of body fat with a chronic low-grade inflammation. Many reports have shown that gut microbiota in the host plays a pivotal role in mediating the interaction between consumption of a high-fat diet (HFD) and onset of obesity. Accumulative evidence has suggested that the changes in the composition of gut microbiota may affect the host's energy homeostasis, systemic inflammation, lipid metabolism, and insulin sensitivity. As one of the major components in human diet, polyphenols have demonstrated to be capable of modulating the composition of gut microbiota and reducing the HFD-induced obesity. The present review summarizes the findings of recent studies on dietary polyphenols regarding their metabolism and interaction with bacteria in the intestine as well as the underlying mechanisms by which they modulate the gut microbiota and alleviate the HFD-induced obesity.

New Perspectives on the Efficacy of Gallic Acid in Cosmetics & Nanocosmeceuticals

BACKGROUND

Gallic acid (GA-3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid), a phenolic phytochemical, is a ubiquitous secondary metabolite found in most plants, with appreciable concentrations in grapes seed, rose flowers, sumac, oak and witch hazel. GA often results from the hydrolysis of terpenes and the polyphenol tannic acid.

APPLICATIONS

It exhibits powerful antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti-cancer activities. Most intriguing benefit has been reported to be on the skin. Due to these beneficial properties, GA and its derivatives (e.g. lipid-soluble phenols such as synthetic gallic esters aka gallates) have been extensively used as an adjuvant in a number of therapeutic formulations, as a substitute of hydrocortisone in children with atopic dermatitis (AD) and other skin conditions (hyperpigmentation, wound healing), and as a cosmetic ingredient. GA has a USFDA GRAS status (generally recognized as safe), exhibiting fairly low systemic toxicity and associated mortality at acute doses in many experimental models. Despite anti-skin aging benefits obtained with relatively safe GA formulations, few cases of gallate-induced skin allergic have been reported in humans. Therefore, approaches to improve the bioavailability and biodegradability of this poor-water soluble and non-biodegradable phenolic compound are warranted.

PURPOSE

This review has focused on the recently reported biological activities pertaining to the skin as well as the pharmacological properties of GA and its derivatives with special emphasis on its use in (nano-) cosmetic formulations. Since this is an evolving area of research, an adequate emphasis has been placed upon advantages and disadvantages of various nanoformulations.

Antinociceptive compounds and LC-DAD-ESIMSn profile from Dictyoloma vandellianum leaves

Limonoids, quinolone alkaloids and chromones have been reported as constituents of Dictyoloma vandellianum Adr. Juss. (Rutaceae). Although those compounds are known for their biological activities, only the anti-inflammatory activity of chromones isolated from the underground parts has been evaluated. There are no studies of the pharmacological properties of the aerial parts of D. vandellianum. The present study was carried out to determine the phytochemical profile and antinociceptive activity of the methanol extract, fractions and isolated compounds of leaves of D. vandellianum. The phytochemical profile was performed by HLPC-DAD-ESIMSⁿ and pure substances obtained were characterized by MS and NMR spectroscopy. The antinociceptive activity was assessed using the formalin assay in mice, and the motor function in the rotarod test. ME and all the fractions obtained from ME produced antinociceptive effects. Among them, the ethyl ether fraction was the most active. Data from HPLC-DAD-ESIMSⁿ showed that the ethyl ether fraction presented 42 compounds. The major compounds isolated from this fraction—gallic acid, methyl gallate and 1,2,6-tri-O-galloyl-β-d-glucopyranose–were tested and produced antinociceptive effects. Gallic acid, methyl gallate and 1,2,6-tri-O-galloyl-β-d-glucopyranose at antinociceptive doses did not affect the motor performance in mice in the rotarod test. This work is the first report of the occurrence of gallotanins in D. vandellianum. In addition, the pharmacological study showed that D. vandellianum leaves present antinociceptive activity, probably induced by gallic acid, methyl gallate and 1,2,6-tri-O-galloyl-β-d-glucopyranose.

Cytotoxic Limonoids from the Twigs and Leaves of Toona ciliata

Eight new limonoids, toononoids A-H (1-8), eight new B-seco-29-norlimonoids, toonanoronoids A-H (9-16), and seven known analogues were obtained from the EtOAc extract of the twigs and leaves of Toona ciliata. Compounds 2, 4, 8, and 16 are rare lactam-bearing limonoids. Compounds 1, 14, and 15 possess an unusual γ-methoxybutenolide moiety at C-17, while compounds 9, 10, and 15 have a rare 3β-hydroxy group. Their 2D structure and relative configurations were identified using spectroscopic data. The absolute configurations of 1, 9, 14, and 15 were established via X-ray diffraction crystallography or comparison of experimental and calculated ECD data. The cytotoxicity of the compounds was assessed toward five human tumor cell lines, and their anti-inflammatory activity was assessed based on NO production using LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. Compounds 11 and 12 exerted inhibition toward two tumor cell lines (MCF-7, SW-480) with IC₅₀ values between 2.1 and 3.7 μM, while 18-22 inhibited the proliferation of HL-60, MCF-7, and SW-480 cells (IC₅₀ 0.6-4.0 μM). Only compound 4 exhibited weak anti-inflammatory activity with an IC₅₀ value of 28.3 μM.

Chondroprotective and antiarthritic effects of Daphnetin used in vitro and in vivo osteoarthritis models

AIMS

Daphnetin (DAP) is a traditional Chinese drug usually used to treat cardiovascular diseases. Studies have confirmed the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-bacterial and insecticidal, anti-tumor and neuro-protective effects of DAP. However, its anti-arthritic potential remains unexplored. The aim of this study is to investigate the in vitro and in vivo chondroprotective effects of DAP.

MAIN METHODS

The effect of DAP on primary rabbit chondrocytes was examined using recombinant human IL-1β for 24 h. For the in vivo studies, rabbits were randomly divided into groups: a normal control group and osteoarthritis (OA) groups. The OA groups received three different doses of DAP for 4 or 8 weeks. The anti-arthritic effect of DAP was assessed using histopathological examinations, qRT-PCR, western blotting and immunohistochemical analysis.

KEY FINDINGS

Both in vitro and in vivo results indicate that DAP exerts a protective effect against IL-1β in chondrocytes. In vitro, DAP inhibits the expression of IL-6, IL-12, MMP-3, MMP-9 and MMP-13, induced by IL-1β in rabbit chondrocytes, and stimulates the production of IL-10. The inhibitory effect of DAP on the MMPs is partially regulated by the inhibition of the PI3K/AKT, MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. The effect of DAP on OA may be attributed to the suppression of inflammatory factor secretion, chondrocyte apoptosis observed by the decrease in pro-apoptotic Caspase-3 and BAX, and the activation of anti-apoptotic BCL-2.

SIGNIFICANCE

DAP has a broad range of prospects in the treatment of OA, which provides a novel therapeutic strategy for OA.

A holistic view of gallic acid-induced attenuation in colitis based on microbiome-metabolomics analysis

GA enema can treat UC by influencing microbiota-mediated metabolism.

Gallic Acid Suppresses Cardiac Hypertrophic Remodeling and Heart Failure

SCOPE

Gallic acid (GA) is a dietary phenolic acid found in tea, red wine, and some plants. It exhibits anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. Recent studies have revealed that GA has beneficial effects against several cardiovascular diseases; however, whether GA attenuates pressure-overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy and the underlying mechanism remains unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Primary cardiomyocyte hypertrophy is stimulated with angiotensin II (Ang II). Cardiac hypertrophic remodeling is induced in mice by transverse aortic constriction (TAC). Myocardial function is evaluated by echocardiographic and hemodynamic analyses, while cardiac tissues are analyzed by histological staining. It is observed that GA significantly decreases Ang II-induced increases in cardiomyocyte size in vitro. Administration of GA in mice markedly improves TAC-induced cardiac dysfunction and attenuates pathological changes, including cardiac myocyte hypertrophy, fibrosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Mechanistically, GA inhibits ULK1 and activates autophagy, which induces the degradation of EGFR, gp130, and calcineurin A, thereby inhibiting the downstream signaling cascades (AKT, ERK1/2, JAK2/STAT3, and NFATc1).

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrate for the first time that GA prevents myocardial hypertrophy and dysfunction via an autophagy-dependent mechanism. Thus, GA represents a promising therapeutic candidate for treating cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure.

Improving Anti-Cancer Potentiality and Bioavailability of Gallic Acid by Designing Polymeric Nanocomposite Formulation

Objective:

In this study, we investigated the in vivo antitumor activity and pharmacokinetic characteristics of encapsulated GA-NC (gallic acid nanocomposite) in normal and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)-induced rats.

Methods:

Rats were distributed into 4 groups; negative control, HCC, gallic acid (GA), and GA-NC. Serum levels of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), endoglin (ENG), heat shock protein-70 (HSP-70), pro-caspase 3, lipocalin-2 (LCN-2) and β-cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) were assayed by ELISA. The pharmacokinetic parameters for GA or GA-NC were determined by means of non-compartmental approach based on the serum– concentration profiles of free GA and GA-NC after oral administration. Also, histological procedures were used for examination of liver tissue sections.

Results:

Anaplastic changes in liver tissues were observed in untreated HCC group, as well as a significant increase in the serum AFP level. In addition, significant elevation in the serum ENG level as an angiogenic marker and the serum levels of the apoptotic mediators; HSP-70, Bcl-2 and pro-caspase 3 beside significant amplification in the serum inflammatory modulator, LCN-2 were recorded. Treatment with free GA or GA-NC markedly recovered the anaplastic changes in the rat liver tissues. In addition, they restored serum levels of AFP, ENG, HSP-70, Bcl-2, pro-caspase-3, and LCN-2. Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed that GA–NC displayed a characteristic sustained release profile with 4-fold increase in bioavailability in normal and HCC-induced rats.

Conclusions:

The results of this study suggest that encapsulation of GA into PLGA-CS-PEG enhances its oral bioavailability and anti-cancer activity. GA-NC may be a new therapeutic candidate for the mitigation of hepatocarcinogenesis.

Spices and Atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death and disability in the world. Atherosclerosis, characterized by lipid accumulation and chronic inflammation in the vessel wall, is the main feature of cardiovascular disease. Although the amounts of fruits and vegetables present in the diets vary by country, diets, worldwide, contain large amounts of spices; this may have positive or negative effects on the initiation and development of atherosclerosis. In this review, we focused on the potential protective effects of specific nutrients from spices, such as pepper, ginger, garlic, onion, cinnamon and chili, in atherosclerosis and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. The mechanisms, epidemiological analysis, and clinical studies focusing on a variety of spices are covered in this review. Based on the integrated information, we aimed to raise specific recommendations for people with different dietary styles for the prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease through dietary habit adjustments.

Toona sinensis: a comprehensive review on its traditional usages, phytochemisty, pharmacology and toxicology

Toona sinensis (Juss.) M.Roem, Meliaceae, a deciduous plant native to eastern and southeastern Asia, is widely used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. This paper was aimed to summarize the current advances in traditional usage, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of T. sinensis. In this review, various types of data of T. sinensis are discussed in the corresponding parts of this paper, and perspectives for possible future studies of this plant are discussed. The main constituents of T. sinensis are terpenoids, phenylpropanoids and flavonoids, etc., and its pharmacological activities include anti-tumor effects, antioxidant activities, anti-diabetic effects and anti-inflammatory effects. Although a series of phytochemical and pharmacological researches of this plant have been conducted, the active constituents and action mechanism of these activities should be also further explored. Furthermore, the present review also indicates that T. sinensis has potentials to develop into drugs for treating various diseases with high efficacy and low toxicity, particularly in cancer, diabetes and inflammatory disorders. In conclusion, the paper provides a full-scale profile of the traditional usage, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of T. sinensis, and also provides potential therapeutic uses and drug development prospects of this plant.

Gallic acid, a natural polyphenol, protects against tert-butyl hydroperoxide- induced hepatotoxicity by activating ERK-Nrf2-Keap1-mediated antioxidative response

Gallic acid (GA), a natural polyphenol, has been shown to exert a variety of heath promoting effects. We herein investigated the critical role of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated antioxidant response in the protection of GA against tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced hepatotoxicity in L02 cells. Pretreatment of GA prevented the hepatocytotoxicity induced by t-BHP, as evidenced by the facts that GA suppressed t-BHP-induced cytotoxicity and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. GA induced nuclear translocation of Nrf2 along with expression of target proteins, including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic modify subunit (GCLC), and increased intracellular glutathione (GSH) content. Additionally, GA induced phosphorylated activation of extracellular regulated kinase (ERK), and ERK inhibitor PD98059 partially decreased GA-induced hepatoprotection, and downregulated the increased protein expressions of Nrf2, GCLC and HO-1 induced by GA. Interestingly, we found that GA could enhance the thermal stability of Keap1, which indicated the potential interaction between GA and Keap1. Furthermore, molecular docking indicated that GA possibly competed with Nrf2 for binding to Keap1. Collectively, GA effectively protects against t-BHP-induced hepatotoxicity via inducing ERK/Nrf2-mediated antioxidative signaling pathway. Meanwhile, GA disturbs protein-protein interaction between Keap1 and Nrf2 which might also contribute to nuclear translocation of Nrf2.

Quercetrin from Toona sinensis leaves induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via enhancement of oxidative stress in human colorectal cancer SW620 cells

Finding effective strategies against colorectal cancer (CRC) is still an emergent health problem. In the present study, we investigated the anticancer activity of quercetrin from Toona sinensis leaves (QTL) and explored the underlying mechanism in human CRC cell line SW620. The cells were treated with various concentrations of QTL and the cytotoxic effects of QTL were determined using the MTT assay. Apoptosis and cell cycle status were detected by flow cytometry. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and mitochondrial membrane potential (∆Ψm) were assessed using DCF-DA and JC-1 fluorescence spectrophotometry, respectively. Western blot analysis was used to quantify the expression of apoptosis-related proteins. RT-PCR was applied to determine the mRNA levels of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT). QTL exhibited growth inhibitory effects and caused cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase, which was accompanied by increased expression of p53 and p21 proteins. QTL promoted apoptosis which was consistent with the upregulated expression of Bax, cytochrome c, caspase-9, Apaf-1 and caspase-3. In addition, QTL induced the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and triggered ROS generation, as revealed by the downregulated mRNA expression and enzymatic activity of GPx and CAT. Furthermore, both N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) and GSH attenuated the QTL-induced growth inhibition observed in SW620 cells along with the increase of ROS levels. These findings revealed that QTL inhibited the growth of CRC cells and facilitated apoptosis by enhancing oxidative stress. QTL may therefore have potential for use in CRC chemotherapy.

Toona sinensis Inhibits Murine Leukemia WEHI-3 Cells and Promotes Immune Response In Vivo

Toona sinensis (TS) is one of the most popular vegetarian dishes in Taiwan. It has been shown to exhibit antioxidant, antiangiogenic, antiatherosclerotic, and anticancer properties. In this study, we demonstrated the ability of aqueous leaf extracts from TS to promote immune responses in BALB/c mice and to exhibit anti-leukemia activity in murine WEHI-3 cells. BALB/c mice were injected intravenously with WEHI-3 cells and then treated orally with TS (50 mg/kg). In vivo study showed that TS treatment reduced liver and spleen enlargement in WEHI-3 bearing mice compared with the untreated group. Furthermore, TS also decreased white blood cells (WBC), indicating inhibition of differentiation of the precursor of macrophages in WEHI-3 bearing mice. Treatment of WEHI-3 cells with TS (0-75 μg/mL for 24 hours) significantly reduced cell viability. Furthermore, TS treatment-induced late apoptosis was confirmed by Annexin-V/PI staining. Western blot analyses revealed that treatment of WEHI-3 cells with TS statistically increased the protein expression level of cytochrome c in the cytoplasm and activates caspase-3. Notably, TS treatment caused a dramatic reduction in Bcl-2 and increase in Bax protein levels. TS may disturb the Bcl-2 and Bax protein ratio and induce apoptosis. This reports confirms the antitumor activity of this nutritious vegetable potentially against leukemia.

Corn Silk Extract and Its Bioactive Peptide Ameliorated Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation in Mice via the Nuclear Factor-κB Signaling Pathway

Bioactive peptides derived from foods have shown beneficial anti-inflammatory potential. Inhibitory κB kinase-β (IKKβ) plays a crucial role in the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), a transcription factor involved in inflammation. Here we applied proteomic and bioinformatics approaches to identify anti-inflammatory peptides that target IKKβ from corn silk. Corn silk extract significantly suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NF-κB activities [(1.7 ± 0.2)-fold vs (3.0 ± 0.6)-fold, p < 0.05] in cells. Trypsin hydrolysate of corn silk also suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activities [(1.1 ± 0.3)-fold vs 3.3 ± 0.5 fold, p < 0.01]. In addition, both corn silk extract and trypsin hydrolysate significantly inhibited LPS-induced interleukin-1β (IL-1β) production by 58.3 ± 4.5 and 55.1 ± 7.4%, respectively. A novel peptide, FK2, docked into the ATP-binding pocket of IKKβ, was further identified from trypsin hydrolysis of corn silk. FK2 inhibited IKKβ activities, IκB phosphorylation, and subsequent NF-κB activation [(2.3 ± 0.4)-fold vs (5.5 ± 0.4)-fold, p < 0.001]. Moreover, FK2 significantly reduced NF-κB-driven luminescent signals in organs by 5-11-fold and suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activities and IL-β production in tissues. In conclusion, our findings indicated that corn silk displayed anti-inflammatory abilities. In addition, we first identified an anti-inflammatory peptide FK2 from corn silk. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory effect of FK2 might be through IKKβ-NF-κB signaling pathways.

Beneficial effects of sulfonamide‑based gallates on osteoblasts in vitro

Effective treatments for osteoporosis remain fairly elusive; however, studies have reported that antioxidants may aid in the maintenance of reactive oxygen species at a favorable level, in order to prevent osteoporosis. Gallic acid (GA) and its derivatives are potent antioxidative and anti-inflammatory agents that affect several biochemical and pharmacological pathways; however, GA is slightly cytotoxic and suppresses cell proliferation. The present study modified GA by the introduction of sulfonamide, in order to obtain a novel compound known as JEZ-C, and investigated its effects on osteoblasts by measuring cell proliferation, viability, morphology, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, and the expression of relevant osteoblast markers. Results indicated that JEZ-C may effectively promote osteoblast growth. JEZ-C increased ALP activity, upregulated the expression of osteogenic-related genes, including runt-related transcription factor 2, bone sialoprotein, osteocalcin and alpha-1 type I collagen, thus indicating that JEZ-C enhances bone matrix production and mineralization. The recommended range of JEZ-C concentration is between 6.25×10⁻³ and 6.25×10⁻¹ µg/ml, within which cell growth was promoted compared with the control. Specifically, treatment with 6.25×10⁻² µg/ml JEZ-C is ideal. These findings may represent a novel approach to cell-based therapy for the treatment of osteoporosis.

Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, and Docking Studies of a Novel Sulfonamido-Based Gallate as Pro-Chondrogenic Agent for the Treatment of Cartilage

Gallic acid (GA) and its derivatives are anti-inflammatory agents and are reported to have potent effects on Osteoarthritis (OA) treatment. Nonetheless, it is generally accepted that the therapeutic effect and biocompatibility of GA is much weaker than its esters due to the high hydrophilicity. The therapeutic effect of GA on OA could be improved if certain structural modifications were made to increase its hydrophobicity. In this study, a novel sulfonamido-based gallate was synthesized by bonding sulfonamide with GA, and its biological evaluations on OA were investigated. Results show that 5-[4-(Pyrimidin-2-ylsulfamoylphenyl)]-carbamoyl-benzene-1,2,3-triyl triacetate (HAMDC) was able to reverse the effects induced by Interleukin-1 (IL-1) stimulation, and it also had a great effect on chondro-protection via promoting cell proliferation and maintaining the phenotype of articular chondrocytes, as well as enhancing synthesis of cartilage specific markers such as aggrecan, collagen II and Sox9. Furthermore, a docking study showed that HAMDC fits into the core of the active site of a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 5 (ADAMTS-5), which provides an explanation for its activity and selectivity.