Carotenoids, carotenoid esters, and anthocyanins of yellow-, orange-, and red-peeled cashew apples (Anacardium occidentale L.)

Integrated analysis of the metabolome and transcriptome provides insights into anthocyanin biosynthesis of cashew apple

The cashew apple remains an underutilized agricultural product despite its abundance as a by-product of cashew nut production. Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments responsible for red, purple, and blue hues in plant tissues and have various health-promoting properties. To investigate the anthocyanin biosynthesis in cashew apples, fruits with varying peel colors from three cultivars were subjected to integrative analyses with metabolomics and transcriptomics. Through a UPLC-ESI-MS/MS-based targeted metabolomics analysis, a total of 26 distinct anthocyanin compounds were identified in the fruits of the three cashew cultivars. Subsequent quantification revealed that Pelargonidin-3-O-galactoside, Petunidin-3-O-arabinoside, and Cyanidin-3-O-galactoside were the primary contributors responsible for the red pigmentation in cashew apple peels. Following transcriptomic analysis showed that the expression levels of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes were predominantly higher in the red cashew apples as compared to the other two cultivars. Moreover, correlation analysis revealed that eight potential transcription factors implicated in the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis. Among these, four transcription factors exhibited positive correlations with both anthocyanin contents and anthocyanin biosynthetic gene expression, while the remaining four transcription factors displayed negative correlations. These findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the molecular basis of anthocyanin biosynthesis in cashew apple peels.

Characterization of the Epidermis and Cuticle of the Cashew Pseudofruit during Its Development and Maturation

The epidermis and cuticle play an important role in reducing dehydration and protecting the cashew pseudofruit in both the production environment and the postharvest stage. This study analyzes the alterations on the epidermis and cuticle of CCP 76 cashew pseudofruits harvested in five developmental and maturation stages (S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5). The epidermis and cuticle of the samples were analyzed under light microscopy (LM) (quantitative analysis), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The epidermal cells at S3 reached maximum outer periclinal wall thickness, which reduced during ripening (S4 and S5), while the cuticle increased in thickness during the same period. These changes coincided with the rapid initial growth of the cashew pseudofruit when the epidermis and cuticle need to accompany the expansion of internal tissues. At the ultrastructural level, lipid material is transported via vesicles through the cell wall to the cuticle, increasing its thickness. Epicuticular waxes, previously deposited as plates and globules, began to develop an amorphous shape during maturation. This process possibly occurs due to changes in wax composition that can be related to the development of greasiness on the fruit skin. These findings provide a better understanding of cashew pseudofruit skin, which will aid future studies and strategies to preserve quality during the postharvest stage.

Feature Reduction for the Classification of Bruise Damage to Apple Fruit Using a Contactless FT-NIR Spectroscopy with Machine Learning

Spectroscopy data are useful for modelling biological systems such as predicting quality parameters of horticultural products. However, using the wide spectrum of wavelengths is not practical in a production setting. Such data are of high dimensional nature and they tend to result in complex models that are not easily understood. Furthermore, collinearity between different wavelengths dictates that some of the data variables are redundant and may even contribute noise. The use of variable selection methods is one efficient way to obtain an optimal model, andthis was the aim of this work. Taking advantage of a non-contact spectrometer, near infrared spectral data in the range of 800-2500 nm were used to classify bruise damage in three apple cultivars, namely 'Golden Delicious', 'Granny Smith' and 'Royal Gala'. Six prominent machine learning classification algorithms were employed, and two variable selection methods were used to determine the most relevant wavelengths for the problem of distinguishing between bruised and non-bruised fruit. The selected wavelengths clustered around 900 nm, 1300 nm, 1500 nm and 1900 nm. The best results were achieved using linear regression and support vector machine based on up to 40 wavelengths: these methods reached precision values in the range of 0.79-0.86, which were all comparable (within error bars) to a classifier based on the entire range of frequencies. The results also provided an open-source based framework that is useful towards the development of multi-spectral applications such as rapid grading of apples based on mechanical damage, and it can also be emulated and applied for other types of defects on fresh produce.

Correlating the morphology of Anacardium occidentale L. fruits from 30 orchards with their physicochemical and nutritional properties

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a cross-pollinating plant whose fruit consists of two parts, the nut, and the apple. This study aimed to carry out agro-morphological characteristics of cashew fruits to establish relationships with their physicochemical and nutritional properties. Thirty (30) cashew accessions fruits were sampled in different regions of Burkina Faso. The length, width, thickness, weight, yield, kernel output ratio (KOR), proximate composition, specific minerals, phenolic compounds, and anti-nutritional factors were assessed. Evaluations were made using standard methods. The results showed significant variations in agro-morphological, physicochemical and nutritional traits depending on the accessions and the organ. Also, the ratio of apple mass versus nut one was about 12.24 ± 1.24. Kernels are an important source of proteins, fat, total phenolic compounds, and flavonoids, with average contents of 22.84 ± 1.25 g/100 g, 51.65 ± 2.54 g/100 g, 9.78 ± 2.15 mg GAE/g, and 6.24 ± 12.15 mg QE/g, respectively. As for the apples, they contained substantial quantities of Potassium, Phosphorus, Chlorine, and Magnesium with contents of 611.24 ± 14.5 mg/100 g, 418.24 ± 16.47 mg/100 g, 332.24 ± 10.54 mg/100 g, and 224.95 ± 13.15 mg/100 g, respectively. Statistical analyses showed that mineral and phytate contents were positively correlated to cashew apples while phenolic compounds and tannins were strongly correlated with walnuts. Principal component analyses showed three groups of accessions based on apples and kernels characteristics. These data showed a direct relationship between cashew physicochemical, nutritional potentials, kernels, and apples' agro-morphological characteristics. These data constitute an important basis for the identification of cashew accessions with high nutritional and economic potential.

Evaluation of freeze-dried phenolic extract from cashew apple by-product: Physical properties, in vitro gastric digestion and chemometric analysis of the powders

The aim of this study was to produce powders from the phenolic extract of the cashew by-product using maltodextrin and gum arabic as encapsulating agents to preserve these bioactive compounds and their antioxidative activity. Extraction was assisted by an ultrasound bath to increase the release of the bioactive compounds, resulting in the hydroalcoholic extract from cashew bagasse. The powders were physically and morphologically characterized, and their total phenolics, antioxidant activity and bioaccessibility were evaluated. All parameters were analyzed by chemometrics. In addition, UPLC-HRMS analysis was used to evaluate the phenolic profile of the extracts, revealing that the powders were able to protect some of the original compounds of the extract, such as catechin, the myricetin fraction and quercetin. The powders showed high total phenolic retention capacity, especially maltodextrin (2893.34 ± 20.18 mg GAE/100 g (DW)), which was the encapsulant that preserved the highest content of polyphenols and antioxidant activity after bioaccessibility in comparison to the unencapsulated extract. The powders showed low water activity (<0.2), low moisture (<8%), high solubility (>60 %) and low hygroscopicity (<4%). The SEM analysis showed that lyophilized extract samples resembled broken glass, which is characteristic of the lyophilization process, and in addition to a predominantly amorphous structure as demonstrated by the X-ray diffraction. The extraction and encapsulation of phenolic compounds from the cashew by-product through lyophilization and using maltodextrin and gum arabic as encapsulants enabled their preservation and potential use of these compounds by the nutraceutical or food industry, and can be used as food additive in order to enrich the content of compounds and the antioxidant activity of numerous products.

Anthocyanins in Different Food Matrices: Recent Updates on Extraction, Purification and Analysis Techniques

Anthocyanins (ANCs), a kind of natural pigments, are widely present in food substrates. Evidence has shown that ANCs can promote health in terms of anti-oxidation, anti-tumor, and anti-inflammation. However, the oxidative stability of ANCs limits accurate quantitation and analysis. Therefore, faster, more accurate, and highly sensitive extraction and determination methods are necessary for understanding the role of ANCs in medicine and food. This review presents an updated overview of pretreatment and detection techniques for ANCs in various food substrates since 2015. Liquid-liquid extraction and various green solvent extraction methods, such as accelerated solvents extraction, deep eutectic solvents extraction, ionic liquids extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction, are commonly used pretreatment methods for extraction and purification of ANCs. Liquid chromatography coupled with different detectors (tandem mass spectrometry and UV detectors) and spectrophotometry methods are some of the determination methods for ANC. This study has updated, compared, and discussed different pretreatment and analysis methods. Moreover, the advanced methods and development prospects in this field are comprehensively summarized, which can provide references for further utilization of ANCs.

Transcriptome profiling of cashew apples (Anacardium occidentale) genotypes reveals specific genes linked to firmness and color during pseudofruit development

We found 34 and 71 key genes potentially involved in flavonoid biosynthesis and cell wall disassembly, respectively, which could be associated with specific peel coloration and softening of each genotype. Cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale) has a great economic importance worldwide due to its high nutritional value, peculiar flavor and aroma. During ripening, the peduncle develops different peel color and becomes quickly fragile due to its oversoftening, impacting its consumers' acceptance. In view of this, the understanding about its transcriptional dynamics throughout ripening is imperative. In this study, we performed a transcriptome sequencing of two cashew apple genotypes (CCP 76 and BRS 265), presenting different firmness and color peel, in the immature and ripe stages. Comparative transcriptome analysis between immature and ripe cashew apple revealed 4374 and 3266 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) to CCP 76 and BRS 265 genotypes, respectively. These genes included 71 and 34 GDEs involved in the cell wall disassembly and flavonoid biosynthesis, respectively, which could be associated with firmness loss and anthocyanin accumulation during cashew apple development. Then, softer peduncle of CCP 76 could be justified by down-regulated EXP and up-regulation of genes involved in pectin degradation (PG, PL and PAE) and in cell wall biosynthesis. Moreover, genes related to flavonoid biosynthesis (PAL, C4H and CHS) could be associated with early high accumulation of anthocyanin in red-peel peduncle of BRS 265. Finally, expression patterns of the selected genes were tested by real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR), and the qRT-PCR results were consistent with transcriptome data. The information generated in this work will provide insights into transcriptome responses to cashew apple ripening and hence, it will be helpful for cashew breeding programs aimed at developing genotypes with improved quality traits.

Multivariate optimization and comparison between conventional extraction (CE) and ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) of carotenoid extraction from cashew apple

Carotenoids are an essential component of cashew and can be used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, natural pigment, food additives, among other applications. The present work focuses on optimizing and comparing conventional and ultrasound-assisted extraction methods. Every optimization step took place with a 1:1 (w:w) mixture of yellow and red cashew apples lyophilized and ground in a cryogenic mill. A Simplex-centroid design was applied for both methods, and the solvents acetone, methanol, ethanol, and petroleum ether were evaluated. After choosing the extractor solvent, a central composite design was applied to optimize the sample mass (59-201 mg) and extraction time (6-34 min). The optimum conditions for the extractor solvent were 38% acetone, 30% ethanol, and 32% petroleum ether for CE and a mixture of 44% acetone and 56% methanol for UAE. The best experimental conditions for UAE were a sonication time of 19 min and a sample mass of 153 mg, while the CE was 23 min and 136 mg. Comparing red and yellow cashews, red cashews showed a higher carotenoid content in both methodologies. The UAE methodology was ca. 21% faster, presented a more straightforward composition of extracting solution, showed an average yield of superior carotenoid content in all samples compared to CE. Therefore, UAE has demonstrated a simple, efficient, fast, low-cost adjustment methodology and a reliable alternative for other applications involving these bioactive compounds in the studied or similar matrix.

The Carotenoid Esterification Gene BrPYP Controls Pale-Yellow Petal Color in Flowering Chinese Cabbage (Brassica rapa L. subsp. parachinensis)

Carotenoid esterification plays indispensable roles in preventing degradation and maintaining the stability of carotenoids. Although the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway has been well characterized, the molecular mechanisms underlying carotenoid esterification, especially in floral organs, remain poorly understood. In this study, we identified a natural mutant flowering Chinese cabbage (Caixin, Brassica rapa L. subsp. chinensis var. parachinensis) with visually distinguishable pale-yellow petals controlled by a single recessive gene. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) demonstrated that the chromoplasts in the yellow petals were surrounded by more fully developed plastoglobules compared to the pale-yellow mutant. Carotenoid analyses further revealed that, compared to the pale-yellow petals, the yellow petals contained high levels of esterified carotenoids, including lutein caprate, violaxanthin dilaurate, violaxanthin-myristate-laurate, 5,6epoxy-luttein dilaurate, lutein dilaurate, and lutein laurate. Based on bulked segregation analysis and fine mapping, we subsequently identified the critical role of a phytyl ester synthase 2 protein (PALE YELLOW PETAL, BrPYP) in regulating carotenoid pigmentation in flowering Chinese cabbage petals. Compared to the yellow wild-type, a 1,148 bp deletion was identified in the promoter region of BrPYP in the pale-yellow mutant, resulting in down-regulated expression. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants harboring beta-glucuronidase (GUS) driven by yellow (BrPYP ^Y ::GUS) and pale-yellow type (BrPYP ^PY ::GUS) promoters were subsequently constructed, revealing stronger expression of BrPYP ^Y ::GUS both in the leaves and petals. Furthermore, virus-induced gene silencing of BrPYP significantly altered petal color from yellow to pale yellow. These findings demonstrate the molecular mechanism of carotenoid esterification, suggesting a role of phytyl ester synthase in carotenoid biosynthesis of flowering Chinese cabbage.

Phytochemical Content and Antioxidant Activity of Malus domestica Borkh Peel Extracts

Apple is an important dietary source of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, and its regular consumption is associated with several health benefits. The aim of this study was to evaluate the phytochemical composition of fresh peels of four red-skinned (“Champion”, “Generos”, “Idared”, “Florina”) and two yellow-skinned (“Golden Delicious”, “Reinette Simirenko”) apple varieties. Antioxidant activity of apple peel extracts was determined by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and ABTS radical scavenging capacity assays. Total carotenoid and polyphenolic contents were determined spectrophotometrically, while the profile of individual carotenoids and anthocyanins (in red-skinned varieties) was analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a photodiode array detector (HPLC-PDA). Carotenoid composition was specific for each variety, and total carotenoid content was slightly higher in yellow-skinned apple peels compared to red-skinned varieties. In contrast, total phenolic content was higher in the peels of red-skinned cultivars. Anthocyanin profile was predominated by cyanidin-3-O-galactoside. Antioxidant potential followed the trend of the total polyphenolic content, being highest in “Florina”, as measured by both FRAP and ABTS assays. Our results demonstrated apple peels have high phytochemical content with diverse compositions, and their regular consumption can be an excellent source of antioxidants.

Antrocaryon amazonicum: An unexploited Amazonian fruit with high potential of scavenging reactive oxygen and nitrogen species

Antrocaryon amazonicum fruits are unexploited sources of bioactive compounds found in the Amazonia region of Brazil. In this study, for the first time, the carotenoid and phenolic compound profiles of the pulp and peel of A. amazonicum fruits, from two varieties at two harvest periods, were determined by LC-MS. Additionally, the potential of the peel and pulp extracts to scavenge physiologically relevant reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) was assessed. The major carotenoids in both parts of the fruits were lutein, accounting for ≈42% of the identified carotenoids in the peel and ≈25% in the pulp, whereas catechin and hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives were the major phenolics in both parts. The peel extract, which presented the highest bioactive compound contents, was more efficient to scavenge ROS than the pulp. The peel extract showed high scavenging efficiency (IC₅₀ ) for singlet oxygen (¹ O₂ ; 16 µg/ml), hypochlorous acid (HOCl; 20 µg/ml), peroxynitrite (ONOO^- ; 38 µg/ml), and superoxide radical (O₂ ^•- ; 47 µg/ml), whereas the pulp extract exhibited high efficiency for ONOO^- (13 µg/ml), followed by HOCl (30 µg/ml), ¹O₂ (76 µg/ml), and less efficient for O₂ ^•- (44 µg/ml). Therefore, A. amazonicum fruits can be seen as an expressive source of bioactive compounds with high antioxidant potential to be further investigated to inhibit or delay oxidative processes both in food and physiological systems triggered by ROS and RNS. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Bioactive compound extracts of Antrocaryon amazonicum fruits have high potential to be exploited for inhibiting or delaying oxidative processes and increase food stability.

Stability of carotenoids and carotenoid esters in pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) slices during hot air drying

The levels of carotenoids and carotenoid esters in pumpkin (C. maxima) slices as affected by hot air drying (60-100 °C, 6-17 h) were assessed via an HPLC-MS/MS method. Among the 25 carotenoids and carotenoid esters identified in pumpkin flesh, xanthophyll diesters (including (all-E)-violaxanthin dipalmitate, lutein 3-O-myristate-3'-O-laurate, lutein 3-O-palmitate-3'-O-laurate, lutein 3-O-myristate-3'-O-palmitate, lutein 3-O-stearate-3'-O-myristate and lutein 3-O-stearate-3'-O-palmitate) accounted for 43% of the total carotenoids (853.6 ± 18.5 μg/g, dried weight). Dihydroxy xanthophylls, especially those containing 5,6-epoxy group, were more heat-labile than carotenes, while xanthophylls were less heat stable than their diester counterparts. The degradation rates (first-order reactions, R² = 0.983-0.992) for lutein diesters (rate constant: 0.002-0.049 h^-1) in pumpkin slices were only 10-20% of that for lutein (rate constant: 0.020-0.243 h^-1) during hot air drying, and 76-98% of lutein diesters could be retained in the final dried products.

Carotenoid profiles of red- and yellow-colored arils of cultivars of Taxus baccata L. and Taxus × media Rehder

The botanical delimitation of Taxus species and cultivars may be facilitated by characterizing the pigment profiles of their red- and yellow-fleshed arils. Therefore, we determined genuine carotenoid profiles of differently colored arils of seven defined cultivars of Taxus baccata L. and Taxus × media Rehder. In-depth HPLC-DAD-ESI/APCI-MSⁿ analyses revealed the presence of 43 carotenoids. Exceptional retro-carotenoids dominated the profiles of all samples assessed. Rhodoxanthin (E/Z)-isomers were predominant in the red-colored arils, resulting in a rather unusual abundance of carotenoid isomers as expressed by ratios of up to 1.3:2.0:0.9 between (all-E)-, (6Z)-, and (6Z,6'Z)-rhodoxanthin, respectively. By contrast, the uncommon yellow arils of Taxus baccata L. 'Lutea' mainly contained eschscholtzxanthin (E/Z)-isomers and esters. Total carotenoid concentrations ranged from 17.00 to 58.78 μg/g fresh weight across all samples assessed. Highest total rhodoxanthin concentrations of 51.33 ± 0.46 μg/g fresh weight were obtained from the red arils of Taxus × media Rehder 'Hicksii'. Overall, Taxus arils represent a promising source of carotenoids and, in particular, of retro-carotenoids with exceptional molecular structures and extraordinary absorption properties.

Ameliorating effects of metabolic syndrome with the consumption of rich-bioactive compounds fruits from Brazilian Cerrado: a narrative review

Evidence suggests that bioactive compounds present in fruits and vegetables, including carotenoids, polyphenols, and phytosterols, may have beneficial effects against the development of obesity and other diseases. The fruits of the Brazilian Cerrado are rich in biologically active compounds but are underexplored by the population being used only locally dietary consumption. The objective of this review is to direct attention to the bioactive compounds already elucidated for the fruits of "Cerrado" cashew (Anacadium othanianum Rizz.), baru almond (Dipteryx alata Vogel), cagaita (Eugenia dysenterica DC.), "Cerrado" pear (Eugenia klotzschiana Berg), mangaba (Hancornia speciosa), and pequi (Caryocar brasiliense Camb), demonstrating possible metabolic effects of the consumption of these fruits on the metabolic syndrome and its risk factors. Studies have shown that Cerrado native fruits have a high content of bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds, which also demonstrate high antioxidant capacity and may be related to the protective effect in metabolic syndrome-related diseases by act as inhibitors in various processes in lipid metabolism and glucose transport. Although more scientific evidence is still needed, the consumption of native fruits from the Cerrado seems to be a promising strategy which -along with other strategies such as nutritional therapy- can ameliorate the effects of the metabolic syndrome.

Carotenoid and Carotenoid Ester Profile and Their Deposition in Plastids in Fruits of New Papaya (Carica papaya L.) Varieties from the Canary Islands

The carotenoid profile of non-saponified and saponified extracts of different tissues (pulp and peel) of fruits of three new papaya varieties, Sweet Mary, Alicia, and Eksotika, was characterized for the first time, and almost all carotenoid compounds were quantified. Carotenoids and carotenoid esters were analyzed and characterized using HPLC-photo diode array (PDA-MS with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization with positive ion mode (APCI+) with a C30 reversed-phase column. The carotenoid deposition in collenchyma and chlorenchyma cells of papaya pulp and peel tissues was assessed by optical microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The most abundant carotenoids in the fruit of the three papaya varieties (pulp and peel) were (all-E)-lycopene (230.0-421.2 µg/100 g fresh weight), (all-E)-β-carotene (120.3-233.2 µg/100 g fresh weight), and (all-E)-β-cryptoxanthin laurate (74.4-223.2 µg/100 g fresh weight. Moreover, high concentrations of (all-E)-lutein (922.5-1381.1 µg/100 g fresh weight) and its esters, such as (all-E)-lutein-3-O-myristate and (all-E)-lutein dimyristate, were found in peel extracts. The optical microscopy study of papaya pulps showed that carotenoid deposition in all papaya varieties, including Maradol, was mainly localized close to the cell walls, showing the presence of some crystalloids and round-shaped structures, with different sizes and distribution due to the different carotenoid content among varieties. No crystalloids or globular depositions were found in any of the peel sections, and no remarkable differences were found in the papaya peel microstructure of the different papaya varieties.

A Brief Overview of Dietary Zeaxanthin Occurrence and Bioaccessibility

As it exhibits no provitamin A activity, the dietary intake of zeaxanthin is not considered essential. However, its contribution to ocular health has long been acknowledged. Numerous publications emphasize the importance of zeaxanthin alongside lutein in ocular diseases such as cataracts and age-related macular degeneration which constitute an important health concern, especially among the elderly. Considering that the average dietary ratio of lutein to zeaxanthin favors the first, more bioaccessible food sources of zeaxanthin that can hinder the development and progression of the above-mentioned disorders are of great interest. In this paper, a brief overview of the more recent state of knowledge as regards dietary sources together with their respective zeaxanthin bioaccessibility assessed through a standardized in vitro digestion method was provided.

The Effects of Gum Cordia on the Physicochemical, Textural, Rheological, Microstructural, and Sensorial Properties of Apple Jelly

The aim of this research was to study the effects of gum cordia on the physicochemical, color, textural, rheological, microstructural, and sensorial properties of apple jelly. Apple jelly was prepared by replacement of 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of pectin with gum cordia. The results showed that gum cordia had a significant effect on the physicochemical properties (ash, protein, TPC, DE, and color) of apple jelly. The total phenol content of the sample significantly increased with the addition of gums. The rheological properties showed that a sample containing 75% gum cordia was similar to control and had the highest apparent viscosity, loss moduli (G″), storage moduli (G′), and complex viscosity. Also, the sensorial properties showed that a sample containing 75% gum cordia had a high score in texture, taste, appearance, and overall acceptability. The results suggested that gum cordia as a polymer can be successfully employed for the formulation of jelly for improving technofunctional properties of jelly.

Kinetic and Thermodynamic Study of the Thermally Induced (E/Z)-Isomerization of the retro-Carotenoid Rhodoxanthin

The hitherto scarcely investigated retro-carotenoid rhodoxanthin possesses high potential for coloration in the food and beverage industry using technofunctional formulations prepared thereof. Hence, we studied (E/Z)-isomerization pathways of rhodoxanthin, including seven (E/Z)-isomers comprising (Z)-configured double bonds at unusual exocyclic and inner polyene chain positions. A mathematical approach was developed to deduce kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of six parallel equilibrium reactions interconnecting (all-E)-rhodoxanthin with mono-, di-, and tri-(Z)-isomers using multiresponse modeling. At 40-70 °C in ethyl acetate, reaction rate constants regarding the rotation from (all-E)- to (6Z)-rhodoxanthin were 11-14 times higher than those of the common (E/Z)-isomerization reaction at C-13,14 of the non-retro-structured carotenoid canthaxanthin. Moreover, the equilibrium reaction between (all-E)- and (6Z)-rhodoxanthin was strongly product favored as indicated by negative Gibbs energies (-1.6 to -2.2 kJ mol^-1), which is unusual for carotenoids within the studied temperatures. Overall, this study provides novel insights into structure-related dependencies of (E/Z)-isomerization reaction kinetics and thermodynamics of polyenes.

Carotenogenesis and chromoplast development during ripening of yellow, orange and red colored Physalis fruit

Formation of specific ultrastructural chromoplastidal elements during ripening of fruits of three different colored Physalis spp. is closely related to their distinct carotenoid profiles. The accumulation of color-determining carotenoids within the chromoplasts of ripening yellow, orange, and red fruit of Physalis pubescens L., Physalis peruviana L., and Physalis alkekengi L., respectively, was monitored by high-performance liquid chromatography/diode array detector/tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS/MS) as well as light and transmission electron microscopy. Both yellow and orange fruit gradually accumulated mainly β-carotene and lutein esters at variable levels, explaining their different colors at full ripeness. Upon commencing β-carotene biosynthesis, large crystals appeared in their chromoplasts, while large filaments protruding from plastoglobules were characteristic elements of chromoplasts of orange fruit. In contrast to yellow and orange fruit, fully ripe red fruit contained almost no β-carotene, but esters of both β-cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin at very high levels. Tubule bundles and unusual disc-like crystallites were predominant carotenoid-bearing elements in red fruit. Our study supports the earlier hypothesis that the predominant carotenoid type might shape the ultrastructural carotenoid deposition form, which is considered important for color, stability and bioavailability of the contained carotenoids.

Genuine Carotenoid Profiles in Sweet Orange [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck cv. Navel] Peel and Pulp at Different Maturity Stages

The carotenogenesis in the endocarp and flavedo of Navel oranges over four consecutive maturity stages was assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-multistage mass spectrometry. After optimization of the extraction method, 77 carotenoids, including 26 monoesters and 33 diesters of violaxanthin, β-citraurin, and antheraxanthin, were characterized. Whereas chloroplast-specific pigments, such as (all-E)-lutein and (all-E)-β-carotene, predominated in the flavedo of green-ripe fruit, a highly complex pattern of xanthophyll esters was found in the mature oranges. Total carotenoid contents of flavedo were approximately 9-fold higher [12 605 μg/100 g of fresh weight (FW)] than those in the endocarp (1354 μg/100 g of FW) at the fully mature stage. The mature endocarp abundantly contained violaxanthin mono- and diesters, in addition to diverse antheraxanthin esters, which were exclusively detected in this fruit fraction. Likewise, β-citraurin esters were found to be unique flavedo constituents of mature fruit. Therefore, they may support the detection of fraudulent use of peel fractions during orange juice production.

Anacardium Plants: Chemical,Nutritional Composition and Biotechnological Applications

Anacardium plants are native to the American tropical regions, and Anacardium occidentale L. (cashew tree) is the most recognized species of the genus. These species contain rich secondary metabolites in their leaf and shoot powder, fruits and other parts that have shown diverse applications. This review describes the habitat and cultivation of Anacardium species, phytochemical and nutritional composition, and their industrial food applications. Besides, we also discuss the secondary metabolites present in Anacardium plants which display great antioxidant and antimicrobial effects. These make the use of Anacardium species in the food industry an interesting approach to the development of green foods.

Life history shapes variation in egg composition in the blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus

Maternal investment directly shapes early developmental conditions and therefore has long-term fitness consequences for the offspring. In oviparous species prenatal maternal investment is fixed at the time of laying. To ensure the best survival chances for most of their offspring, females must equip their eggs with the resources required to perform well under various circumstances, yet the actual mechanisms remain unknown. Here we describe the blue tit egg albumen and yolk proteomes and evaluate their potential to mediate maternal effects. We show that variation in egg composition (proteins, lipids, carotenoids) primarily depends on laying order and female age. Egg proteomic profiles are mainly driven by laying order, and investment in the egg proteome is functionally biased among eggs. Our results suggest that maternal effects on egg composition result from both passive and active (partly compensatory) mechanisms, and that variation in egg composition creates diverse biochemical environments for embryonic development.

Liquid Chromatography Analysis of Common Nutritional Components, in Feed and Food

Food and feed laboratories share several similarities when facing the implementation of liquid-chromatographic analysis. Using the experience acquired over the years, through application chemistry in food and feed research, selected analytes of relevance for both areas were discussed. This review focused on the common obstacles and peculiarities that each analyte offers (during the sample treatment or the chromatographic separation) throughout the implementation of said methods. A brief description of the techniques which we considered to be more pertinent, commonly used to assay such analytes is provided, including approaches using commonly available detectors (especially in starter labs) as well as mass detection. This manuscript consists of three sections: feed analysis (as the start of the food chain); food destined for human consumption determinations (the end of the food chain); and finally, assays shared by either matrices or laboratories. Analytes discussed consist of both those considered undesirable substances, contaminants, additives, and those related to nutritional quality. Our review is comprised of the examination of polyphenols, capsaicinoids, theobromine and caffeine, cholesterol, mycotoxins, antibiotics, amino acids, triphenylmethane dyes, nitrates/nitrites, ethanol soluble carbohydrates/sugars, organic acids, carotenoids, hydro and liposoluble vitamins. All analytes are currently assayed in our laboratories.

Carotenoids and xanthophyll esters of yellow and red nance fruits (Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth) from Costa Rica

Carotenoid profiles, by means of HPLC-PDA-MSⁿ, and CIE-L*C*h° colour values of yellow and red nance fruits from Costa Rica were elucidated. Among 16 carotenoids detected, (all-E)-lutein was the most abundant accounting for >80% of the total carotenoids, followed by (all-E)-zeaxanthin (9-11%) and (all-E)-β-carotene (2-9%). Minor constituents were (Z)-isomers of lutein and β-carotene, as well as diverse lutein diesters. Among the esters, lutein dimyristate was the most abundant as substantiated by the comparison with a marigold flower extract. Total carotenoids in the peel (616.2 μg/100 g of FW in yellow nance and 174.2 μg/100 g of FW in red nance) were higher than in the pulp (39.4 μg/100 g of FW in yellow nance and 31.4 μg/100 g of FW in red nance). Since carotenoid profiles of yellow and red varieties were qualitatively similar, although the colour values showed significant differences (77.2 and 88.6 h° in peel and pulp of yellow nance, versus 32.7 and 67.3 h° in peel and pulp of red nance, respectively), pigments other than carotenoids may impart the colour of red nance. High lutein content renders nance fruit as a nutritionally relevant source of this micronutrient.

Carotenoids and Carotenoid Esters of Red and Yellow Physalis (Physalis alkekengi L. and P. pubescens L.) Fruits and Calyces

Carotenoid profiles of fruits and calyces of red (Physalis alkekengi L.) and yellow (P. pubescens L.) Physalis were characterized by HPLC-DAD-APCI-MSⁿ. Altogether 69 carotenoids were detected in red Physalis, thereof, 45 were identified. In yellow Physalis, 40 carotenoids were detected and 33 were identified. Zeaxanthin esters with various fatty acids were found to be the most abundant carotenoids in red Physalis, accounting for 51-63% of total carotenoids, followed by β-cryptoxanthin esters (16-24%). In yellow Physalis, mainly free carotenoids such as lutein and β-carotene were found. Total carotenoid contents ranged between 19.8 and 21.6 mg/100 g fresh red Physalis fruits and 1.28-1.38 mg/100 g fresh yellow Physalis fruits, demonstrating that Physalis fruits are rich sources of dietary carotenoids. Yellow Physalis calyces contained only 153-306 μg carotenoids/g dry weight, while those of red Physalis contained substantially higher amounts (14.6-17.6 mg/g dry weight), thus possibly exhibiting great potential as a natural source for commercial zeaxanthin extraction.

Carotenoid esters in foods - A review and practical directions on analysis and occurrence

Carotenoids are naturally found in both free form and esterified with fatty acids in most fruits and some vegetables; however, up to now the great majority of studies presents data on carotenoid composition only after saponification. The reasons for this approach are that a single xanthophyll can be esterified with several different fatty acids, generating a great number of different compounds with similar chemical and structural characteristics, thus, increasing the complexity of analysis compared to the respective saponified extract. This means that since UV/Vis spectrum does not change due to esterification, differentiation between free and acylated xanthophylls is dependent at least on elution order and mass spectrometry (MS) features. The presence of interfering compounds, especially triacylglycerides (TAGs), in the non-saponified extract of carotenoids can also impair carotenoid ester analyses by MS due to high background noise and ionization suppression since TAGs can be present in much higher concentrations than the carotenoid esters. This leads to the need of development of new and effective clean-up procedures to remove the potential interferents. In addition, only few standards of xanthophyll esters are commercially available, making identification and quantification of such compounds even more difficult. Xanthophyll esterification may also alter some properties of these compounds, including solubility, thermostability and bioavailability. Considering that commonly consumed foods are dietary sources of xanthophyll esters and that it is the actual form of ingestion of such compounds, an increasing interest on the native carotenoid composition of foods is observed nowadays. This review presents a compilation of the current available information about xanthophyll ester analyses and occurrence and a practical guide for extraction, pre-chromatographic procedures, separation and identification by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

Identification of Phenolic Compounds in Red and Green Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) Hulls (Exo- and Mesocarp) by HPLC-DAD-ESI-(HR)-MS(n)

Phenolic constituents of the nonlignified red and green pistachio hulls (exo- and mesocarp) were assessed by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS(n) as well as by HR-MS. A total of 66 compounds was identified in the respective aqueous methanolic extracts. Among them, gallic acid, monogalloyl glucoside, monogalloyl quinic acid, penta-O-galloyl-β-d-glucose, hexagalloyl hexose, quercetin 3-O-galactoside, quercetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, and (17:1)-, (13:0)-, and (13:1)-anacardic acids were detected at highest signal intensity. The main difference between red and green hulls was the presence of anthocyanins in the former ones. Differently galloylated hydrolyzable tannins, anthocyanins, and minor anacardic acids were identified for the first time. Pistachio hulls were thus shown to be a source of structurally diverse and potentially bioactive phenolic compounds. They therefore represent a valuable byproduct of pistachio processing having potential for further utilization as raw material for the recovery of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and chemical products.