Chemical compositions of chrysanthemum teas and their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties

Amelioration activity of the high bioaccessible chrysanthemum (Gongju) phenolics on alcohol-induced oxidative injury in AML-12 cells

The main bioavailable phenolics from of Gongju (GJ) and their mechanism for hepato-protection remain unclear. To select the GJ phenolics with high bioavailability, chrysanthemum digestion and Caco-2 cells were used and their hepato-protective potential were examined by using AML-12 cells. The digestive recovery and small intestinal transit rate of the main phenolic compounds ranged from 28.52 to 69.53% and 6.57% ∼ 15.50%, respectively. Among them, chlorogenic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, and 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, showed higher small intestinal transit rates and digestive recoveries. Furthermore, we found that by increasing intracellular Catalase (CAT) and Superoxide dismutase (SOD) viability and lowering Malondialdehyde (MDA) level (P < 0.05), 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid significantly mitigated the oxidative damage of AML-12 liver cells more than the other two phenolics. Our results demonstrated that 3,5-dicaffeoylquninic acid was the primary phenolic compounds in GJ that effectively reduced liver damage, providing a theoretical basis for the development of GJ as a potentially useful resource for hepatoprotective diet.

AI-driven determination of active compounds and investigation of multi-pharmacological effects of Chrysanthemi Flos

BACKGROUND

Chrysanthemi Flos as a medicine food homology species is widely used in the prevention and treatment of diseases, whereas comprehensive research of its active compounds related to multi-pharmacological effects remains limited. This study aimed to systematically explore the active compounds through artificial intelligence-based target prediction and activity evaluation.

METHODS

The information on compounds in Chrysanthemi Flos was obtained from six cultivars containing Gongju, Chuju, Huaiju, Boju, Hangbaiju, and Fubaiju, using UPLC-Q-TOF/MS. The main differential metabolites in six cultivars were also screened through the PLS-DA model. Then the potential targets of differential compounds were predicted via the DrugBAN model. Enrichment and topological analysis of compound-target networks were performed to identify key pharmaceutical compounds. Subsequently, the pharmacological effects of predictively active compounds were confirmed in vitro. Based on the active compounds, the pharmacological activities of Chrysanthemi Flos from the six origins were also investigated and compared for the further evaluation of medicinal quality.

RESULTS

A total of 155 secondary metabolites were obtained from Chrysanthemi Flos. Among them, 26 differential components were screened, and 9 key pharmacological compounds with 1141 targets were identified. Enrichment analysis indicated the main pharmacological effects of Chrysanthemi Flos related to inflammation, oxidative stress, and lipid metabolism. In addition, 9 key pharmaceutical compounds were evaluated in vitro experiments, indicating the significant therapeutic effect in regulating inflammation, oxidative stress, and lipid metabolism.

CONCLUSION

This study successfully identified 9 key pharmaceutical compounds in Chrysanthemi Flos and predicted the pharmacodynamic advantages of six origins. The findings would provide improved guidance for the discovery of active constituents and the assessment of pharmacodynamic advantages of different geographical origins.

Chrysanthemum morifolium as a traditional herb: A review of historical development, classification, phytochemistry, pharmacology and application

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In recent years, Chinese herbal medicine has gained more and more recognition in disease prevention and control due to its low toxicity and comprehensive treatment. C. morifolium (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.), as the medicine food homology plant with the bioactivity of anti-oxidation, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotection and cardiovascular protection, has important therapeutic effects and health benefits for colds, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases and various chronic diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

By reviewing the historical development, classification and distribution of germplasm resources, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and modern application of C. morifolium, the paper provides a reliable basis for the further research and application of chrysanthemum as therapeutic agents and functional additives.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The literature and information about C. morifolium published in the last ten years were collected from various platforms, including Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science and China Knowledge Network.

RESULTS

A comprehensive analysis confirmed that C. morifolium originated in China, and it went through the development process from food and tea to medicine for more than 3000 years. During this period, different cultivars emerged through several breeding techniques and were distributed throughout the world. Moreover, A variety of chemical components such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, volatile oils, and terpenes in chrysanthemum have been proven they possess various pharmacology of anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and prevention of chronic diseases by regulating inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress responses and signaling pathways, which are the essential conditions to play a role in TCM, nutraceuticals and diet.

CONCLUSION

This paper provides a comprehensive review of historical development, classification, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and modern application of C. morifolium. However, future studies should continue to focus on the bioactive compounds and the synergistic mechanism of the "multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway" of chrysanthemum, and it is necessary to develop more innovative products with therapeutic effects.

Chrysanthemum morifolium attenuates metabolic and alcohol-associated liver disease via gut microbiota and PPARα/γ activation

BACKGROUND

Metabolic and alcohol-associated liver disease (MetALD) shows a high prevalence rate in liver patients, but there is currently no effective treatment for MetALD. As a typical edible traditional Chinese medicinal herb, the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective properties of water extract of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (WECM) has been demonstrated. However, its therapeutic effect on MetALD and the associated mechanisms remain unclear.

PURPOSE

To investigate the underlying mechanisms of WECM against MetALD.

METHODS

We constructed a MetALD rat model following a high-fat & high-sucrose plus alcohol diet (HFHSAD). MetALD rats were treated with WECM at 2.1, 4.2, and 8.4 g/kg/d for six weeks. Efficacy was determined, and pathways associated with WECM against MetALD were predicted through serum and hepatic biochemical marker measurement, histopathological section analysis, 16S rDNA sequencing of the gut microbiota and untargeted serum metabolomics analyses. Changes in genes and proteins in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) and gamma (PPARγ) signaling pathways were detected by RT‒PCR and Western blotting.

RESULTS

WECM treatment significantly attenuated hepatic steatosis, hyperlipidemia and markers of liver injury in MetALD rats. Moreover, WECM improved vascular endothelial function, hypertension, and systematic oxidative stress. Mechanistically, WECM treatment altered the overall structure of the gut microbiota through maintaining Firmicutes/Bacteroidota ratio and reducing harmful bacterial abundances such as Clostridium, Faecalibaculum, and Herminiimonas. Notably, WECM promoted 15-deoxy-△12, 14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) release and further activated the PPARγ to reduce serum TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels. Additionally, WECM upregulated PPARα and downregulated the levels of CD36 and FABP4 to improve lipid metabolism.

CONCLUSION

Our findings provide the first evidence that WECM treatment significantly improved hepatic steatosis, oxidative stress and inflammation in MetALD rats by regulating the gut microbiota and activating the 15d-PGJ2/PPARγ and PPARα signaling pathway.

Phytochemical Investigation of Polyphenols from the Aerial Parts of Tanacetum balsamita Used in Transylvanian Ethnobotany and Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay

In this study, based on ethnobotanical data recorded in Transylvania, the polyphenolic compounds and the permeability of the aerial part's extract of Tanacetum balsamita were investigated. Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was applied for the analysis of the extracts. Parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) for the gastrointestinal tract and the blood-brain barrier was conducted. In the ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the species traditionally used for wound, furuncle, and liver disorders, 92 polyphenols were characterized (e.g., flavonoid, hydroxycinnamic acid, catechin, dihydroxybenzoyl, lignan derivatives, and a monoterpene) including 54 compounds identified for the first time in the plant. In the PAMPA tests, eight components were shown to be capable of passive diffusion across the studied membranes. These include apigenin and seven methoxylated flavonoid derivatives. Based on these results, methoxylated flavonoids might promote the pharmacological potential of T. balsamita to be applied in the enhancement of novel remedies.

Differentiation of isomeric chalcone and dihydroflavone using liquid chromatography coupled with hydrogen-deuterium exchange tandem mass spectrometry (HDX-MS/MS): An application for flavonoids-focused characterization of Snow chrysanthemum

Although the co-occurrences of isomeric chalcones and dihydroflavones widely appear in medicinal plants, the differentiation of such isomerism seldom succeeds using MS/MS, attributing to totally identical MS/MS spectra. Here, efforts were paid to pursue an eligible tool allowing to address the technical challenge. Being inspired by that one more proton signal is observed in 1H NMR spectrum of isoliquiritigenin than liquiritigenin when employing DMSO‑d6 as solvent, hydrogen-deuterium exchange (HDX)-MS/MS was evaluated towards differentiating isomeric chalcones and dihydroflavones through replacing H2O with D2O to prepare the mobile phase. As a result, differences were observed for either MS1 or MS2 spectrum when comparing two pairs of isomers, such as liquiritigenin vs. isoliquiritigenin and liquiritin vs. isoliquiritin, because the isomeric precursor and fragment ion species owned different amounts of hydroxyl protons and those reactive protons could be partially or completely substituted by deuterium protons at the exposure in D2O to result in n × 1.006 mass increments. Moreover, utmost four hydrogen/deuterium exchanges occurred for a single glucosyl moiety. Thereafter, HDX-MS/MS was applied to characterize the flavonoids of Snow chrysanthemum, a precious edible herbal medicine that is rich in isomeric chalcones and dihydroflavones. Through paying special attention to the deuterium labeling styles of (de)protonated molecules as well as those featured fragment ions, five pairs of isomeric chalcones and dihydroflavones were confirmatively differentiated, in addition to that 28 flavonoids were structurally annotated by applying those well-defined mass fragmentation rules. Hence, this study offered an in-depth insight towards the flavonoids-focused characterization of Snow chrysanthemum, and more importantly, HDX-MS/MS is a superior tool to differentiate, but not limited to, isomeric chalcones and dihydroflavones.

Constructing graphene oxide/Au nanoparticle cellulose membranes for SERS detection of mixed pesticide residues in edible chrysanthemum

Edible chrysanthemum is widely cultivated and used as an important ingredient of medicine, tea and multifunctional food. During the planting of chrysanthemum, pesticides are extensively used for preventing plant diseases and insect pests. To ensure the food safety of edible chrysanthemum, rapid detection methods are urgently needed for on-site inspection. In this study, a graphene oxide/Au nanoparticle (GO/Au NP) cellulose substrate was prepared through layer-by-layer assembly of GO and Au NPs on a mixed cellulose ester membrane. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) detection of four types of organophosphorus and organosulfur pesticides was achieved by filtering the extracting solution through the substrate and analysing SERS spectra. Qualitative and semi-quantitative detection of fenthion, phoxim, isocarbophos and thiram was accomplished with the detection limits of 38.01, 8.13, 48.97 and 8.74 ng mL-1, respectively. A spiking experiment further demonstrated the feasibility of this method for rapid and on-site detection of mixed pesticides in chrysanthemum. This study provides a new approach for rapid detection of multiple hazardous substances in flowering and herbal plants.

Identification of key phenolic compounds for alleviating gouty inflammation in edible chrysanthemums based on spectrum-effect relationship analyses

Edible chrysanthemum is a common food resource for tea and functional foods with potential benefits for human health. Studies have indicated that chrysanthemum has the potential effect on inflammatory diseases, while the effects on gouty inflammation remain underexplored. The present study aimed to investigate the anti-gout activity and characterize the active ingredients of chrysanthemums by using metabolite profiles, in vitro experiments, and spectrum-effect analysis. Results showed that 'Boju' (BJ), 'Hangbaiju' (HBJ), and 'Huaiju' (HJ) exhibited regulatory effects on monosodium urate (MSU)-induced inflammation. At the dose of 50 µg/mL, the inhibitory rates of IL-1β secretion were 24.53 %, 14.36 %, and 38.10 %, respectively. A total of 32 phenolic compounds were identified or preliminarily assigned in UPLC-Q/TOF-MS analysis. And seven phenolics related to anti-gout activity were identified by spectrum-effect relationships. According to ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion) evaluation and experiments verification, luteolin, acacetin-7-O-glucoside, and apigenin-7-O-glucoside were critical constituents potentially associated with the reduction of inflammation in gout. Additionally, these phenolics might be suitable as quality control indicators. This study clarified the anti-gout properties of different cultivars of chrysanthemums and active compounds, providing a theoretical basis for its scientific utilization in functional foods.

Optimization of preparation method of hepatoprotective active components from Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. and its action mechanism in vivo

Capitula of Coreopsis tinctoria are widely used as a flower tea with great health benefits due to rich content of flavonoids and phenolic acids. The hepatoprotective effect of C. tinctoria and its bioactive basis have seldom been investigated until now. In the present study, capitula of C. tinctoria were extracted with a method optimized by response surface methodology (RSM) and BoxBehnken design (BBD) and further purified by macroporous resin HPD-300 to obtain a fraction (CE) enriched with flavonoids and phenolic acids. The contents of the four most abundant compounds, isookanin-7-O-β-d-glucoside (1), quercetigetin-7-O-β-d-glucoside (2), okanin (3), and marein (4), were determined by HPLC as 9.98, 5.21, 41.78 and 1.85 mg/g, respectively. Seventy-four compounds including fifity-five flavonoids, fifteen organic acids (twelve of them were phenolic compounds), and three coumarins were tentatively identified in CE by LC-HRMS/MS. In vivo hepatoprotective effect and potential mechanism of CE were studied with a high-fat diet-induced NASH mouse model. CE administration decreased the amount of weight gain, hepatic lipid, and sequentially improved dyslipidemia, inflammation, oxidative stress, and IR in HFD-fed mice. Molecular data revealed that CE inhibited hepatic inflammation by reducing NFκB/iNOS/COX-2/NLRP3/MAPK in the liver tissues and ameliorated oxidative stress by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Modulation of inflammation and oxidative stress with CE may represent a promising target for the treatment of NAFLD and provide insight into the mechanism by which CE protects against obesity.

High-speed counter-current chromatography assisted preparative isolation of phenolic compounds from the flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju

Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju is rich in phenolic compounds with various benefits such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cardiovascular protection. In this study, 12 phenolic compounds, including five flavonoid glycosides and seven quinic acid derivatives, were successfully separated from the flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju by high-speed counter-current chromatography and preparative high-performance liquid chromatography. Ethyl acetate-n-butanol-acetonitrile-water-acetic acid (5:0.5:2.5:5:0.25, v/v/v/v/v) was selected as solvent system to separate six fractions from the flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju, and 20% aqueous acetonitrile (containing 0.1% formic acid) was chosen to be the elution solvent in preparative high-performance liquid chromatography for purifying the fractions above. Luteolin-7-O-β-D-glucoside (1), luteolin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide (2), apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucoside (3), luteolin-7-O-β-D-rutinoside (4), diosmetin-7-O-β-D-glucoside (5), chlorogenic acid (6), 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (7), 1,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid (8), 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid (9), 3,4-dicaffeoyl-epi-quinic acid (10), 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (11), and 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (12) were isolated with purities all above 95%, respectively. In addition, all isolates were evaluated for their protective effects on H2 O2 -induced oxidative damage in adult retinal pigment epithelial cells.

Optimization of aqueous extraction of antioxidants from Chrysanthemum (C. morifolium Ramat and C. indicum L.) flowers and evaluation of their protection from glycoxidation damage on human αA-crystallin

Chrysanthemum tea is commonly consumed by Chinese consumers mainly due to the Chrysanthemum flower being a potential source of antioxidants. The current study investigates the effects of extraction time and temperature on Chrysanthemum flower aqueous extract (CFAE) antioxidant capacity, including Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), ferrous iron-chelating activity, and superoxide radical scavenging capacity (SRSC) using a two-factor, three-level factorial design of the response surface method (RSM). The TEAC and SRSC of CFAE are higher at higher temperatures and longer times up to a certain point, and the highest TEAC and SRSC are achieved at a 100 °C extraction temperature for 45 min. The fructose induced-αA-crystallin (Cry) glycation model system was used to evaluate the effects of the CFAE on anti-glycoxidation activities. The antioxidant ingredients obtained from CFAE significantly impede the production of advanced glycation end products from protein glycoxidation products (dityrosine, kynurenine, and N'-methylkynurenine) in the glycation process of αA-Cry and exhibit strong anti-glycating activity. The glycation inhibitory effects of CFAE are concentration-dependent. C. indicum L. exhibits greater potential for preventing cataracts compared to C. morifolium Ramat CFAE's antioxidant and anti-glycation properties suggest its potential application as a natural ingredient in the development of agents to combat glycation.

Anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative and anti-psoriatic potential of apigenin in RAW264.7 cells, HaCaT cells and psoriasis like dermatitis in BALB/c mice

AIMS

Psoriasis is an immune-mediated skin disease characterized by keratinocytes hyperproliferation, abnormal differentiation and inflammation. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate in-vitro and in-vivo anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activity to evaluate anti-psoriatic potential of apigenin.

MAIN METHODS

For in-vivo study, 5 % imiquimod cream was used to induce psoriasis-like skin inflammation in BALB/c mice to mimic human psoriatic conditions. PASI scores, CosCam score, histopathology, immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR, and ELISA were done to evaluate the anti-psoriatic potential of topically applied apigenin. For in-vitro studies, LPS-induced inflammation in RAW264.7 was done, and qRT-PCR, ELISA, and immunofluorescence were conducted to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of apigenin. Migration and cell doubling assay in HaCaT cells were performed to assess the anti-proliferative effect of apigenin. Acute dermal toxicity profile of apigenin has also been done as per OECD guidelines.

KEY FINDINGS

Results showed that apigenin significantly reduce the PASI and CosCam scores, ameliorate the deteriorating histopathology, and effectively downregulated the expression of CCR 6, IL-17A, and NF-κB. Apigenin effectively downregulated the expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines through IL-23/IL-17/IL-22 axis. Apigenin suppressed nuclear translocation of NF-κB in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Cell migration and cell doubling assay in HaCaT cells showing the anti-proliferative potential of apigenin. Apigenin was found safe in acute dermal toxicity study.

SIGNIFICANCE

Apigenin was found effective against psoriasis in both in-vitro and in-vivo models suggesting apigenin as a potential candidate for the development of anti-psoriatic agent.

Chemical basis and self-assembly mechanism of submicroparticles forming in chrysanthemum tea infusion

Submicroparticles are important components generally existed in chrysanthemum tea infusion, but their functionality, chemical composition, structure and self-assembly mechanism are unclear due to lack of suitable preparation method and research strategy. This study showed that submicroparticles promoted the intestinal absorption of phenolics in chrysanthemum tea infusion by comparison of chrysanthemum tea infusion, submicroparticles-free chrysanthemum tea infusion and submicroparticles. Submicroparticles efficiently prepared by ultrafiltration mainly consisting of polysaccharide and phenolics accounted for 22% of total soluble solids in chrysanthemum tea infusion. The polysaccharide, which was determined as esterified pectin with a spherical conformation, provided spherical skeleton to form submicroparticles. A total of 23 individual phenolic compounds were identified in submicroparticles with the total phenolic content of 7.63 μg/mL. The phenolics not only attached to the external region of spherical pectin by hydrogen bonds, but also got into hydrophobic cavities of spherical pectin and attached to the internal region by hydrophobic interactions.

Effects of sodium metabisulfite on pyroptosis, mitophagy and degranulation in mast cells

Sodium metabisulphite (SMB) is the most used foods and drugs antioxidant among sulfites. So far, there were few studies about its harm, especially in mast cells. Our study was to investigate the effects of SMB on mitophagy and pyroptosis in mast cells. The results revealed that SMB dose-dependently promoted the expressions of NLRP3, GSDMD-N and other marker proteins of pyroptosis. Knockdown of GSDMD, NLRP3 inhibitor, mitophagy activator and mtROS inhibitor all reversed the changes in pyroptosis indicators caused by SMB. Considering the degranulation characteristics of mast cells and the sensitization of sulfite, we examined the effects of the above inhibitors on the degranulation of mast cells caused by SMB. The results showed that SMB-mediated mast cell degranulation was significantly inhibited by the above inhibitors. Meanwhile, we used immunofluorescence co-localization experiments and found that GSDMD pore-forming protein and histamine co-localized near the cell membrane. Overall, evidence suggested that SMB caused pyroptosis by inhibiting mitophagy, leading to mast cell degranulation. These findings are of great significance to the sensitization mechanism of SMB and provide a new insight into SMB toxicology and mast cell degranulation.

Hydrogen Protection Boosts the Bioactivity of Chrysanthemum morifolium Extract in Preventing Palmitate-Induced Endothelial Dysfunction by Restoring MFN2 and Alleviating Oxidative Stress in HAEC Cells

As the most important natural antioxidants in plant extracts, polyphenols demonstrate versatile bioactivities and are susceptible to oxidation. The commonly used ultrasonic extraction often causes oxidation reactions involving the formation of free radicals. To minimize the oxidation effects during the ultrasonic extraction process, we designed a hydrogen (H₂)-protected ultrasonic extraction method and used it in Chrysanthemum morifolium extraction. Hydrogen-protected extraction improved the total antioxidant capacity, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, and polyphenol content of Chrysanthemum morifolium water extract (CME) compared with air and nitrogen (N₂) conditions. We further investigated the protective effects and mechanisms of CME on palmitate (PA)-induced endothelial dysfunction in human aorta endothelial cells (HAECs). We found that hydrogen-protected CME (H₂-CME) best-prevented impairment in nitric oxide (NO) production, endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) protein level, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. In addition, H₂-CME prevented PA-induced endothelial dysfunction by restoring mitofusin-2 (MFN2) levels and maintaining redox balance.

Chemical Composition of Honeysuckle (Lonicerae japonicae) Extracts and Their Potential in Inhibiting the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein and ACE2 Binding, Suppressing ACE2, and Scavenging Radicals

Honeysuckle (Lonicerae japonicae) has been used in functional tea products. The chemical compositions of the water and ethanol extracts of honeysuckle were examined in the present study, along with their potential in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binding to ACE2, suppressing ACE2 activity, and scavenging reactive free radicals. Thirty-six compounds were tentatively identified from the honeysuckle extracts using HPLC-MS/MS, with ten reported for the first time in honeysuckle. Both honeysuckle extracts inhibited the binding of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to ACE2, as well as ACE2 activity. The ethanol extract exhibited a 100% inhibition on binding of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to ACE2 at 100 mg botanical equivalent/mL, whereas the water extract had a 65% binding inhibition at the same concentration. Furthermore, the water extract exhibited 90% ACE2 activity inhibition, which was stronger than that of the ethanol extract (62% inhibition) at the same botanical weight concentration. In addition, higher total phenolic contents and greater scavenging activities against hydroxyl (HO•), DPPH•, and ABTS•+ radicals were observed in the water extract than the ethanol extract counterpart on a dry botanical weight concentration basis. These findings suggest honeysuckle has the potential to reduce the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the development of severe COVID-19 symptoms.

The CmMYB3 transcription factors isolated from the Chrysanthemum morifolium regulate flavonol biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana

Chrysanthemum morifolium MYB3 factors are transcriptional activators for the regulation of flavonol biosynthesis. Flavonol was not only the critical secondary metabolite participating in the growth and development of plants but also the main active ingredient in medicinal chrysanthemum. However, few pieces of research revealed the transcriptional regulation of flavonol biosynthesis in Chrysanthemum morifolium. Here, we isolated two CmMYB3 transcription factors (CmMYB3a and CmMYB3b) from the capitulum of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv 'Hangju'. According to the sequence characteristics, the CmMYB3a and CmMYB3b belonged to the R2R3-MYB subgroup 7, whose members were often reported to regulate flavonol biosynthesis positively. CmMYB3a and CmMYB3b factors were identified to localize in the nucleus by subcellular localization assay. Besides, both of them have obvious transcriptional self-activation activity in their C-terminal. After the overexpression of CmMYB3 genes in Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis thaliana, the flavonol contents in plants were increased, and the expression of AtCHS, AtCHI, AtF3H, and AtFLS genes in A. thaliana was also improved. Interestingly, the CmMYB3a factor had stronger functions in improving flavonol contents and related gene expression levels than CmMYB3b. The interaction analysis between transcription factors and promoters suggested that CmMYB3 could bind and activate the promoters of CmCHI and CmFLS genes in C. morifolium, and CmMYB3a also functioned more powerfully. Overall, these results indicated that CmMYB3a and CmMYB3b work as transcriptional activators in controlling flavonol biosynthesis.

Neuroprotective effects of Chrysanthemum morifolium on cerebral ischemia- reperfusion injury contributes to the oxidative stress suppression and related Keap1/Nrf2 pathway

BACKGROUND

Ischemic stroke, the cause of death and disability worldwide, is closely related to oxidative stress damage. Chrysanthemum has profound antiantioxidant activity. We aimed to verify whether Chrysanthemum morifolium extract (CME) influences brain injury in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CR/RI) model.

METHODS

In vitro, rat hippocampal H19-7 neurons were pretreated with CME, CR/RI was simulated with oxygen glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R). The cell viability, apoptosis, lactate dehydrogenase release, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, malonaldehyde (MDA) content and superoxide dismutase（SOD） activity were detected. In vivo, middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model rats were pre-administered with CME, and then behavioral test, triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC), hematoxylin-eosin staining (HE), terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL), ROS immunofluorescence, MDA and SOD activity were tested. Furthermore, Keap1/Nrf2 signaling of CME in CI/RI was investigated.

RESULTS

In OGD/R induced in H19-7 cells, CME increased OGD/R-induced cell viability and reduced cell apoptosis, which was reversed by siNrf2 transfection . In MCAO rats, CME improved the neurological deficits and alleviated brain injury. However, co-treatment with MLK385 counteracted these neuroprotective effects of CME on MCAO rats.

CONCLUSION

CME could significantly reduce oxidative stress and nerve injury in vitro and in vivo models of CI/RI by regulating the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway.

Chrysanthemum morifolium and Its Bioactive Substance Enhanced the Sleep Quality in Rodent Models via Cl- Channel Activation

Dried Chrysanthemum morifolium (Chry) flowers have been used in Korea as a traditional insomnia treatment. In this study, the sleep-promoting activity and improving sleep quality of Chry extract (ext) and its active substance linarin were analyzed by pentobarbital-induced sleep experiment in mice and electroencephalography (EEG), electromyogram (EMG) analysis in rats. In a dose-dependent manner, Chry ext and linarin promoted longer sleep duration in the pentobarbital-induced sleep test compared to pentobarbital-only groups at both hypnotic and subhypnotic doses. Chry ext administration also significantly improved sleep quality, as seen in the relative power of low-frequency (delta) waves when compared with the control group. Linarin increased Cl- uptake in the SH-SY5Y human cell line and chloride influx was reduced by bicuculline. After administration of Chry ext, the hippocampus, frontal cortex, and hypothalamus from rodents were collected and blotted for glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)65/67 and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptors subunit expression levels. The expression of α1-subunits, β2-subunits, and GAD65/67 of the GABAA receptor was modulated in the rodent brain. In conclusion, Chry ext augments pentobarbital-induced sleep duration and enhances sleep quality in EEG waves. These effects might be due to the activation of the Cl- channel.

The volatile flavor and the antioxidant properties of a novel chrysanthemum rice wine during natural aging

Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju, a traditional tea in southern China with high nutritional and health functions was used in this study. Optimized production conditions of a novel chrysanthemum rice wine (FRW) were obtained by the Box-Behnken design response surface experiment. FRW with best sensory quality was developed with 0.68% chrysanthemum, 0.79% Jiuqu and 0.81:1 liquid-to-solid ratio. Compared with rice wine (RW) control, the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, as well as antioxidant activity of the FRW increased significantly. GC-MS analysis showed that more flavor compounds including alcohols, aldehydes, acids, and esters were detected in FRW. During the aging process, it was found that the antioxidant substances, the antioxidant activity and the flavor substances decreased, with the wine body tending to be homogenized. After 6 months of storage, overall sensory quality of FRW was more harmonious, with special nectar taste, which dramatically improved the flavor characteristics and functionality compared with traditional RW.

Fast and efficient identification of hyaluronidase specific inhibitors from Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. using UF-LC-MS technique and their anti-inflammation effect in macrophages

The purpose of the study was to establish a rapid analytical strategy to screen potential anti-inflammatory compounds from Flos Chrysanthemum flower. The enzyme assay was conducted to prescreen botanical extracts, in which Chrysanthemum morifolium aqueous extract (CME) displayed hyaluronidase (HAase) inhibitory activity in a dose-dependent manner with the values of 8.31, 24.25, and 66.51% at concentrations of 1.00, 2.00, and 4 0.00 mg/mL, respectively. Eight potential compounds targeting HAase (compounds 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 20 and 21) from CME were screened using ultrafiltration affinity liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (UF-LC-MS) technology. The well-known inhibitor, dipotassium glycyrrhizinate (DG), was used as a positive control and competitive ligand to eliminate false positives. Then, four of these potential components (compounds 9, 10, 17, and 21), namely eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside, luteoloside, apigenin-7-O-glucoside and diosmetin-7-O-glucoside, were distinguished as potent HAase specific inhibitor candidates with high BD and CBD values. The enzyme inhibitory activities of candidate compounds were verified using enzyme inhibition assay. At a concentration of 1000 μM, compounds 9, 10, 17, and 21 showed 40.15, 44.85, 18.04, and 24.15% inhibition of HAase, respectively. Furthermore, all the four compounds significantly decreased the production of nitric oxide (NO) and IL-6, and significantly suppressed the mRNA expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and IL-1β in both murine and human macrophages.

UHPLC-QTOF-MS-based untargeted metabolomics and mineral element analysis insight into the geographical differences of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. "Hangbaiju" from different origins

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. "Hangbaiju" (HBJ), known as one of the "eight flavors of Zhejiang", is commonly used as a classical tea material for both food and medicine over three thousand years in China. The quality of HBJ is closely related to its geographical origins. However, the mechanism underlying the geographical differences of HBJ remains to be elucidated. In this study, an untargeted metabolomic strategy based on UHPLC-QTOF-MS was established to discover the differential metabolites in HBJ samples from four different origins and explore the possible relationship with mineral elements in planting soils by chemometric analysis. Eight compounds were screened and identified as the key differential metabolites in HBJ samples from different origins. Among them, four important pharmacodynamic compounds including L-arginine, rutin, chlorogenic acid and apigenin-7-O-glucoside are the most abundant in HBJ samples from Tongxiang region, which suggests that HBJ planted in Tongxiang has higher medicinal values. Pearson correlation analysis revealed that the contents of soil mineral elements are positively correlated with those of chlorogenic acid, rutin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside in HBJ samples. Furthermore, an interrelationship model based on random forest algorithm was established to successfully predict the contents of differential metabolites in HBJ samples by soil mineral elements. All these results indicated that the contents of differential metabolites in HBJ samples seemed to be affected by soil mineral elements and therefore resulted in the geographical differences of HBJ.

CmHY5 functions in apigenin biosynthesis by regulating flavone synthase II expression in chrysanthemum flowers

The predominant flavones in the ray florets of chrysanthemum flowers are apigenin and its derivatives. CmHY5 participates in apigenin biosynthesis by directly regulating the expression of FNSII-1 in chrysanthemum. Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) flowers have been used for centuries as functional food and in herbal tea and traditional medicine. The chrysanthemum flower contains significant amounts of the biologically active compound flavones, which has medicinal properties. However, the mechanism regulating flavones biosynthesis in chrysanthemum flowers organs is still unclear. Here, we compared the transcriptomes and metabolomes of different floral organs between two cultivars with contrasting flavone levels in their flowers. We identified 186 flavonoids by metabolome analysis. The predominant flavones in the ray florets of chrysanthemum flowers are apigenin and its derivatives, of which the contents are highly correlated with the expression of flavones synthase II gene CmFNSII-1. We also determined that CmHY5 is a direct upstream regulator of CmFNSII-1 transcription. We showed that CmHY5 RNAi interference lines in chrysanthemum have lower contents of apigenin compared to wild-type chrysanthemum. Our results demonstrated that CmHY5 participates in flavone biosynthesis by directly regulating the expression of FNSII-1 in chrysanthemum.

Antioxidant properties of polyphenols from snow chrysanthemum (Coreopsis tinctoria) and the modulation on intestinal microflora in vitro

CONTEXT

Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt (Asteraceae), named snow chrysanthemum, is known to have a high level of polyphenols. However, the potential prebiotic effect on modulating intestinal microflora is still unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The chemical composition, antioxidant properties of snow chrysanthemum polyphenols (SCPs) and their effects on human intestinal microbiota were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SCPs were extracted using ultrasonic-assisted extraction, and further determined using UPLC-QE Orbitrap/MS. Five assays were used to investigate the antioxidant activities of SCPs. Subsequently, the effects of SCPs on intestinal microbiota in vitro were determined by high throughput sequencing and bioinformatics analysis.

RESULTS

Marein, isookanin and cymaroside were the major phenolic compounds, which accounted for 42.17%, 19.53% and 12.25%, respectively. Marein exhibited higher scavenging capacities in DPPH (EC₅₀ = 8.84 µg/mL) and super anion radical assay (EC₅₀ = 282.1 µg/mL) compared to cymaroside and isookanin. The antioxidant capacity of cymaroside was weakest among the three phenolic compounds due to the highest EC₅₀ values, especially for superoxide anion radical assay, EC₅₀ > 800 µg/mL. The result of in vitro fermentation showed that the three phenolic compounds increased the relative abundances of Escherichia/Shigella, Enterococcus, Klebsiella, etc., and isookanin notably increased the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

SCPs exhibited antioxidant properties and potential prebiotic effects on modulating the gut microbiota composition. The findings indicated that SCPs consumption could exert prebiotic activity that is beneficial for human health.

Profile and activity of phenolic antioxidants in chrysanthemum (Huangshan Gongju) as affected by simulated digestions

The phenolics are the main bioactive substances of Huangshan Gongju, a famous chrysanthemum of China, but their digestive characteristics are still unknown. To explore the digestive properties of Huangshan Gongju phenolics, the flower was extracted and subjected to simulated digestions, and their phenolic profile and activity were analyzed. The results indicated that the total phenolics content and antioxidant activity of the extract varied with the simulated digestion steps, and they generally decreased in the oral and small intestine digestions but increased in the gastric digestion, and high correlations were detected between the total phenolics content and antioxidant activity (0.873 < r < 0.979, p < .01). The change of phenolic profile during the simulated digestions was similar to that of total phenolics content, and six individual phenolics were identified and quantified, and three of them, including chlorogenic acid, apigenin-7-O-rutinoside, and apigenin-7-O-6″-acetylglucoside showed higher recovery (>64.29%), implying they may be the main functional phenolics of Huangshan Gongju. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study proved that most phenolics in Huangshan Gongju were relatively stable during digestion. The finding may guarantee the application of Huangshan Gongju in the field of functional foods.

Genome-Wide Identification, Characterization, and Expression Analysis of CHS Gene Family Members in Chrysanthemum nankingense

The chalcone synthase (CHS) gene family catalyzes the first committed step in the biosynthesis of flavonoids and plays key roles in various biological processes in plants. However, systematic studies of the CHS gene family in chrysanthemum remain unknown to date. In this study, 16 CnCHS genes were identified by searching the complete genome sequence of Chrysanthemum nankingense. Most contained two exons and one intron with Chal-sti-synt_N and Chal-sti-synt_C domains. A phylogenetic tree of CnCHSs indicated divergence into three major groups, including I, II, and III. Analyses of the genes and promoters of these genes indicated that there are many cis-acting elements that respond to light, phytohormones, stress, and developmental stages. The CnCHS genes have extensive patterns of expression in various tissues and stages of flower development. Tandemly repeated and segmental repeat genes were expressed at higher levels in different tissues than most of the CnCHS genes that have been identified. CnCHS10 is expressed at higher levels in various flower organs than in vegetative tissues, particularly in disc floret petals and pistils. Our study provides valuable information for the systematic analysis of the CnCHS gene family, which also contributes to further research on flavonoid synthesis and petal colors of chrysanthemum.

Integrated next-generation sequencing and comparative transcriptomic analysis of leaves provides novel insights into the ethylene pathway of Chrysanthemum morifolium in response to a Chinese isolate of chrysanthemum virus B

Background

Chrysanthemum virus B (CVB), a key member of the genus Carlavirus, family Betaflexiviridae, causes severe viral diseases in chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) plants worldwide. However, information on the mechanisms underlying the response of chrysanthemum plants to CVB is scant.

Methods

Here, an integrated next-generation sequencing and comparative transcriptomic analysis of chrysanthemum leaves was conducted to explore the molecular response mechanisms of plants to a Chinese isolate of CVB (CVB-CN) at the molecular level.

Results

In total, 4934 significant differentially expressed genes (SDEGs) were identified to respond to CVB-CN, of which 4097 were upregulated and 837 were downregulated. Gene ontology and functional classification showed that the majority of upregulated SDEGs were categorized into gene cohorts involved in plant hormone signal transduction, phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis, and ribosome metabolism. Enrichment analysis demonstrated that ethylene pathway-related genes were significantly upregulated following CVB-CN infection, indicating a strong promotion of ethylene biosynthesis and signaling. Furthermore, disruption of the ethylene pathway in Nicotiana benthamiana, a model plant, using virus-induced gene silencing technology rendered them more susceptible to cysteine-rich protein of CVB-CN induced hypersensitive response, suggesting a crucial role of this pathway in response to CVB-CN infection.

Conclusion

This study provides evidence that ethylene pathway has an essential role of plant in response to CVB and offers valuable insights into the defense mechanisms of chrysanthemum against Carlavirus.

Study on the metabolism profile of flavanomarein in Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt

Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. (family Asteraceae) is a popular medicine-food plant, which improves chronic diseases such as hyperlipemia, hypertension, and diabetes. Flavanomarein is the main active component of Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt, in which the blood concentration of volunteers is low and bioavailability is poor. Thus, the understanding of flavanomarein metabolites and metabolic pathways is significant to clarify its effectiveness. This study systematically studied the metabolites of flavanomarein by oral and injection. The biological samples (feces, urine, and plasma) were analyzed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry in negative ion mode. The metabolic law of flavanomarein in the liver was further verified by a liver microsomal incubation experiment in vitro. A total of 12 metabolites were identified by oral administration while 15 metabolites were detected by injection. It was shown that metabolic pathways include acetylation, hydroxylation, glucuronidation, methylation, dehydrogenation, etc. The liver extraction rate of flavanomarein was 0.08, which means the metabolic stability of flavanomarein is well in rats' liver microsomes. It is a systematic study on the metabolism of flavanomarein and provides a metabolic rationale for further in-depth in vivo biotransformation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

On-line screening of natural antioxidants and the antioxidant activity prediction for the extracts from flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium ramat

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Flos Chrysanthemi, FC) the most economically significant "food and drug dual-use" plants, with positive effects on relieving eye fatigue, and reduce internal heat, shows significant activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective, as well as alleviating diabetes effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was undertaken to a screening of natural antioxidants in five kinds of medicinal FC and development of an integrated quality control method based on the antioxidant activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A novel quality control method for FC was established by combining the on-line HPLC-DPPH, ESI-MS, and NIR spectra analysis. Firstly, the on-line HPLC-DPPH-MS system was employed to identify the antioxidants in FC extracts. Then, the relationship between the NIR spectra and antioxidant activities of FC samples was calibrated to evaluate the total antioxidant capacity of FC rapidly.

RESULTS

The established antioxidant activity-fingerprints contain both chemical information and antioxidant activity characteristics of FC. A total of 16 antioxidants were identified by on-line HPLC-ESI-MS analysis. The results of heat map analysis and cluster analysis showed that the classification method based on antioxidants in FC can be used to identify different cultivars of FC. The optimal pretreatment of the NIR spectra was determined to be row center (RC) 1st der + multiple-scatter correction (MSC) with an optimal LV value of 11. The developed spectral-antioxidant activity model had the excellent predictive ability and was successfully used to evaluate new batches of FC samples, where R_cal = 0.9445 and R_val = 0.8821.

CONCLUSIONS

This comprehensive strategy may prove to be a powerful technique for the rapid screening, identification, and activity prediction of antioxidants, which could be used for the quality control of FC, and can serve as reference for design of quality control of other herbs and foods samples.

Study on the mechanism of Qiju Dihuang pill in the treatment of ophthalmic diseases based on systems pharmacology

Qiju Dihuang pill is one of the common Traditional Chinese Medicine to treat ophthalmic diseases. In vivo studies have suggested that Qiju Dihuang pill can be used for treating glaucoma, and it can also be used clinically to treat cataract patients. However, the bioactive ingredients and the therapeutic mechanism of Qiju Dihuang pill on treating these ophthalmic diseases remained unclear. Presently, a systems pharmacology approach which combines pharmacokinetic screening, targeted fishing, biological function enrichment, network pharmacology, and molecular docking analysis, was employed. A total of 134 active ingredients with 72 corresponding targets are identified from Qiju Dihuang pill. Additionally, 3 core targets including CHRM1, ESR1, and AR are obtained from the ingredients and drug targets network analysis. Besides, gen ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis reveal 3 important biological pathways, that is, calcium signaling pathway, insulin signaling pathway and Vascular endothelial growth factor signaling pathway. In final, a molecular docking model was constructed to study the interaction mechanism between active components and drug targets at the molecular level. All the findings show that Qiju Dihuang pill achieves therapeutic effects on treating ophthalmic diseases by regulating the crucial targets of the compounds in it. This work not only provides insight into the therapeutic mechanism of herbal medicine in the treatment of ophthalmic diseases from a multiscale perspective, but also offers an effective approach for drug discovery and development of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Network pharmacology, molecular docking and in vivo and in vitro experiments to explore the molecular mechanism of licorice green tea beverage to scavenge oxygen free radicals

Excessive oxygen free radicals can lead to aging, cancer, and other diseases. Therefore, searching for effective antioxidants to scavenge oxygen free radicals has become the focus of modern medicine. In this study, the molecular mechanism of Licorice Green Tea Beverage (LGTB) in scavenging oxygen free radicals was investigated by means of network pharmacology, molecular docking and experimental verification. Network pharmacology studies have shown that paeonol, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, swertisin, rutin, glycyrrhetinic acid, oleic, pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside and quercetin, kaferempol were the main active components of LGTB, and SOD and CAT are important targets for LGTB in scavenging oxygen free radicals. The results of molecular docking showed that these representative compounds had good affinity to SOD and CAT target proteins. In vitro free radical scavenging experiments showed that LTGB had significant scavenging effects on both DPPH and ABTS radicals, and had strong total reducing power. In vitro cell experiments showed that LGTB could protect HaCaT cells from oxidative stress induced by H₂ O₂ . The mechanism of LGTB was related to the increase of SOD and CAT activity. Western blotting showed that LGTB could inhibit PI3K/AKT/HIF-1 signaling pathway and improve the antioxidant capacity of HaCaT cells. In vivo experiments showed that LGTB could significantly increase mouse visceral index, increase serum SOD and GSH-Px activity, decrease the content of MDA, and improve liver and kidney pathological state. This study reported the molecular mechanism of LTGB scavenging oxygen free radicals, which provided scientific basis for the treatment and clinical research of aging and other diseases caused by excessive free radicals. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Free radicals are produced by the normal response of cells during aerobic respiration and perform various functions, such as signaling and providing protection against infection. However, excessive free radicals can lead to aging, cancer, and other diseases. The antioxidant can overcome the harm caused by excessive free radicals. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism of scavenging oxygen free radicals of Licorice Green Tea Beverage (LGTB) through network pharmacology and molecular docking, and its efficacy was verified by free radical scavenging experiment in vitro, HaCaT cell oxidative stress injury induced by H₂ O₂ , D-galactose to establish an aging model in mice and Western blotting experiment. It not only elucidates its mechanism at the system level, but also proves its validity at the biological level. It provides the theoretical basis and experimental evidence for the follow-up research and promotion of the product.

Diosmetin attenuates oxidative stress-induced damage to lens epithelial cells via the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway

Cataract is a global ophthalmic disease that blinds the eye, and oxidative stress is one of its primary causes. Apoptosis of lens epithelial cells (LECs) is considered the major cytological basis of many cataracts except congenital cataracts. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether diosmetin could reduce oxidative stress-induced damage to LECs, and explore its regulatory pathway. Lens epithelial cell line SRA01/04 was used as the object of study. Using ultraviolet B (UVB) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) as sources of oxidative stress, the protective effects of diosmetin at different concentrations on cells were investigated, including inhibition of proliferation, apoptosis, and oxidative stress. Molecular docking was then used to predict the target proteins and validation was performed at the cellular and protein levels. The oxidative stress of SRA01/04 was induced by UVB and H₂O₂, and inhibition of proliferation and apoptosis were observed. Here, diosmetin has a dose-dependent cell-protecting effect. This effect is achieved by targeting the MEK2 protein and inhibiting the MAPK signaling. In conclusion, diosmetin reduces H₂O₂- and UVB-induced inhibition of SRA01/04 proliferation and apoptosis by reducing oxidative stress-induced activation of the MAPK pathway.

Coreopsis tinctoria and Its Flavonoids Ameliorate Hyperglycemia in Obese Mice Induced by High-Fat Diet

With the prevalence of obesity all over the world, human health has been seriously affected. In particular, the number of diabetic and cardiovascular diseases has increased dramatically. The herb Coreopsis tinctoria (C. tinctoria) shows diverse biological and pharmacological activities, which are mainly attributed to its flavonoids. However, the specific functional substances that play an active role in C. tinctoria remain unclear, and its mechanism has not been deeply explored. In this study, we established a diet-induced obesity (DIO) mice model and treated mice with C. tinctoria or kaempferol for 8 weeks. The results showed that both C. tinctoria and kaempferol lowered body weight, reduced fasting blood glucose, and improved glucose tolerance and insulin resistance to alleviate obesity in DIO mice. The level of hemoglobin A1c also decreased significantly after treatment with C. tinctoria and kaempferol. Moreover, the administration of C. tinctoria and kaempferol also restored gut microbiota imbalance and significantly increased Desulfovibrio and Butyricimonas levels, which have been reported to improve glucose metabolism and intestinal health. In general, our study shows that C. tinctoria is a potential hypoglycemic substance for obesity and may reduce blood glucose by regulating gut microbiota, and that kaempferol is one of the effective substances of C. tinctoria.

Production of Virus-Free Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat) by Tissue Culture Techniques

Almost all plants in their natural environment are commonly infected by viruses. These viral infections can cause devastating diseases and result in severe yield and economic losses, making viral diseases an important limiting factor for agricultural production and sustainable development. However, these losses can be effectively reduced through the productions and applications of virus-free plantlets. In vitro culture techniques are the most successful approaches for efficient eradication of various viruses from almost all the most economically important crops. Techniques for producing virus-free plantlets include meristem tip culture, somatic embryogenesis, chemotherapy, thermotherapy, electrotherapy, shoot tip cryotherapy, and micrografting. Among them, meristem tip culture is currently the most widely used. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for producing virus-free plantlets of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat using tissue culture techniques.

Protective effect of cynaroside on sepsis-induced multiple organ injury through Nrf2/HO-1-dependent macrophage polarization

Cynaroside is the primary flavonoid component of honeysuckle which has been widely used as Chinese traditional medicine given its anti-inflammation properties. Overactive systemic inflammatory response and multi-organ injury are the leading causes of life-threatening sepsis. Regulation of macrophage polarization balance may act as a promising strategy for its treatment. In the present study, we aimed to investigate whether cynaroside exerted protective effects against sepsis and its potential mechanism. Building upon a sepsis mouse model, we observed cynaroside alleviated serum levels of inflammatory factors including IL-1β and TNF-α at 5 and 10 mg/kg. The pathological injury of heart, kidney and lung was remarkedly attenuated as the levels of blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, creatine kinase-MB and lactate dehydrogenase were reduced nearly 2.8-, 2.7-, 2.4-, and 2.5-fold as compared with the sepsis mice, respectively. We further demonstrated cynaroside suppressed the biomarker of pro-inflammatory macrophage M1 phenotype (iNOS+) and promotes the anti-inflammatory M2 polarization (CD206+) in the injury organs of septic mice. Mechanistic research verified cynaroside inhibited LPS-induced polarization of macrophage into M1 phenotype, which can be highly blocked by Nrf2 inhibitor. Expectedly, Nrf2 and its downstream (Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)) was upregulated in injury organs after treating with cynaroside, indicating the involvement of Nrf2 signaling. Taken together, the data claims cynaroside ameliorated systematic inflammation and multi-organ injury dependent on Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in septic mice.

Comparison of chrysanthemum flowers grown under hydroponic and soil-based systems: yield and transcriptome analysis

BACKGROUND

Flowers of Chrysanthemum × morifolium Ramat. are used as tea in traditional Chinese cuisine. However, with increasing population and urbanization, water and land availability have become limiting for chrysanthemum tea production. Hydroponic culture enables effective, rapid nutrient exchange, while requiring no soil and less water than soil cultivation. Hydroponic culture can reduce pesticide residues in food and improve the quantity or size of fruits, flowers, and leaves, and the levels of active compounds important for nutrition and health. To date, studies to improve the yield and active compounds of chrysanthemum have focused on soil culture. Moreover, the molecular effects of hydroponic and soil culture on chrysanthemum tea development remain understudied.

RESULTS

Here, we studied the effects of soil and hydroponic culture on yield and total flavonoid and chlorogenic acid contents in chrysanthemum flowers (C. morifolium 'wuyuanhuang'). Yield and the total flavonoids and chlorogenic acid contents of chrysanthemum flowers were higher in the hydroponic culture system than in the soil system. Transcriptome profiling using RNA-seq revealed 3858 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between chrysanthemum flowers grown in soil and hydroponic conditions. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment annotation revealed that these differentially transcribed genes are mainly involved in "cytoplasmic part", "biosynthetic process", "organic substance biosynthetic process", "cell wall organization or biogenesis" and other processes. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis revealed enrichment in "metabolic pathways", "biosynthesis of secondary metabolites", "ribosome", "carbon metabolism", "plant hormone signal transduction" and other metabolic processes. In functional annotations, pathways related to yield and formation of the main active compounds included phytohormone signaling, secondary metabolism, and cell wall metabolism. Enrichment analysis of transcription factors also showed that under the hydroponic system, bHLH, MYB, NAC, and ERF protein families were involved in metabolic pathways, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, and plant hormone signal transduction.

CONCLUSIONS

Hydroponic culture is a simple and effective way to cultivate chrysanthemum for tea production. A transcriptome analysis of chrysanthemum flowers grown in soil and hydroponic conditions. The large number of DEGs identified confirmed the difference of the regulatory machinery under two culture system.

Comprehensive metabolite profile of multi-bioactive extract from tree peony (Paeonia ostii and Paeonia rockii) fruits based on MS/MS molecular networking

Tree peony seed, traditionally used for edible oil production, is rich in α-linolenic acid. However, little attention is given to the fruit by-products during seed oil production. The present work aimed to comprehensively investigate the phytochemical constituents and multiple biological activities of different parts of tree peony fruits harvested from Paeonia ostii and Paeonia rockii. 130 metabolites were rapidly identified through UPLC-Triple-TOF-MS on the basis of MS/MS molecular networking. Metabolite quantification was performed through the targeted approach of HPLC-ESI-QQQ-MS. Eight chemical markers were screened via principal component analysis (PCA) for distinguishing species and tissues. Interestingly, two dominant compounds, paeoniflorin and trans-resveratrol, are specially localized in seed kernel and seed coat, respectively. Unexpectedly, the extracts of fruit pod and seed coat showed significantly stronger antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-neuroinflammatory activities than seed kernel from both P. ostii and P. rockii. Our work demonstrated that tree peony fruit is promising natural source of bioactive components and provided its potential utilization in food and pharmaceutical industries.

Comparative biotransformation of luteolin and apigenin from the flower extract and the stem-and-leaf extract of Dendranthema morifolium Ramat. Tzvel. in rats

BACKGROUND

The flower of Dendranthema morifolium Ramat Tzvel has been widely used as a nutritional health supplement worldwide. However, most of the studies have focused on the flower and the rest of the plant was neglected. Our hypothesis is that similar flavonoids may be present at different parts of D. morifolium, and the flavonoids may undergo a similar biotransformation pathway within the body. To investigate this hypothesis, an in vivo pharmacokinetic experimental model was developed to explore the comparative biotransformation of luteolin and apigenin after administration of D. morifolium extracts (10 g kg^-1 , p.o.) in freely moving rats. Because luteolin and apigenin mainly underwent phase II metabolism, the metabolic enzymes of β-glucuronidase/sulfatase or β-glucuronidase were used to hydrolyze the plasma sample, depending on the biotransformation pathway involved.

RESULTS

The results revealed that luteolin and apigenin mainly went through glucuronide and sulfate conjugations, respectively, in both the extract of flowers and the stem-and-leaf group. In addition, the area under the concentration curve (AUC_last ) of luteolin glucuronides and sulfates in the group administered the stem-and-leaf extract was approximately 4.6 times higher than that of the flower extract group. The dominant products of biotransformation for apigenin were sulfates.

CONCLUSION

These findings support our hypothesis that not only the flower parts of D. morifolium, but also the stem-and-leaf parts contain rich flavones, including glycosides and aglycone, and they undergo similar biotransformation pathways. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Metabolite Profiling and Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV Inhibitory Activity of Coreopsis Cultivars in Different Mutations

Coreopsis species have been developed to produce cultivars of various floral colors and sizes and are also used in traditional medicine. To identify and evaluate mutant cultivars of C. rosea and C. verticillata, their phytochemical profiles were systematically characterized using ultra-performance liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and their anti-diabetic effects were evaluated using the dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP)-IV inhibitor screening assay. Forty compounds were tentatively identified. This study is the first to provide comprehensive chemical information on the anti-diabetic effect of C. rosea and C. verticillata. All 32 methanol extracts of Coreopsis cultivars inhibited DPP-IV activity in a concentration-dependent manner (IC₅₀ values: 34.01–158.83 μg/mL). Thirteen compounds presented as potential markers for distinction among the 32 Coreopsis cultivars via principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis. Therefore, these bio-chemometric models can be useful in distinguishing cultivars as potential dietary supplements for functional plants.

Comparison of Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Effects of Different Varieties of Chrysanthemum Flos in China

Chrysanthemum Flos is the prestigious traditional Chinese medicinal material and the popular health drink. This article comprehensively evaluated the chemical constituents, antioxidant activity, and hepatoprotective effects of 25 common chrysanthemum varieties in China. Firstly, we analyzed the chemical compositions of water extracts of chrysanthemum using UPLC/Q-TOF-MS, and identified 29 chemical components. The results displayed that chrysanthemum was rich in chemical constituents, but there were significant differences in the contents of four phenolic acids and five flavonoids among different varieties, and the coefficient of variation (CVs) ranged from 35.96 % to 114.62 %. Then, the antioxidant activities of different chrysanthemums were investigated, respectively via 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assays. The spectrum-effect relationships between nine main components and antioxidant activities were investigated to identify the antioxidant constitutes in chrysanthemums. Meanwhile, H₂ O₂ -induced hepatocyte injury testing showed wide variation in cultivar antioxidant capacity, with Tongchengju (TCJ) producing the best effect (90.32 %), followed by Chuju (CJ; 85.78 %). In addition, the hepatoprotective effects of 8 mainstream varieties were determined by the model of acute alcoholic liver injury. They protected liver from injury by affecting relevant liver function and antioxidant indexes. Huangshangongju (HSG) could decrease aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity by 39.27 % in liver tissue; Hangju-Fubaiju (HJ-FBJ), Jinsihuangju (JSH), and Chuju (CJ) significantly decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) content of liver tissue, which reduced by more than 40 %; Jinsihuangju (JSH) of used for tea could double the content of glutathione (GSH) and had the similar effect on superoxide dismutase (SOD) as the positive group, showing significant antioxidant capacity. Therefore, this study confirmed that chrysanthemums are potential resources as antioxidants, functional foods, and medicinal materials. Importantly, it may provide a scientific support for further development and utilization of chrysanthemum, and screen excellent varieties for different demands.