Characteristics and storage stability of nanoliposomes loaded with shrimp oil as affected by ultrasonication and microfluidization

Critical Review of Food Colloidal Delivery System for Bioactive Compounds: Physical Characterization and Application

Bioactive compounds (BACs) have attracted much attention due to their potential health benefits. However, such substances have problems such as difficulty dissolving in water, poor stability, and low intestinal absorption, leading to serious limitations in practical applications. Nowadays, food colloidal delivery carriers have become a highly promising solution due to their safety, controllability, and efficiency. The use of natural macromolecules to construct delivery carriers can not only regulate the solubility, stability, and intestinal absorption of BACs but also effectively enhance the nutritional added value of functional foods, improve sensory properties, and extend shelf life. Moreover, smart-responsive colloidal delivery carriers can control the release characteristics of BACs, thus improving their absorption rate in the human body. This review describes the characteristics of several typical food colloid delivery carriers, focuses on their physical properties from static structure to dynamic release, summarizes their applications in delivery systems, and provides an outlook on the future development of food colloid delivery carriers. The different compositions and structures of food colloids tend to affect their stability and release behaviors, and the different surface properties and rheological characteristics of the carriers predestine their different application scenarios. The control of in vivo release properties and the effect on food media should be emphasized in the future exploration of safer and more controllable carrier systems.

Physical Properties of Cellulose Derivative-Based Edible Films Elaborated with Liposomes Encapsulating Grape Seed Tannins

Combined use of edible films (EF) with nanoencapsulation systems could be an effective alternative for improving the films' physical properties and maintaining bioactive compounds' stability. This research work focuses on the combined use of EF of cellulose-derived biopolymers enriched with liposomes that encapsulate grape seed tannins and on the subsequent evaluation of the physical properties and wettability. Tannin-containing liposomal suspensions (TLS) showed 570.8 ± 6.0 nm particle size and 99% encapsulation efficiency. In vitro studies showed that the release of tannins from liposomes was slower than that of free tannins, reaching a maximum release of catechin of 0.13 ± 0.01%, epicatechin of 0.57 ± 0.01%, and gallic acid of 3.90 ± 0.001% over a 144 h period. Adding liposomes to biopolymer matrices resulted in significant decrease (p < 0.05) of density, surface tension, tensile strength, elongation percentage, and elastic modulus in comparison to the control, obtaining films with greater flexibility and lower breaking strength. Incorporating TLS into EF formulations resulted in partially wetting the hydrophobic surface, reducing adhesion and cohesion compared to EF without liposomes. Results indicate that the presence of liposomes improves films' physical and wettability properties, causing them to extend and not contract when applied to hydrophobic food surfaces.

Strategies to reduce fishy odor in aquatic products: Focusing on formation mechanism and mitigation means

Aquatic products, integral to human diets, often bear a distinct fishy odor that diminishes their appeal. Currently, the formation mechanisms of these odoriferous compounds are not fully understood, complicating their effective control. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of key fishy compounds, with a focus on their formation mechanisms and innovative methods for controlling fishy odors. Fishy odors in aquatic products arise not only from the surrounding environment but also from endogenous transformations due to lipid autoxidation, enzymatic reactions, degradation of trimethylamine oxide, and Strecker degradation. Methods such as sensory masking, adsorbent and biomaterial adsorption, nanoliposome encapsulation, heat treatment, vacuum treatment, chemical reactions, and biological metabolic transformations have been developed to control fishy odors. Investigating the formation mechanisms of fishy odors will provide solid foundational knowledge that can inspire creative approaches to controlling these unpleasant odors.

Advances in encapsulation systems of Antarctic krill oil: From extraction to encapsulation, and future direction

Antarctic krill oil (AKO) is highly sought after by consumers and the food industry due to its richness in a variety of nutrients and physiological activities. However, current extraction methods are not sufficient to better extract AKO and its nutrients, and AKO is susceptible to lipid oxidation during processing and storage, leading to nutrient loss and the formation of off-flavors and toxic compounds. The development of various extraction methods and encapsulation systems for AKO to improve oil yield, nutritional value, antioxidant capacity, and bioavailability has become a research hotspot. This review summarizes the research progress of AKO from extraction to encapsulation system construction. The AKO extraction mechanism, technical parameters, oil yield and composition of solvent extraction, aqueous enzymatic extraction, supercritical/subcritical extraction, and three-liquid-phase salting-out extraction system are described in detail. The principles, choice of emulsifier/wall materials, preparation methods, advantages and disadvantages of four common encapsulation systems for AKO, namely micro/nanoemulsions, microcapsules, liposomes and nanostructured lipid carriers, are summarized. These four encapsulation systems are characterized by high encapsulation efficiency, low production cost, high bioavailability and high antioxidant capacity. Depending on the unique advantages and conditions of different encapsulation methods, as well as consumer demand for health and nutrition, different products can be developed. However, existing AKO encapsulation systems lack relevant studies on digestive absorption and targeted release, and the single product category of commercially available products limits consumer choice. In conjunction with clinical studies of AKO encapsulation systems, the development of encapsulation systems for special populations should be a future research direction.

Preparation and characterization of Antarctic krill oil/quercetin co-loaded liposomes and their protective effect on oleic acid-induced steatosis and oxidative stress in vitro

This study aims to introduce a new liposome to co-load Antarctic krill oil (AKO) and quercetin (QC) as a new delivery formulation to enrich the application of AKO and QC. The stability of liposomes could be increased by adding an appropriate quantity of soy lecithin (SL). Changes in the composition of the phospholipid membrane were strongly correlated with the stability and release capacity of loaded nutrients. SL2@QC/AKO-lips displayed a nearly spherical shape with higher oxidative stability and controlled the in vitro release performance of QC in simulated digestion. Moreover, in vitro studies indicated that new liposomes had no adverse effects on cell viability and could combine the physiological functions of AKO and QC to protect the HepG2 cells from oleic acid-induced steatosis and oxidative stress. The findings demonstrated that the AKO and QC co-loaded liposomes prepared with the addition of an appropriate quantity of SL had excellent loading efficiency of AKO/QC and good oxidative stability, security and functional activity.

Shrimp oil nanoemulsions prepared by microfluidization and ultrasonication: characteristics and stability

Shrimp oil (SO) nanoemulsions stabilized by fish myofibrillar protein, considered as functional foods, were prepared via microfluidization and ultrasonication. The study explored varying microfluidization (pressure and cycles) and ultrasonication (amplitude and sonication time) conditions that influenced emulsion properties and stability. Ultrasonicated emulsions exhibited superior emulsifying properties, adsorbed protein content, thermal stability, and centrifugal stability than microfluidized emulsions (p < 0.05). Microfluidization at 6.89 and 13.79 MPa with 2 or 4 cycles yielded larger droplets (536 to 638 nm) (p < 0.05), while ultrasonication at 40% and 50% amplitude for 5, 10 and 15 min produced smaller droplets (426 to 494 nm) (p < 0.05). Optimal conditions were obtained for microfluidization (13.79 MPa, 2 cycles) and ultrasonication (50% amplitude, 10 min). Ultrasonicated emulsions had generally smaller d32 and d43, lower polydispersity and higher ζ-potential than their microfluidized counterparts. Microstructural analysis and CLSM images confirmed their superior stability during storage. SO nanoemulsions could be applied as functional food.

Optimization and Characterization of Interspecific Hybrid Crude Palm Oil Unaué HIE OxG Nanoparticles with Vegetable By-Products as Encapsulants

Interspecific hybrid crude palm oil (HCPO) HIE OxG derived from crossbred African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and American Caiaué (Elaeis oleifera) is prominent for its fatty acid and antioxidant compositions (carotenoids, tocopherols, and tocotrienols), lower production cost, and high pest resistance properties compared to crude palm oil. Biodegradable and sustainable encapsulants derived from vegetable byproducts were used to formulate HCPO nanoparticles. Nanoparticles with hybrid crude palm oil and jackfruit seed flour as a wall material (N-JSF) and with hybrid crude palm oil and jackfruit axis flour as a wall material (N-JAF) were optimized using a 22 experimental design. They exhibited nanoscale diameters (<250 nm) and were characterized based on their zeta potential, apparent viscosity, pH, color, and total carotenoid content. The nanoparticles demonstrated a monodisperse distribution, good uniformity, and stability (polydispersity index < 0.25; zeta potentials: N-JSF -19.50 ± 1.47 mV and N-JAF -12.50 ± 0.17 mV), as well as high encapsulation efficiency (%) (N-JSF 86.44 ± 0.01 and N-JAF 90.43 ± 1.34) and an optimal carotenoid retention (>85%). These nanoparticles show potential for use as sustainable and clean-label HCPO alternatives in the food industry.

Using Functionalized Liposomes to Harvest Extracellular Vesicles of Similar Characteristics in Dermal Interstitial Fluid

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are used by living cells for the purpose of biological information trafficking from parental-to-recipient cells and vice versa. This back-and-forth communication is enabled by two distinct kinds of biomolecules that constitute the cargo of an EV: proteins and nucleic acids. The proteomic-cum-genetic information is mediated by the physiological state of a cell (healthy or otherwise) as much as modulated by the biogenesis pathway of the EV. Therefore, in mirroring the huge diversities of human communications, the proteins and nucleic acids involved in cell communications possess seemingly near limitless diversities, and it is this characteristic that makes EVs so highly heterogeneous. Currently, there is no simple and reliable tool for the selective capture of heterogeneous EVs and the delivery of their undamaged cargo for research in extracellular protein mapping and spatial proteomics studies. Our work is a preliminary attempt to address this issue. We demonstrated our approach by using antibody functionalized liposomes to capture EVs from tumor and healthy cell-lines. To characterize their performance, we presented fluorescence and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) results, TEM images, and Western blotting analysis for EV proteins. We also extracted dermal interstitial fluid (ISF) from healthy individuals and used our functionalized synthetic vesicle (FSV) method to capture EVs from their proteins. We constructed three proteomic sets [EV vs ISF, (FSV+EV) vs ISF, and (FSV+EV) vs EV] from the EV proteins and the free proteins harvested from ISF and compared their differentially expressed proteins (DEPs). The performance of our proposed method is assessed via an analysis of 1095 proteins, together with volcano plots, heatmap, GO annotation, and enriched KEGG pathways and organelle localization results of 213 DEPs.

Effects of shrimp oil on cardio-metabolic risk factors in children and adolescents

Background: Antioxidants have beneficial effects on health. Shrimp oil has Astaxanthin and omega 3 that act as powerful antioxidants and might have anti-inflammatory effects on cardiovascular diseases. This study aims to investigate the effects of shrimp oil supplementation on cardio-metabolic risk factors in overweight and obese children and adolescents. Methods: This randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted on 64 overweight and obese participants with 10-18 years of age. They were randomly assigned to receive either 500 mg shrimp oil or identical placebo that contained medium-chain triglycerides once per day for eight weeks. Dietary intake was obtained using food record questionnaire for three days at baseline and at the end of the study. Fasting blood samples were obtained at baseline and after eight weeks of intervention. Results: Overall, 53 participants completed the study; 30 subjects received shrimp oil and 23 subjects received placebo. There were no significant effects of shrimp oil on total cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL-C, LDL-C and blood pressure compared with the placebo group (p>0.05). Shrimp oil had no significant effects on body mass index, waist circumference and hip circumference compared with the placebo group (p>0.05). Conclusions: Supplementation with shrimp oil had no significant effects on improving the anthropometric measures and cardio-metabolic risk factors. Future clinical trials are needed to investigate the beneficial effects of higher doses of shrimp oil on cardio-metabolic risk factors in the pediatric age groups.

Bioactive fatty acids from non-conventional lipid sources and their potential application in functional food development

There is growing evidence that bioactive fatty acids (BFAs), including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5-3), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6-3), and conjugated fatty acids offer multiple biological benefits and constitute ingredients in functional food development. Despite their potential, novel and alternative/nonconventional sources with unique bioactive properties to meet growing demand remain largely unexplored, poorly characterized, and their effects are not well understood. We systematically reviewed the literature to identify studies on alternative sources of BFAs, their functions, extraction, and application in the food and nutraceutical industry. Twenty studies delved into alternate sources such as plants, bacteria, and algae. Six studies found EPA and DHA as the dominant FA in algal sources, while ten studies reported several BFAs from plant sources. Five studies assessed the health benefits of docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), arachidonic acid (ARA), EPA, γ-linolenic acid (GLA), and linoleic acid (LA). Eleven studies compared the quality of oil recovered by green solvents, pressurized liquid, supercritical fluid, and assisted extraction methods. Three studies assessed the effects of assisted extraction methods and reported that these approaches improved oil yield and quality, but the findings may have limited applicability to other lipid sources. The quality of nonconventional lipids largely depends on extraction techniques. Four studies suggested methods like 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, LC-MS/MS; however, their analytical differences make accurate comparison inadequate. Five studies found that the incorporation of algal and seafood biolipids during product development increased EHA and DHA contents.

Strategies for improving loading of emulsion-based functional oil powder

Functional oil is type of oil that is beneficial to human health and has nutritional value, however, functional oils are rich in bioactive substances such as polyunsaturated fatty acids which are sensitive to environmental factors and are susceptible to oxidation or decomposition. Construction of emulsion-based oil powder is a promising approach for improving the stability and solubility of functional oils. However, the low effective loading of oil in powder is the main challenge limiting encapsulation technology. This manuscript focuses on reviewing the current research progress of emulsion-based functional oil powder construction and systematically summarizes the processing characteristics of emulsion-based oil powder with high payload and summarizing the strategies to enhance the payload of powder in term of emulsification and drying, respectively. The impact of emulsion formation on oil powder production is discussed from different characteristics of emulsions, including emulsion composition, emulsification methods and emulsion types. In addition, the current status of improving material loading performance by various modifications to the drying technology is discussed, including the addition of drying processing additives, changes in drying parameters and the effect of innovative technological means.

Applications of drug delivery systems, organic, and inorganic nanomaterials in wound healing

The skin is known to be the largest organ in the human body, while also being exposed to environmental elements. This indicates that skin is highly susceptible to physical infliction, as well as damage resulting from medical conditions such as obesity and diabetes. The wound management costs in hospitals and clinics are expected to rise globally over the coming years, which provides pressure for more wound healing aids readily available in the market. Recently, nanomaterials have been gaining traction for their potential applications in various fields, including wound healing. Here, we discuss various inorganic nanoparticles such as silver, titanium dioxide, copper oxide, cerium oxide, MXenes, PLGA, PEG, and silica nanoparticles with their respective roles in improving wound healing progression. In addition, organic nanomaterials for wound healing such as collagen, chitosan, curcumin, dendrimers, graphene and its derivative graphene oxide were also further discussed. Various forms of nanoparticle drug delivery systems like nanohydrogels, nanoliposomes, nanofilms, and nanoemulsions were discussed in their function to deliver therapeutic agents to wound sites in a controlled manner.

Ultrasound treated fish myofibrillar protein: Physicochemical properties and its stabilizing effect on shrimp oil-in-water emulsion

Effects of ultrasonication at different amplitudes (40% and 60%) and time (5, 10, and 15 min) on the physicochemical and emulsifying properties of the fish myofibrillar protein (FMP) were investigated. Solubility, surface hydrophobicity, and emulsifying properties were augmented when FMP was subjected to ultrasonication at 40% amplitude for 15 min (p < 0.05). Protein pattern study revealed that augmenting amplitude and duration of ultrasound treatment reduced band intensity of myosin heavy chain. Ultrasound treatment facilitated the adsorption of FMP on oil droplets as indicated by the increases in both adsorbed and interfacial protein contents (p < 0.05). Ultrasound-treated FMP (UFMP) sample showed the alteration in chemical bonds as depicted by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra. Ultrasound treatment altered the β-sheet and random coil of FMP. During storage for 30 days at 30 °C, UFMP stabilized shrimp oil (SO)-in-water emulsion had higher turbidity but lower d₃₂, d₄₃, and polydispersity index than emulsion stabilized by untreated FMP (p < 0.05). Furthermore, emulsion stabilized by UFMP had lower flocculation and coalescence indices (p < 0.05). Microstructure observation revealed smaller droplet sizes and higher stability of droplets in emulsion stabilized by UFMP. Confocal laser scanning microscopic images demonstrated a monodisperse emulsion stabilized by UFMP. This coincided with higher viscosity and modulus values (G' and G″ ). Emulsion stabilized by UFMP exhibited viscous, shear-thinning, and non-Newtonian behavior and no phase separation occurred during storage. Therefore, ultrasonication was proven to be a potential method for enhancing the emulsifying properties of FMP and improving the stability of SO-in-water emulsion during prolonged storage.

Targeted delivery of food functional ingredients in precise nutrition: design strategy and application of nutritional intervention

With the high incidence of chronic diseases, precise nutrition is a safe and efficient nutritional intervention method to improve human health. Food functional ingredients are an important material base for precision nutrition, which have been researched for their application in preventing diseases and improving health. However, their poor solubility, stability, and bad absorption largely limit their effect on nutritional intervention. The establishment of a stable targeted delivery system is helpful to enhance their bioavailability, realize the controlled release of functional ingredients at the targeted action sites in vivo, and provide nutritional intervention approaches and methods for precise nutrition. In this review, we summarized recent studies about the types of targeted delivery systems for the delivery of functional ingredients and their digestion fate in the gastrointestinal tract, including emulsion-based delivery systems and polymer-based delivery systems. The building materials, structure, size and charge of the particles in these delivery systems were manipulated to fabricate targeted carriers. Finally, the targeted delivery systems for food functional ingredients have gained some achievements in nutritional intervention for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), liver disease, obesity, and cancer. These findings will help in designing fine targeted delivery systems, and achieving precise nutritional intervention for food functional ingredients on human health.

Biological and thermodynamic stabilization of lipid-based delivery systems through natural biopolymers; controlled release and molecular dynamics simulations

Nowadays, the use of lipid-based nanocarriers for the targeted and controlled delivery of a variety of hydrophobic and hydrophilic bioactive-compounds and drugs has increased significantly. However, challenges such as thermodynamic instability, oxidation, and degradation of lipid membranes, as well as the unintended release of loaded compounds, have limited the use of these systems in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Therefore, the present study reviews the latest achievements in evaluating the characteristics, production methods, challenges, functional, and biological stabilization strategies of lipid-based carriers (including changes in formulation composition, structural modification, membrane-rigidity, and finally monolayer or multilayer coating with biopolymers) in different conditions, as well as molecular dynamics simulations. The scientists' findings indicate the effect of natural biopolymers (such as chitosan, calcium alginate, pectin, dextran, xanthan, caseins, gelatin, whey-proteins, zein, and etc.) in modifying the external structure of lipid-based carriers, improving thermodynamic stability and resistance of membranes to physicochemical and mechanical tensions. However, depending on the type of bioactive compound as well as the design and production goals of the delivery-system, selecting the appropriate biopolymer has a significant impact on the stability of vesicles and maintaining the bioaccessibility of the loaded-compounds due to the stresses caused by the storage-conditions, formulation, processing and gastrointestinal tract.

Effect of chitosan-coated Ulva intestinalis sulfated polysaccharide nanoliposome on melanosis and quality of Pacific white shrimp during ice storage

This study investigates chitosan coating containing nanoliposome of Ulva intestinalis sulfated polysaccharide, its effect on melanosis, as well as the quality of Pacific white shrimp during 20 days of storage in ice. The sulfated polysaccharide was extracted from Ulva intestinalis (USP), and its impact on the shrimp's polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzyme inhibition in different concentrations was measured. The optimum concentration of USP with the highest inhibition percentage was selected and used. USPs were loaded in nanoliposome or coated in chitosan then shrimps were immersed in these coatings. 1.5 % USP showed the highest inhibitory effect of PPO enzyme after 1 and 3 min with values of 63.03 % and 48.74 %. The melanosis of shrimps with different types of USP coating was significantly lower than the control. The lowest color change (ΔE), total viable counts (TVC) bacterial, TVN content, and weight loss were achieved in the Ch-USP treatment. The highest sensory score was found in the Ch-N-USP treatment. This coverage delayed the increase of psychrophilic bacteria (PBC) and chemical tests (TBA, FFA, and PV). Therefore, Ch-USP and Ch-N-USP treatments can be used as a natural substitute for sodium metabisulfite to increase the shelf life and shrimp quality during ice storage.

Improving the biological activities of astaxanthin using targeted delivery systems

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of astaxanthin (AST) enable it to protect against oxidative stress-related and inflammatory diseases with a range of biological effects. These activities provide the potential to develop healthier food products. Therefore, it would be beneficial to design delivery systems for AST to overcome its low stability, control its release, and/or improve its bioavailability. This review discusses the basis for AST's various biological activities and the factors limiting these activities, including stability, solubility, and bioavailability. It also discusses the different systems available for the targeted delivery of AST and their applications in enhancing the biological activity of AST. These include systems that are candidates for preventive and therapeutic effects, which include nerves, liver, and skin, particularly for possible cancer reduction. Targeted delivery of AST to specific regions of the gastrointestinal tract, or more selectively to target tissues and cells, can be achieved using targeted delivery systems to increase the biological activities of AST.

Effect of Liposomal Encapsulation and Ultrasonication on Debittering of Protein Hydrolysate and Plastein from Salmon Frame

The impacts of liposomal encapsulation on the bitterness of salmon frame protein hydrolysate (SFPH) and salmon frame protein plastein (SFPP) with the aid of ultrasound (20% amplitude, 750 W) for different time intervals (30, 60 and 120 s) were investigated. Liposomes loaded with 1% protein hydrolysate (L-PH1) and 1% plastein (L-PT1) showed the highest encapsulation efficiency and the least bitterness (p < 0.05). Ultrasonication for longer times reduced encapsulation efficiency (EE) and increased bitterness of both L-PH1 and L-PT1 along with a reduction in particle size. When comparing between L-PH1 and L-PT1, the latter showed less bitterness due to the lower bitterness in nature and higher entrapment of plastein in the liposomes. In vitro release studies also showed the delayed release of peptides from L-PT1 in comparison to the control plastein hydrolysate. Therefore, encapsulation of liposomes with 1% plastein could be an efficient delivery system for improving the sensory characteristics by lowering the bitterness of protein hydrolysates.

Highly Valuable Fish Oil: Formation Process, Enrichment, Subsequent Utilization, and Storage of Eicosapentaenoic Acid Ethyl Esters

In recent years, as the demand for precision nutrition is continuously increasing, scientific studies have shown that high-purity eicosapentaenoic acid ethyl ester (EPA-EE) functions more efficiently than mixed omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid preparations in diseases such as hyperlipidemia, heart disease, major depression, and heart disease; therefore, the market demand for EPA-EE is growing by the day. In this paper, we attempt to review EPA-EE from a whole-manufacturing-chain perspective. First, the extraction, refining, and ethanolysis processes (fish oil and ethanol undergo transesterification) of EPA-EE are described, emphasizing the potential of green substitute technologies. Then, the method of EPA enrichment is thoroughly detailed, the pros and cons of different methods are compared, and current developments in monomer production techniques are addressed. Finally, a summary of current advanced strategies for dealing with the low oxidative stability and low bioavailability of EPA-EE is presented. In conclusion, understanding the entire production process of EPA-EE will enable us to govern each step from a macro perspective and accomplish the best use of EPA-EE in a more cost-effective and environmentally friendly way.

Application of Nanoliposomes Containing Nisin and Crocin in Milk

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the effects of nanoliposomes containing crocin and nisin in milk samples as a food model. Therefore, three formulations were prepared and compared, including (1) milk samples containing free nisin and crocin, (2) samples with nanoliposomes containing nisin and crocin, and (3) nisin and crocin-loaded nanoliposomes coated with chitosan. Methods: In order to find the optimum amount of both bioactives within nanoliposomes, analyses of size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency were accomplished. Then, the best formulated nanoliposome was evaluated and compared with a solution containing free bioactives and nanoliposomes coated with chitosan using other experiments, including antioxidant and antibacterial activities, viscosity, colorimetric and bacterial growth. Results: The best nanoliposomal system based on the factors of size, PDI, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency was related for the nanocarrier with 4 mg crocin, 4.5 mg nisin, and 40 mg lecithin. Based on the results obtained, both nanoliposome (a*=5.41) and chitosancoated nanoliposome (a*=5.09) solutions could significantly (P<0.05) reduce the redness of milk induced by free bioactives (a*=12.32). However, viscosity of milk in chitosan-coated nanoliposome solution was found to be higher (3.42 cP) than other formulations (viscosity of samples with free bioactives was 1.65 cP and viscosity of samples containing nanoliposome was 1.71 cP). In addition, chitosan-coated nanoliposomes could inhibit the growth of Listeria monocytogenes stronger than other samples. Conclusion: Encapsulation of nisin and crocin in nanoliposomes showed promising results for preserving food safety and quality.

Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties of Nanoliposomes Loaded with Rosemary Oleoresin and Their Oxidative Stability Application in Dried Oysters

Lipid and protein oxidation is a main problem related to the preservation of dried aquatic products. Rosemary oleoresin is widely used as an antioxidant, but its application is limited due to its instability and easy degradation. Nanoliposome encapsulation is a promising and rapidly emerging technology in which antioxidants are incorporated into the liposomes to provide the food high quality, safety and long shelf life. The objectives of this study were to prepare nanoliposome coatings of rosemary oleoresin to enhance the antioxidant stability, and to evaluate their potential application in inhibiting protein and lipid oxidation in dried oysters during storage. The nanoliposomes encapsulating rosemary oleoresin were applied with a thin-film evaporation method, and the optimal amount of encapsulated rosemary oleoresin was chosen based on changes in the dynamic light scattering, Zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency of the nanoliposomes. The Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy of rosemary oleoresin nanoliposomes showed no new characteristic peaks formed after rosemary oleoresin encapsulation, and the particle size of rosemary oleoresin nanoliposomes was 100-200 nm in transmission electron microscopy. The differential scanning calorimetry indicated that the nanoliposomes coated with rosemary oleoresin had better thermal stability. Rosemary oleoresin nanoliposomes presented good antioxidant stability, and still maintained 48% DPPH radical-scavenging activity and 45% ABTS radical-scavenging activity after 28 d of storage, which was 3.7 times and 2.8 times higher than that of empty nanoliposomes, respectively. Compared with the control, the dried oysters coated with rosemary oleoresin nanoliposomes showed significantly lower values of carbonyl, sulfhydryl content, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, Peroxide value, and 4-Hydroxynonenal contents during 28 d of storage. The results provide a theoretical basis for developing an efficient and long-term antioxidant approach.

Physical and Oxidative Water-in-Oil Emulsion Stability by the Addition of Liposomes from Shrimp Waste Oil with Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Liposomes made of partially purified phospholipids (PL) from Argentine red shrimp waste oil were loaded with two antioxidant lipid co-extracts (hexane-soluble, Hx and acetone-soluble, Ac) to provide a higher content of omega-3 fatty acids. The physical properties of the liposomes were characterized by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of the lipid extracts and liposomal suspensions were evaluated in terms of Superoxide and ABTS radical scavenging capacities and TNF-α inhibition. Uni-lamellar spherical liposomes (z-average ≈ 145 nm) with strong negative ζ potential (≈ -67 mV) were obtained in all cases. The high content of neutral lipids in the Hx extract caused structural changes in the bilayer membrane and decreased entrapment efficiency regarding astaxanthin and EPA + DHA contents. The liposomes loaded with the Hx/Ac extracts showed higher antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity compared with empty liposomes. The liposomal dispersions improved the physical and oxidative stability of water-in-oil emulsions as compared with the PL extract, inducing pronounced close packing of water droplets. The liposomes decreased hydroperoxide formation in freshly made emulsions and prevented thio-barbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) accumulation during chilled storage. Liposomes from shrimp waste could be valuable nanocarriers and stabilizers in functional food emulsions.

Docosahexaenoic Acid Delivery Systems, Bioavailability, Functionality, and Applications: A Review

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), mainly found in microalgae and fish oil, is crucial for the growth and development of visual, neurological, and brain. In addition, DHA has been found to improve metabolic disorders associated with obesity and has anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and anti-adipogenesis effects. However, DHA applications in food are often limited due to its low water solubility, instability, and poor bioavailability. Therefore, delivery systems have been developed to enhance the remainder of DHA activity and increase DHA homeostasis and bioavailability. This review focused on the different DHA delivery systems and the in vitro and in vivo digestive characteristics. The research progress on cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, visual, neurological/brain, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, food applications, future trends, and the development potential of DHA delivery systems were also reviewed. DHA delivery systems could overcome the instability of DHA in gastrointestinal digestion, improve the bioavailability of DHA, and better play the role of its functionality.

Oral Administration of Ethanolic Extract of Shrimp Shells-Loaded Liposome Protects against Aβ-Induced Memory Impairment in Rats

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by a progressive loss of memory and cognition. Accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) in the brain is a well-known pathological hallmark of the disease. In this study, the ethanolic extract of white shrimp (Litopenaous vannamei) shells and the ethanolic extract-loaded liposome were tested for the neuroprotective effects on Aβ_1-42-induced memory impairment in rats. The commercial astaxanthin was used as a control. Treatment with the ethanolic extract of shrimp shells (EESS) at the dose of 100 mg/kg BW showed no protective effect in Aβ-treated rats. However, treatment with an EESS-loaded liposome at the dose of 100 mg/kg BW significantly improved memory ability in Morris water maze and object recognition tests. The beneficial effect of the EESS-loaded liposome was ensured by the increase of the memory-related proteins including BDNF/TrkB and pre- and post-synaptic protein markers GAP-43 and PSD-95 as well as pErk1/2/Erk1/2 in the cortex and hippocampus. These findings indicated the neuroprotective effects of the EESS-loaded liposome on Aβ-induced memory impairment in rats. It produced beneficial effects on learning behavior probably through the function of BDNF/TrkB/pErk1/2/Erk1/2 signaling pathway and subsequently the upregulation of synaptic proteins. The present study provided evidence that the neuroprotective property of the ESSE-loaded liposome could be a promising strategy for AD protection.

Fabrication of protein nanomaterials as delivery systems

Bioactive compounds in foods, nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical have been gaining interest due to health benefits, which can help to reduce the risk of certain chronic diseases. Recently, nanoencapsulation have attract attention because it is an efficient and promising approach for protection of bioactive compounds, and delivery them to the target physiological sites for controlled release and improvement absorption. Food proteins are promising materials to be fabricated into a variety of nanostructured delivery systems because of their high nutritional value, good functional properties, and health-benefiting effects. Various techniques and approaches are utilized to prepare nanostructured food protein. This chapter introduces the major techniques for the fabrication of nanoparticles and nanoemulsions from food proteins. The basic principles, advantages, and limitations of the techniques are discussed. The encapsulation and release of bioactive compounds in different nanostructured food proteins are illustrated in specific case studies. Due to the fast growing interest of bioactive encapsulation in various sectors, this chapter is of importance for guiding the development of nanostructured food protein loaded with bioactive ingredients for food, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications.

Combined effect of chitosan and bovine serum albumin/whey protein isolate on the characteristics and stability of shrimp oil-in-water emulsion

The effect of bovine serum albumin (BSA) or whey protein isolate (WPI) at various concentrations (0.5%, 1.5%, and 3%; w/v) on the properties of shrimp oil-in-water emulsion was investigated. Both proteins at 1.5% showed the highest emulsifying properties. Moreover, the combined impact of chitosan (CS) at different levels (0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75%, and 1%; w/v) and 1.5% BSA or 1.5% WPI on emulsion properties was also studied. For the same protein used, those stabilized by BSA and WPI in conjunction with CS solution at 0.5% and 0.25% had the highest emulsion stability index, respectively. During storage for 28 days, the BSA-CSstabilized emulsion had higher turbidity, a*, b* but the lowest L* values compared to the WPI-CS counterpart (p < 0.05). Emulsion stabilized by the BSA-CS complex showed higher stability, as witnessed by lower d₃₂ and d₄₃ and lower flocculation factor and coalescence index, but it had a lower negative charge than those stabilized by the WPI-CS complex (p < 0.05). Oil droplets of the BSA-CS-stabilized emulsion showed a lower extent of size enlargement after storage. Rheological studies revealed viscous, shear-thinning, and non-Newtonian behavior of emulsions. Overall, emulsion stabilized by the BSA-CS complex had higher stability than that stabilized by the WPI-CS complex, and the former could maintain the stability of pigment in shrimp oil to some extent. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Oil from shrimp hepatopancreas is a rich source of both astaxanthin and polyunsaturated fatty acids with health benefits. It can be used for the preparation of food emulsion, such as mayonnaise, with nutraceutical properties. However, emulsion stability determines the quality of the emulsion. The use of protein (bovine serum albumin) in conjunction with polysaccharides, especially chitosan at appropriate concentrations, was proven to improve shrimp oil-in-water emulsion during extended storage. Additionally, chitosan can act as an antioxidant to prevent the degradation of astaxanthin to some extent. This finding could be potentially beneficial to produce emulsion with high stability using protein-chitosan complexes.

Microcapsules of Shrimp Oil Using Kidney Bean Protein Isolate and κ-Carrageenan as Wall Materials with the Aid of Ultrasonication or High-Pressure Microfluidization: Characteristics and Oxidative Stability

Emulsions containing shrimp oil (SO) at varying amounts were prepared in the presence of red kidney bean protein isolate (KBPI) and κ-carrageenan (KC) at a ratio of 1:0.1 (w/w). The emulsions were subjected to ultrasonication and high-pressure microfluidization to assist the encapsulation process. For each sample, ultrasonication was carried out for 15 min in continuous mode at 80% amplitude, whereas high-pressure microfluidization was operated at 7000 psi for 10 min. Ultrasonicated and microfluidized emulsions were finally spray-dried to prepare KBPI-KC-SO microcapsules. Moderate to high encapsulation efficiency (EE) ranging from 43.99 to 89.25% of SO in KPBI-KC-SO microcapsules was obtained and the microcapsules had good flowability. Particle size, PDI and zeta potential of KBPI-KC-SO microcapsules were 2.58–6.41 µm, 0.32–0.40 and −35.95–−58.77 mV, respectively. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images visually demonstrated that the wall material/SO ratio and the emulsification method (ultrasonication vs microfluidization) had an impact on the size, shape and surface of the KBPI-KC-SO microcapsules. Encapsulation of SO in microcapsules was validated empirically using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis. Encapsulation of SO in KBPI-KC microcapsules imparted superior protection against oxidative deterioration of SO as witnessed by the higher retention of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and astaxanthin when compared to unencapsulated SO during extended storage at room temperature.

Olfactory and gustatory disorders caused by COVID-19: How to regain the pleasure of eating?

Background

Recently, anosmia and ageusia (and their variations) have been reported as frequent symptoms of COVID-19. Olfactory and gustatory stimuli are essential in the perception and pleasure of eating. Disorders in sensory perception may influence appetite and the intake of necessary nutrients when recovering from COVID-19. In this short commentary, taste and smell disorders were reported and correlated for the first time with food science.

Scope and approach

The objective of this short commentary is to report that taste and smell disorders resulted from COVID-19 may impact eating pleasure and nutrition. It also points out important technologies and trends that can be considered and improved in future studies.

Key findings and conclusions

Firmer food textures can stimulate the trigeminal nerve, and more vibrant colors are able to increase the modulation of brain metabolism, stimulating pleasure. Allied to this, encapsulation technology enables the production of new food formulations, producing agonist and antagonist agents to trigger or block specific sensations. Therefore, opportunities and innovations in the food industry are wide and multidisciplinary discussions are needed.

Chitosan-Tripolyphosphate Nanoparticles Prepared by Ionic Gelation Improve the Antioxidant Activities of Astaxanthin in the In Vitro and In Vivo Model

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of chitosan (CS)-tripolyphosphate (TPP) nanoparticles (NPs) on the stability, antioxidant activity, and bioavailability of astaxanthin (ASX). ASX-loaded CS-TPP NPs (ACT-NPs) prepared by ionic gelation between CS (0.571 mg/mL) and TPP (0.571 mg/mL) showed 505.2 ± 184.8 nm, 20.4 ± 1.2 mV, 0.348 ± 0.044, and 63.9 ± 3.0% of particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index and encapsulation efficiency, respectively. An in vitro release study confirmed that the release of ASX in simulated gastric (pH 1.2) and intestinal (pH 6.8) fluid was prolonged within ACT-NPs. The in vitro antioxidant activities of ACT-NPs were significantly improved compared with free ASX (FA) (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the cellular and in vivo antioxidant analysis verified that ACT-NPs could enhance the cytoprotective effects on the BHK-21 cell line and demonstrate sustained release properties, leading to prolonged residence time in the rat plasma. The results suggest that the stability, antioxidant properties, and bioavailability of ASX can be effectively enhanced through encapsulation within CS-TPP NPs.

Microencapsulation as a Noble Technique for the Application of Bioactive Compounds in the Food Industry: A Comprehensive Review

The use of natural food ingredients has been increased in recent years due to the negative health implications of synthetic ingredients. Natural bioactive compounds are important for the development of health-oriented functional food products with better quality attributes. The natural bioactive compounds possess different types of bioactivities, e.g., antioxidative, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, and antiobesity activities. The most common method for the development of functional food is the fortification of these bioactive compounds during food product manufacturing. However, many of these natural bioactive compounds are heat-labile and less stable. Therefore, the industry and researchers proposed the microencapsulation of natural bioactive compounds, which may improve the stability of these compounds during processing and storage conditions. It may also help in controlling and sustaining the release of natural compounds in the food product matrices, thus, providing bioactivity for a longer duration. In this regard, several advanced techniques have been explored in recent years for microencapsulation of bioactive compounds, e.g., essential oils, healthy oils, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, flavoring compounds, enzymes, and vitamins. The efficiency of microencapsulation depends on various factors which are related to natural compounds, encapsulating materials, and encapsulation process. This review provides an in-depth discussion on recent advances in microencapsulation processes as well as their application in food systems.

Whole Wheat Crackers Fortified with Mixed Shrimp Oil and Tea Seed Oil Microcapsules Prepared from Mung Bean Protein Isolate and Sodium Alginate

Shrimp oil (SO) rich in n-3 fatty acids and astaxanthin, mixed with antioxidant-rich tea seed oil (TSO), was microencapsulated using mung bean protein isolate and sodium alginate and fortified into whole wheat crackers. SO and TSO mixed in equal proportions were emulsified in a solution containing mung bean protein isolate (MBPI) and sodium alginate (SA) at varied ratios. The emulsions were spray-dried to entrap SO-TSO in MBPI-SA microcapsules. MBPI-SA microcapsules loaded with SO-TSO showed low to moderately high encapsulation efficiencies (EE) of 32.26–72.09% and had a fair flowability index. Two selected microcapsules with high EE possessed the particle sizes of 1.592 and 1.796 µm with moderate PDI of 0.372 and 0.403, respectively. Zeta potential values were −54.81 mV and −53.41 mV. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images indicated that microcapsules were spherical in shape with some shrinkage on the surface and aggregation took place to some extent. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses of samples empirically validated the presence of SO-TSO in the microcapsules. Encapsulated SO-TSO showed superior oxidative stability and retention of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) to unencapsulated counterparts during storage of 6 weeks. When SO-TSO microcapsules were fortified in whole wheat crackers at varying levels (0–10%), the crackers showed sensorial acceptability with no perceivable fishy odor. Thus, microencapsulation of SO-TSO using MBPI-SA as wall materials could be used as an alternative carrier system, in which microcapsules loaded with PUFAs could be fortified in a wide range of foods.

Extraction and characterization of Argentine red shrimp (Pleoticus muelleri) phospholipids as raw material for liposome production

Phospholipids rich in omega-3 fatty acids from Argentine red shrimp waste were explored as a source to produce food-grade liposomes. Partially purified phospholipids (PL-AS), hexane-soluble (HxSE) and acetone-soluble (Ac-SE) lipid co-extracts, were characterized in terms of extraction yield (2.0%, 1.46% and 4.51%, respectively), chemical composition (fatty acids, tocopherols, sterols, astaxanthin) and thermal stability. Based on lipid fractionation, PL-AS presented 85% phospholipids, while neutral lipids were mostly present in HxSE (75%) and free FA in AcSE (34%), the latter suggesting significant fat hydrolysis. Palmitic, oleic, eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids predominated in the phospholipid fraction of PL-AS, mainly constituted by phosphatidylcholine (PC) (96%). The most abundant phospholipid was identified at m/z 760.59, composed of PC, with C16:0/C18:1 as the most probable FA combination. Unilamellar spherical liposomes were successfully made of PL-AS (≈140 nm, 0.248 PDI, -68.5 mV ζ potential), showing high stability for 28 days at 4 °C.

Recent research advances in astaxanthin delivery systems: Fabrication technologies, comparisons and applications

Astaxanthin (AST) is classified as a kind of carotenoid with bright red color, powerful antioxidant activity as well as a range of health benefits. AST-based functional foods present a new thought of healthy diets with both the enhancement of food color and incorporation of nutrients. However, the poor water solubility, easy oxidation, light instability, thermal instability and peculiar smell excessively restrict its application in the food industry. In this review, common bio-based materials for various AST delivery systems suitable for different food products are highlighted. Moreover, characteristics of different delivery systems and current applications in food products are also compared and summarized. This review provides some ideas on the research trends and applications of AST delivery systems in food. The joint use of two or more materials can significantly enhance the stability of delivery systems. All of the encapsulation systems slow down the degradation of AST to a certain extent and can be applied to different food systems. However, studies and applications are still focused on emulsions and microcapsules with unsatisfactory odor masking effects. In the future, diverse AST-loaded delivery systems with high encapsulation efficacy, good stability, odor masking effects and cost-effective preparation technologies will be the major research trends.

Novel bioactive nanoparticles from crude palm oil and its fractions as foodstuff ingredients

Novel bioactive nanoparticles derived from crude palm oil (CPO), palm olein, and palm stearin for use in foodstuff products were produced, and their physicochemical characteristics and stability were evaluated. The nanoparticles were prepared by homogenization, using biodegradable casein or gum arabic as an encapsulating material. The encapsulation efficiency (EE), morphology, long-term stability, particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, pH, apparent viscosity, color parameters, total carotenoids, and antioxidant activity were determined. All nanoparticles methods produced spherical nanoparticles with EE higher than 85%. Highly homogeneous small particles (<300 nm) showing a tendency toward a yellow color were observed after 60 days of storage at 4 °C. The nanoparticles showed a carotenoid retention index higher than 40% and an antioxidant activity higher than 1,000 µM Trolox/g oil. The bioactive nanoparticles retained the carotenoids and are proposed as a green innovative product to replace synthetic colorants and antioxidants in foodstuffs.

Food-grade systems for delivery of DHA and EPA: Opportunities, fabrication, characterization and future perspectives

Docosahexaenoic acid (C22: 6n-3, DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20: 5n-3, EPA) have been shown to provide the opportunity to inhibit onset and escalation of chronic diseases. Nevertheless, their undesirable characteristics including poor water solubility, oxidation sensitivity, high melting point and unpleasant sensory attributes hinder their application in the food industry. In recent years, utilizing food-grade delivery systems to deliver DHA/EPA and improve their biological efficacy has emerged as an attractive approach with fascinating prospects. This review focuses on introducing potential delivery systems for DHA/EPA, including microemulsions, nanoemulsions, Pickering emulsions, hydrogels, lipid particles, oleogels, liposomes, microcapsules and micelles. The opportunities, fabrication and characterization of these delivery systems loaded with DHA/EPA are highlighted. Besides, food sources of DHA/EPA, their benefits to the human body and a series of challenges for effective utilization of DHA/EPA are discussed. Promising future research trends of food-grade systems for delivery of DHA/EPA are also presented. Conducting in vivo experiments, applying DHA/EPA-loaded delivery systems into real food, improving the applicability of such delivery systems in industrial production, co-encapsulating DHA/EPA with other substances, seeking measures to improve the performance of existing delivery systems and developing novel food-grade delivery systems inspired by other fields are various future considerations.