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La Bella G, Basanisi MG, Nobili G, D’Antuono AM, Suffredini E, La Salandra G. Duplex Droplet Digital PCR Assay for Quantification of Hepatitis E Virus in Food. Viruses 2024; 16:413. [PMID: 38543778 PMCID: PMC10975721 DOI: 10.3390/v16030413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) represents an emerging risk in industrialized countries where the consumption of contaminated food plays a pivotal role. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR (RT-qPCR) is one of the most suitable methods for the detection and quantification of viruses in food. Nevertheless, quantification using RT-qPCR has limitations. Droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) provides the precise quantification of nucleic acids without the need for a standard curve and a reduction in the effect on virus quantification due to the presence of inhibitors. The objectives of the present work were (i) to develop a method for the absolute quantification of HEV in swine tissues based on ddPCR technology and provide internal process control for recovery assessment and (ii) to evaluate the performance of the method by analyzing a selection of naturally contaminated wild boar muscle samples previously tested using RT-qPCR. The method was optimized using a set of in vitro synthesized HEV RNA and quantified dsDNA. The limit of detection of the developed ddPCR assay was 0.34 genome copies/µL. The analysis of the wild boar samples confirmed the validity of the ddPCR assay. The duplex ddPCR method showed no reduction in efficiency compared to individual assays. The method developed in the present study could represent a sensitive assay for the detection and absolute quantification of HEV RNA in food samples with the advantage of presenting the co-amplification of internal process control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianfranco La Bella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata, Via Manfredonia 20, 71121 Foggia, Italy (G.N.); (A.M.D.); (G.L.S.)
| | - Maria Grazia Basanisi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata, Via Manfredonia 20, 71121 Foggia, Italy (G.N.); (A.M.D.); (G.L.S.)
| | - Gaia Nobili
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata, Via Manfredonia 20, 71121 Foggia, Italy (G.N.); (A.M.D.); (G.L.S.)
| | - Anna Mattea D’Antuono
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata, Via Manfredonia 20, 71121 Foggia, Italy (G.N.); (A.M.D.); (G.L.S.)
| | - Elisabetta Suffredini
- Department of Food Safety Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Giovanna La Salandra
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata, Via Manfredonia 20, 71121 Foggia, Italy (G.N.); (A.M.D.); (G.L.S.)
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Hrdy J, Vasickova P. Virus detection methods for different kinds of food and water samples – The importance of molecular techniques. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Moro O, Suffredini E, Isopi M, Tosti ME, Schembri P, Scavia G. Quantitative Methods for the Prioritization of Foods Implicated in the Transmission of Hepatititis E to Humans in Italy. Foods 2021; 11:foods11010087. [PMID: 35010213 PMCID: PMC8750432 DOI: 10.3390/foods11010087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E is considered an emerging foodborne disease in Europe. Several types of foods are implicated in the transmission of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) to humans, in particular, pork and wild boar products. We developed a parametric stochastic model to estimate the risk of foodborne exposure to HEV in the Italian population and to rank the relevance of pork products with and without liver (PL and PNL, respectively), leafy vegetables, shellfish and raw milk in HEV transmission. Original data on HEV prevalence in different foods were obtained from a recent sampling study conducted in Italy at the retail level. Other data were obtained by publicly available sources and published literature. The model output indicated that the consumption of PNL was associated with the highest number of HEV infections in the population. However, the sensitivity analysis showed that slight variations in the consumption of PL led to an increase in the number of HEV infections much higher than PNL, suggesting that PL at an individual level are the top risky food. Uncertainty analysis underlined that further characterization of the pork products preparation and better assessment of consumption data at a regional level is critical information for fine-tuning the most risky implicated food items in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ornella Moro
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, National Institute of Health, 00161 Rome, Italy; (E.S.); (G.S.)
- Department of Mathematics, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Elisabetta Suffredini
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, National Institute of Health, 00161 Rome, Italy; (E.S.); (G.S.)
| | - Marco Isopi
- Department of Mathematics, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Maria Elena Tosti
- National Center for Global Health, National Institute of Health, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Pietro Schembri
- Regional Department for Health Activities and Epidemiological Observatory of the Sicilian Region, 90145 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Gaia Scavia
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, National Institute of Health, 00161 Rome, Italy; (E.S.); (G.S.)
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Kelbert L, Stephan R, Furtwaengler C, Pinillo JA, Morach M, Nüesch-Inderbinen M. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii, Hepatitis E Virus, and Salmonella Antibodies in Meat Juice Samples from Pigs at Slaughter in Switzerland. J Food Prot 2021; 84:1760-1764. [PMID: 34086887 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-21-183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Toxoplasma gondii, hepatitis E virus (HEV), and Salmonella are zoonotic foodborne pathogens that may be transmitted to humans through the consumption of raw or undercooked pork. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii, anti-HEV, and anti-Salmonella antibodies from healthy pigs at slaughter in Switzerland. From August to September 2020, the diaphragm muscle of Swiss fattening pigs was collected in three Swiss abattoirs from 188 farms. Two randomly chosen pig carcasses per farm were selected. On the basis of the slaughter data, we noted the production system and the canton of origin, comparing indoor (n = 120) and free-range (n = 68) farming and regional allocation. The meat juice of these samples was analyzed for pathogen-specific antibodies by using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. The seroprevalences were 1.3% for T. gondii, 71.8% for the HEV, and 5.3% for Salmonella, respectively. Comparing the origins, the results of many cantons were not meaningful due to the low number of samples. No regional accumulations were found for T. gondii and HEV. The results showed that 2.1% of the farms had least one T. gondii-seropositive animal, 80.3% had at least one HEV-seropositive animal, and 8.5% had at least one Salmonella-seropositive animal, respectively. The seropositivity of T. gondii was higher in free-range pigs than in indoor pigs, whereas anti-Salmonella antibodies were more common in pigs from indoor farming than in outdoor pigs. The seroprevalence of anti-HEV antibodies was similar in free-range and indoor farming pigs. Compared with studies from 2012, the seroprevalence of T. gondii has decreased, whereas the seroprevalence of the HEV has increased and is highly prevalent among fattening pigs in Switzerland. The low seroprevalence of Salmonella has remained stable in recent years. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucien Kelbert
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Stephan
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Juan Antonio Pinillo
- Office for Food Safety and Animal Welfare of Canton Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Marina Morach
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a cosmopolitan foodborne pathogen. The viral agent infects humans through the consumption of contaminated food (uncooked or undercooked). Most cases of infection are asymptomatic and for this reason, this pathology is considered underdiagnosed. Domestic and wild animals are considered natural reservoirs: that is, domestic pig, wild boar, sheep, goat, deer, rabbit, and so on. Therefore, various work categories are at risk: that is, veterinarians, farmers, hunters, slaughterhouse workers, and so on. In these last decades, researchers found a high percentage of positivity to the molecular viral detection in several food matrices included: ready-to-eat products, processed meat products, milk, and shellfish. This review aims to provide an international scenario regarding HEV ribonucleic acid (RNA) detection in several foodstuffs. From this investigative perspective, the study aims to highlight various gaps of the current knowledge about technologies treatments' impact on viral loads. The purpose was also to provide an innovative point of view "One Health"-based, pointing out the strategic role of environmental safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluigi Ferri
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Inspection, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Alberto Vergara
- Post-Graduate Specialization School in Food Inspection "G. Tiecco," Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Inspection, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
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Crotta M, Lavazza A, Mateus A, Guitian J. Viraemic pigs entering the food chain are the most likely source of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in pork meat: Modelling the fate of HEV during slaughtering of pigs. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Bosch A, Gkogka E, Le Guyader FS, Loisy-Hamon F, Lee A, van Lieshout L, Marthi B, Myrmel M, Sansom A, Schultz AC, Winkler A, Zuber S, Phister T. Foodborne viruses: Detection, risk assessment, and control options in food processing. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 285:110-128. [PMID: 30075465 PMCID: PMC7132524 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In a recent report by risk assessment experts on the identification of food safety priorities using the Delphi technique, foodborne viruses were recognized among the top rated food safety priorities and have become a greater concern to the food industry over the past few years. Food safety experts agreed that control measures for viruses throughout the food chain are required. However, much still needs to be understood with regard to the effectiveness of these controls and how to properly validate their performance, whether it is personal hygiene of food handlers or the effects of processing of at risk foods or the interpretation and action required on positive virus test result. This manuscript provides a description of foodborne viruses and their characteristics, their responses to stress and technologies developed for viral detection and control. In addition, the gaps in knowledge and understanding, and future perspectives on the application of viral detection and control strategies for the food industry, along with suggestions on how the food industry could implement effective control strategies for viruses in foods. The current state of the science on epidemiology, public health burden, risk assessment and management options for viruses in food processing environments will be highlighted in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Bosch
- University of Barcelona, Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, and Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety, Diagonal 643, 8028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Elissavet Gkogka
- Arla Innovation Centre, Arla R&D, Agro Food Park 19, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark,.
| | - Françoise S Le Guyader
- IFREMER, Environment and Microbiology Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21103, 44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Fabienne Loisy-Hamon
- bioMérieux, Centre Christophe Mérieux, 5 rue des berges, 38025 Grenoble, France.
| | - Alvin Lee
- Illinois Institute of Technology, Moffett Campus, 6502 South Archer Road, 60501-1957 Bedford Park, IL, United States.
| | - Lilou van Lieshout
- The International Life Sciences Institute, Av. E. Mounier 83/B.6, 1200 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Balkumar Marthi
- Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, 3133 AT Vlaardingen, The Netherlands; DaQsh Consultancy Services, 203, Laxmi Residency, Kothasalipeta, Visakhapatnam 530 002, India
| | - Mette Myrmel
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, P.O. Box 8146, 0033 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Annette Sansom
- Campden BRI Group, Station Road, Chipping Campden, GL55 6LD Gloucestershire, United Kingdom.
| | - Anna Charlotte Schultz
- National Food Institute Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 19, Building H, Room 204, 2860 Søborg, Denmark.
| | - Anett Winkler
- Cargill Deutschland GmbH, Cerestarstr. 2, 47809 Krefeld, Germany.
| | - Sophie Zuber
- Nestlé Research Centre, Institute of Food Safety and Analytical Science, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Box 44, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Trevor Phister
- PepsiCo Europe, Beaumont Park 4, Leycroft Road, LE4 1ET Leicester, United Kingdom.
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Moor D, Liniger M, Baumgartner A, Felleisen R. Screening of Ready-to-Eat Meat Products for Hepatitis E Virus in Switzerland. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2018; 10:263-271. [PMID: 29492902 PMCID: PMC6096950 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-9340-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Seroprevalence data for pig herds suggested that there must be a relevant reservoir for hepatitis E virus (HEV) in Switzerland. To know more about the viral presence in ready-to-eat meat products, we screened pork liver sausages and raw meat sausages from the Swiss retail market for the presence of HEV. Testing was performed with a detection method where the virus extraction step was optimized. As for the performance of the improved method, the mean recovery rate for the mengovirus process control was 24.4%, whereas for HEV-inoculated sample matrices between 10.4 and 100% were achieved. The limit of detection was about 1.56 × 103 and 1.56 × 102 genome copies per gram for liver sausages and raw meat sausages, respectively. In the screening programme, HEV-RNA was detected in 10 of total 90 (11.1%) meat products, 7 of 37 (18.9%) liver sausages, and 3 of 53 (5.7%) raw meat sausages. Virus loads of up to 5.54 log10 HEV genome copies per gram were measured. All sequences retrieved from positive samples belonged to HEV genotype 3. The significance of the presented work was a current overview of the HEV prevalence in ready-to-eat meat products on the Swiss retail marked and an improvement of the extraction efficiency of the HEV detection method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Moor
- Risk Assessment Division, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Schwarzenburgstrasse 155, Bern, 3003, Switzerland.
| | - Marianne Liniger
- Risk Assessment Division, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Schwarzenburgstrasse 155, Bern, 3003, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Baumgartner
- Risk Assessment Division, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Schwarzenburgstrasse 155, Bern, 3003, Switzerland
| | - Richard Felleisen
- Risk Assessment Division, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Schwarzenburgstrasse 155, Bern, 3003, Switzerland
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Randazzo W, Vasquez-García A, Aznar R, Sánchez G. Viability RT-qPCR to Distinguish Between HEV and HAV With Intact and Altered Capsids. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1973. [PMID: 30210465 PMCID: PMC6119771 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging pathogen showing a considerable increase in the number of reported cases in Europe mainly related to the ingestion of contaminated food. As with other relevant viral foodborne pathogens, real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is the gold standard for HEV detection in clinical, food, and environmental samples, but these procedures cannot discriminate between inactivated and potentially infectious viruses. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop a viability PCR method to discriminate between native, heat-, and high-pressure processing (HPP)-treated HEV using the hepatitis A virus (HAV) as a cultivable surrogate. To this end, different concentrations of viability markers (PMAxx and platinum chloride, PtCl4) were screened firstly on purified viral RNA using different RT-qPCR assays. Reductions of HEV RNA signals of >17.5, >15.0, and >15.5 quantification cycles (Cq) were reported for PtCl4 and 1.6, 2.9, and 8.4 Cq for PMAxx, clearly indicating a better performance of PtCl4 than PMAxx irrespective of the RT-qPCR assay used. The most efficient viability pretreatment (500 μM PtCl4 incubated at 5°C for 30 min) was then assessed on native, heat-, and HPP-treated HEV suspension. The optimized viability RT-qPCR discriminated successfully between native, heat-, and HPP-treated HEV, to different extents depending on the experimental conditions. In particular, approximately 2-log10 reduction was reported by PtCl4-RT-qPCR at both 72 and 95°C compared to the control. Additionally, both viability pretreatments were tested for HPP-treated HAV without success, while PtCl4-RT-qPCR completely eliminated (>5.6-log10 reduction) the RT-qPCR signals of HPP-treated HEV. Although this viability procedure may still overestimate infectivity, the PtCl4 pretreatment represents progress to better interpreting the quantification of intact HEV, and it could be included in molecular procedures used to quantify enteric viruses in food and environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Randazzo
- Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Andrea Vasquez-García
- Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rosa Aznar
- Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gloria Sánchez
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
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Randazzo W, Vásquez-García A, Bracho MA, Alcaraz MJ, Aznar R, Sánchez G. Hepatitis E virus in lettuce and water samples: A method-comparison study. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 277:34-40. [PMID: 29680694 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The hepatitis E virus (HEV), which is an increasing cause of acute viral hepatitis in Europe, is a zoonotic virus that is mainly transmitted through contaminated water, consumption of raw or undercooked meat from pigs or wild boar, blood transfusion, and organ transplantation. Although the role of HEV transmission through contaminated produce has not been confirmed, the presence of HEV has been reported in irrigation waters and in vegetables. The present study used a World Health Organization (WHO) international standard and clinical samples to evaluate the performance characteristics of three RT-qPCR assays for detection and quantification of HEV. Two of the evaluated assays provided good analytical sensitivity, as 250 international units (IU) per ml could be detected. Then, experiments focused on evaluating the elution conditions suitable for HEV release from vegetables, with the method proposed by the ISO 15216:2017 selected for evaluation in three types of fresh vegetables. The concentration method proposed by the ISO 15216:2017 combined with the RT-qPCR described by Schlosser et al. (2014) resulted in average HEV recoveries of 1.29%, 0.46%, and 3.95% in lettuce, spinach, and pepper, respectively, with an average detection limit of 1.47 × 105 IU/25 g. In naturally contaminated samples, HEV was detected in sewage only (10/14), while no detection was reported in lettuce (0/36) or in irrigation water samples (0/24).
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Randazzo
- Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Av. Dr. Moliner, 50, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain; Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, IATA-CSIC, Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Andrea Vásquez-García
- Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, 13635-900 Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria A Bracho
- Joint Research Unit in Infection and Public Health, FISABIO-Public Health - University of Valencia, Av. Catalunya, 21, 46020, Valencia, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Valencia, Spain
| | - María Jesús Alcaraz
- Microbiology Service, Hospital Clínico Universitario, Av. Blasco Ibañez, 17, 46010, Valencia, Spain
| | - Rosa Aznar
- Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Av. Dr. Moliner, 50, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain; Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, IATA-CSIC, Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gloria Sánchez
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, IATA-CSIC, Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
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Ricci A, Allende A, Bolton D, Chemaly M, Davies R, Fernandez Escamez PS, Herman L, Koutsoumanis K, Lindqvist R, Nørrung B, Robertson L, Ru G, Sanaa M, Simmons M, Skandamis P, Snary E, Speybroeck N, Ter Kuile B, Threlfall J, Wahlström H, Di Bartolo I, Johne R, Pavio N, Rutjes S, van der Poel W, Vasickova P, Hempen M, Messens W, Rizzi V, Latronico F, Girones R. Public health risks associated with hepatitis E virus (HEV) as a food-borne pathogen. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04886. [PMID: 32625551 PMCID: PMC7010180 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important infection in humans in EU/EEA countries, and over the last 10 years more than 21,000 acute clinical cases with 28 fatalities have been notified with an overall 10-fold increase in reported HEV cases; the majority (80%) of cases were reported from France, Germany and the UK. However, as infection in humans is not notifiable in all Member States, and surveillance differs between countries, the number of reported cases is not comparable and the true number of cases would probably be higher. Food-borne transmission of HEV appears to be a major route in Europe; pigs and wild boars are the main source of HEV. Outbreaks and sporadic cases have been identified in immune-competent persons as well as in recognised risk groups such as those with pre-existing liver damage, immunosuppressive illness or receiving immunosuppressive treatments. The opinion reviews current methods for the detection, identification, characterisation and tracing of HEV in food-producing animals and foods, reviews literature on HEV reservoirs and food-borne pathways, examines information on the epidemiology of HEV and its occurrence and persistence in foods, and investigates possible control measures along the food chain. Presently, the only efficient control option for HEV infection from consumption of meat, liver and products derived from animal reservoirs is sufficient heat treatment. The development of validated quantitative and qualitative detection methods, including infectivity assays and consensus molecular typing protocols, is required for the development of quantitative microbial risk assessments and efficient control measures. More research on the epidemiology and control of HEV in pig herds is required in order to minimise the proportion of pigs that remain viraemic or carry high levels of virus in intestinal contents at the time of slaughter. Consumption of raw pig, wild boar and deer meat products should be avoided.
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