Edible coatings minimize fat uptake in deep fat fried products: A review

Improving the physicochemical quality and oxidative stability of deep-fried pork meatballs by coating with chitosan grafted gallic acid

The objective of this research was to examine the effectiveness of chitosan (CH)-gallic acid (GA) conjugate (CH-g-GA) as an edible coating in improving the physicochemical properties and oxidative stability of deep-fat fried pork meatballs. The meatballs were coated with either CH alone, a combination of CH and GA, or CH-g-GA before being fried at 180 °C for 5 min. The viscosity of the coating solutions influenced the amount of coating picked up by the meatballs, with higher viscosity coatings showing increased pickup. The application of chitosan-based coatings in deep-fried meatballs resulted in a decrease in moisture loss and oil uptake, as well as decreased b* values and hardness, while maintaining consistent cooking yield. Furthermore, compared to the control group, the chitosan-based coatings treatment significantly increased the ratio of immobilized water and decreased the ratio of free water (P < 0.05), as well as effectively inhibited lipid oxidation in deep-fried meatballs (P < 0.05). Among the different coatings tested, CH-g-GA coating exhibited the highest effectiveness. The research findings suggest that the CH-g-GA edible coating has significant potential in enhancing the overall quality of deep-fried meatballs.

Effect of basil seed gum coating and ultrasound pretreatment on frying time, oil uptake, hardness, color indexes, and sensory properties of potato slices

Fried food products have low oil content with improved nutritional quality, higher crispiness, and better sensory attributes. Edible coatings can decrease the excessive oil uptake in deep-fat fried food products. Furthermore, ultrasound treatment before frying process decreased oil uptake of food products. So, in this study, the impact of gum edible coating and ultrasonic pretreatment (at two different power levels of 75 and 150 W) on the frying time of potato slices, and moisture percent, oil uptake, texture hardness, surface area change, color parameters (lightness, redness, yellowness, and total color change), and sensory attributes of fried potato slices were examined. Edible coating with basil seed gum (BSG) and ultrasonic pretreatment significantly increased the frying time of the slices (p < 0.05). The average moisture content of the fried slices changed from 49.48 % to 60.55 %, and was further increased by edible coating and ultrasonic treatment. The highest (26.92 %) and lowest (14.56 %) oil uptake were for the uncoated and coated-sonicated (150 W) fried potato slices, respectively. The ultrasound pretreatment significantly increased the hardness of fried potato slices (p < 0.05). The low and high intensity ultrasonic pretreatment (75 W and 150 W, respectively) significantly decreased the crust area change of fried potato slices (p < 0.05). The average lightness index of the fried samples changed from 63.30 to 71.58, and increased with increasing ultrasonic power. The minimum redness, yellowness, and total color change indexes were for the coated and high-power sonicated (150 W) samples, respectively. The highest appearance, odor, texture, flavor, and overall acceptance were for the coated and high-power sonicated (150 W) sample.

A review of hazards in meat products: Multiple pathways, hazards and mitigation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are stable carcinogens that are widely distributed in the environment and food, and humans are exposed to PAHs primarily through the respiratory tracts, dermal contact, and dietary intake. Meat products are an essential part of the human diet, and the formation of PAHs during meat processing is unavoidable. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of PAHs in meat products can be a contribution to the minimization of human exposure dose. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive description of the toxicological analysis of PAHs intake and the various production pathways. The distribution of different PAHs in various meat products, including poultry and aquatic products, is analyzed. The discussion focuses on controlling PAHs through the use of endogenous marinades and antioxidants as well as reducing exogenous particulate matter-PAHs attachment. In addition, potential strategies for PAHs reduction and possible directions for future research are proposed.

Formation of pores and bubbles and their impacts on the quality attributes of processed foods: A review

Pores and bubbles significantly influence the physical attributes (like texture, density, and structural integrity), organoleptic properties, and shelf life of processed foods. Hence, the quality of foods and their acceptance by the consumers could be influenced by the properties and prevalence of pores and bubbles within the food structure. Considering the importance of pores, this review aimed to comprehensively discuss the factors and mechanisms involved in the generation of pores and bubbles during the processing of different food products. Moreover, the characteristics and effects of pores on the properties of chocolates, cheeses, cereal-based foods (like cake, puffed grains, and pasta), dried, and fried products were discussed. The impacts of bubbles on the quality of foam-based products, foam creamers, and beverages were also explored. This review concludes that intrinsic factors (like food compositions, initial moisture content, and porosity) and extrinsic factors (like applied technologies, processing, and storage conditions) affect various properties of the pores and bubbles including their number, size, orientation, and distribution. These factors collectively shape the overall structure and quality of processed food products such as density, texture (hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness), and water holding capacity. The desirability or undesirability of pores and their characteristics depends on the type of products; hence, some practical hints were provided to mitigate their adverse effects or to enhance their formation in foods. For example, pores could increase the nutrient digestion and reduce the shelf life of the products by enhancing the risk of fat oxidation and microbial growth. In conclusion, this study provides a valuable resource for food scientists and industry professionals by discussing the effects of pores on food preservation, heat, and mass transfer (including oxygen, moisture, flavors, and nutrients). Understanding the dynamic changes in porosity during processing will be effective in customization of final product quality with desired attributes, ensuring tailored outcomes for specific applications.

Comparative effects of pectin and hydrolyzed pectin coating as pre-frying treatments on acrylamide formation in potato chips

This study aimed to compare the effects of pectin and hydrolyzed pectin coating as pre-frying treatments on acrylamide content and quality characteristics of fried potato chips. The hydrolyzed pectin with molecular weight (Mw) of 8.81 ± 0.49 kDa was obtained through partial degradation of pectin (Mw: 747.57 ± 6.73 kDa) using pectinase. Results showed that both pectin and hydrolyzed pectin coating significantly inhibited acrylamide formation and inhibition rates exceeded 90 %. Hydrolyzed pectin had stronger inhibitory activity against acrylamide formation than pectin, especially when the concentration of hydrolyzed pectin was >2 %, its inhibitory rate exceeded 95 %. Compared to pectin coating, hydrolyzed pectin coating endow fried potato chips with smaller browning, higher crispness, less moisture but higher oil content. Overall, hydrolyzed pectin had better application prospects than pectin in inhibiting acrylamide formation of fried potato chips.

The addition of resistant starch and protein to the batter reduces oil uptake and improves the quality of the fried batter-coated nuts

The batter compositions can affect the oil uptake and texture of fried batter-coated nuts. In this study, the oil uptake and quality of fried batter-coated peanuts and sunflower seeds added with resistant starch and protein were investigated. The results demonstrated that the addition of resistant starch increased the batter hardness and fracturability of the fried batter-coated peanuts by 34.36 % and 33.73 %, respectively. The oil content of fried batter-coated peanuts and sunflower seeds were decreased by 17.98 % and 15.69 %, respectively, with the addition of protein. The microstructure and roughness of the batter revealed that the batter added with protein became denser and uniform. Furthermore, the protein in the batter added with 6 % soy protein isolate had a high surface hydrophobicity. In summary, the addition of resistant starch and protein in batter will be a promising strategy for reducing the oil content and improving the quality of fried batter-coated nuts.

Dissecting Maillard reaction production in fried foods: Formation mechanisms, sensory characteristic attribution, control strategy, and gut homeostasis regulation

Foods rich in carbohydrates or fats undergo the Maillard reaction during frying, which promotes the color, flavor and sensory characteristics formation. In the meanwhile, Maillard reaction intermediates and advanced glycation end products (AGEs) have a negative impact on food sensory quality and gut homeostasis. This negative effect can be influenced by food composition and other processing factors. Whole grain products are rich in polyphenols, which can capture carbonyl compounds in Maillard reaction, and reduce the production of AGEs during frying. This review summarizes the Maillard reaction production intermediates and AGEs formation mechanism in fried food and analyzes the factors affecting the sensory formation of food. In the meanwhile, the effects of Maillard reaction intermediates and AGEs on gut homeostasis were summarized. Overall, the innovative processing methods about the Maillard reaction are summarized to optimize the sensory properties of fried foods while minimizing the formation of AGEs.

The influences of street food vendor frying equipment on the quality of frying oil

This study was initiated to determine the quality of fresh and used oil for street vendor fried food products in Harar City, Ethiopia. Using a purposive sample technique, 12 respondents were selected for the study. The study obtained a total of 12 oil samples, categorized as fresh, in-use, and discarded, from two distinct groups of respondents. Specifically, six samples were collected from vendors utilizing an electric fryer constructed from stainless steel, while the remaining six samples were acquired from vendors employing a pan heated by wood or charcoal.The moisture content of fresh, in-use, and discarded oil samples, among other physical characteristics of the samples obtained from two types of vendors, was examined and found to vary between 0.14 and 0.44%, 0.19 and 0.52%, and 0.25 and 0.75%, respectively. Comparably, the refractive indices of oil samples that were fresh, in use, and discarded were 1.4595-1.4686, 1.4670-1.4885, and 1.4810-1.4960, in that order. Furthermore, the ranges of viscosities for fresh oil, oil samples in use, and oil samples that were discarded were 57.15-76.94, 100-196.50, and 210.22-288.50 mPa, respectively. Chemical properties, including % free fatty acid for similar samples, range from 0.22 to 1.30, 1.12 2.54, and 1.38-3.66%, respectively. Peroxide values of fresh, in-use, and discarded oil samples, have a maximum value of 11.19 meq/kg, 42.90, and 57.60 meq/kg, respectively. The iodine value showed the highest value for the fresh oil sample, while the minimum was obtained under discarded oil sample. The result indicated that they used low-quality oil. The values obtained after frying for samples collected from vendors who used a pan fryer heated with charcoal or wood fire deviated significantly from the requirements, indicating that the palm oil used by those street vendors was unsafe to consume because it could endanger the consumers' health.

Oil Frying Processes and Alternative Flour Coatings: Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Sensory Parameters of Meat Products

The frying process changes can be desirable and undesirable, involving the physicochemical, nutritional, and sensory aspects, depending on the food and oil properties and the frying process. In this context, alternative flours emerge as a strategy for adding value to the food since they are rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals, contributing to the variability of ingredients and the full use of food, including residues such as seeds and husks. This narrative review aims to gather current scientific data addressing the alternative flour coatings on breaded meat, mainly chicken, products to evaluate the effects on fried products' nutritional value, physicochemical parameters, and sensory attributes. Scopus, Science Direct, Springer, and Web of Science search bases were used. This review showed that alternative flours (from cereals, legumes, fruits, and vegetables) used as coatings increase water retention and reduce oil absorption during frying, increase fibers and micronutrient content, which are not present in sufficient quantities in commonly used flours due to the refining process. These flours also reduce gluten consumption by sensitive individuals in addition to favoring the development of desirable sensory characteristics to attract consumers. Therefore, frying processes in oil promote a reduction in humidity, an increase in oil absorption and energy content, and a decrease in vitamin content. In this context, coatings based on alternative flours can reduce these adverse effects of the frying process.

Effects of starch hydration properties on the batter properties and oil absorption of fried crust and battered ham sausages

Water plays an important role in deep-frying. To assess the effects of water on oil absorption by fried crust and battered ham sausages (FCBHSs), we selected four starch types with different hydration properties: tapioca starch (TS), freeze-thawed tapioca starch (FTS), carboxymethyl tapioca starch (CMTS), and carboxymethyl freeze-thawed tapioca starch (CM-FTS). CMTS had the best hydration properties, followed by CM-FTS, FTS, and TS, respectively. CM-FTS with its medium hydration properties strengthened batter properties which reduced FCBHSs oil absorption. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance analysis revealed that CM-FTS increased the percentages of bound and semi-bound water in the batter, thereby enhancing water retention and delaying water loss during deep-frying. Analyses of protein particle size distribution, zeta potential, disulfide bonding and microstructure revealed that CM-FTS promotes protein aggregation and the formation of a protein network structure, leading to a denser internal structure, which inhibits oil absorption. Additionally, differential scanning calorimetry analysis indicated that CM-FTS enhances the batter's thermal stability of batter, thereby rendering it more resistant to frying. However, the use of CMTS, with its strong hydration properties increased FCBHSs oil absorption. In conclusion, we propose that suitable modification of starch's hydration properties can aid in preparing deep-fried battered food characterized by low oil absorption.

Recent Approaches to the Formulation, Uses, and Impact of Edible Coatings on Fresh Peach Fruit

Peaches are among the most well-known fruits in the world due to their appealing taste and high nutritional value. Peach fruit, on the other hand, has a variety of postharvest quality issues like chilling injury symptoms, internal breakdown, weight loss, decay, shriveling, and over-ripeness, which makes a challenging environment for industries and researchers to develop sophisticated strategies for fruit quality preservation and extending shelf life. All over the world, consumers prefer excellent-quality, high-nutritional-value, and long-lasting fresh fruits that are free of chemicals. An eco-friendly solution to this issue is the coating and filming of fresh produce with natural edible materials. The edible coating utilization eliminates the adulteration risk, presents fruit hygienically, and improves aesthetics. Coatings are used in a way that combines food chemistry and preservation technology. This review, therefore, examines a variety of natural coatings (proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and composite) and their effects on the quality aspects of fresh peach fruit, as well as their advantages and mode of action. From this useful information, the processors could benefit in choosing the suitable edible coating material for a variety of fresh peach fruits and their application on a commercial scale. In addition, prospects of the application of natural coatings on peach fruit and gaps observed in the literature are identified.

Dual functional roles of nutritional additives in nutritional fortification and safety of thermally processed food: Potential, limitations, and perspectives

The Maillard reaction (MR) has been established to be a paramount contributor to the characteristic sensory property of thermally processed food products. Meanwhile, MR also gives rise to myriads of harmful byproducts (HMPs) (e.g., advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and acrylamide). Nutritional additives have attracted increasing attention in recent years owing to their potential to simultaneously improve nutritional quality and attenuate HMP formation. In this manuscript, a brief overview of various nutritional additives (vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, amino acids, dietary fibers, and miscellaneous micronutrients) in heat-processed food is provided, followed by a summary of the formation mechanisms of AGEs and acrylamide highlighting the potential crosstalk between them. The main body of the manuscript is on the capability of nutritional additives to modulate AGE and acrylamide formation besides their traditional roles as nutritional enhancers. Finally, limitations/concerns associated with their use to attenuate dietary exposure to HMPs and future perspectives are discussed. Literature data support that through careful control of the addition levels, certain nutritional additives possess promising potential for simultaneous improvement of nutritional value and reduction of AGE and acrylamide content via multiple action mechanisms. Nonetheless, there are some major concerns that may limit their wide applications for achieving such dual functions, including influence on sensory properties of food products, potential overestimation of nutrition enhancement, and introduction of hazardous alternative reaction products or derivatives. These could be overcome through comprehensive assay of dose-response relationships and systematic evaluation of the diverse combinations from the same and/or different categories of nutritional additives to establish synergistic mixtures.

Effect of High-Protein and High-Fiber Breaders on Oil Absorption and Quality Attributes in Chicken Nuggets

Consumption of fried foods is associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular and other diseases; therefore, consumers are looking to reduce fat intake. We evaluated the effect of high-protein breaders and fiber on oil absorption and quality attributes in chicken nuggets, using flour blends (wheat, chickpea, coconut, oil-quinoa-chia), soy protein concentrate, and brewers' spent grain. We evaluated the chemical composition, water and oil retention capacity (ORC), viscosity profile, and flour particle size distribution, along with the developed breaders (Formulation 1 and 2) and a commercial breader (CB), in addition to texture, color, fat, and moisture contents of the fried chicken nuggets prepared with the developed breaders and the CB. The total dietary fiber content (TDF) of the nuggets breaded with only Formulation-1 and CB was determined. Nuggets breaded with Formulation-1 showed lower (p ≤ 0.05) ORC, better moisture retention (67.6%), and more TDF (4.5% vs. 2.3%, p ≤ 0.05) compared to CB-breaded nuggets. Nuggets with Formulation-1 showed the expected texture and color characteristics for fried products. Formulation-1 has the potential to be used as a breader due to its moisture, reduced ORC, and the texture and color it imparts to the fried nuggets, providing higher amounts of nutrients and possible health benefits.

A review on the frying process: Methods, models and their mechanism and application in the food industry

Frying is one of the most popular and traditional processes used in the food industry and food services to manufacture products that are high in quality and with unique sensory characteristics. The most common method of frying is deep-fat frying, used worldwide due to its distinct flavor profile and sensory aspects, which leads to physio-chemical changes at both macro and micro levels. One of the major concerns with deep-fried foods is their high oil content, and a variety of metabolic disorders can be caused by overconsumption of these foods, including heart disease, obesity, and high cholesterol. Due to their enticing organoleptic properties with their delicious flavor, pleasing mouthfeel, and unique taste, making them irresistible, it is also responsible for undesirable and unacceptable characteristics for consumers. Oil absorption can be reduced by developing novel frying methods that limit the amount of oil in products, producing products with fewer calories and oil while maintaining similar quality, flavor, and edibility. In addition, different pretreatments and post-frying treatments are applied to achieve a synergistic effect. The transfer of mass and heat occurs simultaneously during frying, which helps to understand the mechanism of oil absorption in fried food. Researchers have discovered that prolonged heating of oils results in polar compounds such as polymers, dimers, free fatty acids, and acrylamide, which can alter metabolism and cause cancer. To reduce the oil content in fried food, innovative frying methods have been developed without compromising its quality which also has improved their effect on human health, product quality, and energy efficiency. The aim is to replace the conventional frying process with novel frying methods that offer fried food-like properties, higher nutritional value, and ease of use by replacing the conventional frying process. In the future, it might be possible to optimize frying technologies to substantially reduce fried foods' oil content. This review focuses on a detailed understanding of different frying techniques and attempts to focus on innovative frying techniques such as vacuum frying, microwave cooking, and hot-air frying that have shown a better potential to be used as an alternative to traditional frying.

A Review on Edible Coatings and Films: Advances, Composition, Production Methods, and Safety Concerns

Food is a crucial source for the endurance of individuals, and quality concerns of consumers are being raised with the progression of time. Edible coatings and films (ECFs) are increasingly important in biobased packaging because they have a prime role in enhancing the organoleptic characteristics of the food products and minimizing the spread of microorganisms. These sustainable ingredients are crucial for a safer and healthier environment. These are created from proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, plasticizers, emulsifiers, and active substances. These are eco-friendly since made from innocuous material. Nanocomposite films are also beginning to be developed and support networks of biological polymers. Antioxidant, flavoring, and coloring compounds can be employed to improve the quality, wellbeing, and stability of packaged foods. Gelatin-enhanced fruit and vegetable-based ECFs compositions have the potential to produce biodegradable films. Root plants like cassava, potato, and sweet potato have been employed to create edible films and coatings. Achira flour, amylum, yam, ulluco, and water chestnut have all been considered as novel film-forming ingredients. The physical properties of biopolymers are influenced by the characteristics, biochemical confirmation, compatibility, relative humidity, temperature, water resistance, and application procedures of the components. ECFs must adhere to all regulations governing food safety and be generally recognized as safe (GRAS). This review covers the new advancements in ECFs regarding the commitment of novel components to the improvement of their properties. It is expected that ECFs can be further investigated to provide innovative components and strategies that are helpful for global financial issues and the environment.

Changes in fat uptake, color, texture, and sensory properties of Aloe vera gel-coated eggplant rings during deep-fat frying process

There is a widespread use of deep-fat frying in both domestic and industrial sections, and deep-fat fried foods are extremely popular due to their taste, color, and crispy texture. Human health can be, however, seriously compromised by the excessive consumption of oil, especially saturated fats and trans fatty acids. The use of hydrocolloids in inhibiting oil absorption has garnered considerable attention. This study was therefore aimed to lower the oil absorption in eggplant rings during the deep-fat frying process with the aid of Aloe vera gel coating. The effects of gel concentration (0%, 50%, and 100%), frying time (2, 5, and 8 min), and frying temperature (160°C and 180°C) on the oil uptake, moisture content, texture, color, and sensory properties of the eggplant rings were evaluated. The gel coating led to a decrease in oil uptake (up to 50%), hardness (up to 0.98-fold), ΔE (up to 0.89-fold), and overall acceptance (up to 0.85-fold), and an increase in moisture content (up to 1.47-fold) and lightness (up to 1.14-fold) of the samples. The frying time and temperature also influenced the physiochemical and sensory properties of the eggplant rings. The sample coated with 50% gel and fried at 180°C for 8 min had lower oil content and water loss with the highest acceptance rate in terms of taste, color, odor, texture, and appearance. The Aloe vera gel could be, therefore, a good candidate with high nutritional and economic value to reduce oil uptake in fried food products.

Sodium alginate edible coating to reduce oil absorption of French fries with maintaining overall acceptability: Based on a water replacement mechanism

The effect of sodium alginate (SA) coating on the oil content and quality of fries was evaluated, and the inhibitory mechanism of SA on oil absorption was analyzed based on the water replacement theory. Compared to uncoated samples, the penetrated surface oil (PSO), structure oil (STO), and total oil (TO) contents, a*, and b* of coated fries decreased, whereas moisture content, L* and hardness increased with no significant difference revealed by sensory evaluation of all samples. The water contact angle of the films correlated negatively with the water content and hardness of the fries. In contrast, it correlated positively with PSO, STO, and TO contents. The TO content of fries with 1 % SA film which had a compact microstructure, was the lowest, reduced by 52.5 % compared to the control sample. SA coating reduces the pores and roughness on the fries' surface, which inhibits the oil from penetrating into the samples. SA coating decreased the T₂₁, T₂₂, and pores of the starch, and increased the P_2b, P₂₁, relative crystallinity, and ΔH significantly (P < 0.05). Therefore, SA coating inhibits the oil absorption in fries by reducing water evaporation which is attributed to the increase in double helices and crystallinity of starch.

Application of cellulose- and chitosan-based edible coatings for quality and safety of deep-fried foods

Excessive oil uptake and formation of carcinogens, such as acrylamide (AA), heterocyclic amines (HCAs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), during deep-frying are a potential threat for food quality and safety. Cellulose- and chitosan-based edible coatings have been widely applied to deep-fried foods for reduction of oil uptake because of their barrier property to limit oil ingress, and their apparent inhibition of AA formation. Cellulose- and chitosan-based edible coatings have low negative impacts on sensory attributes of fried foods and are low cost, nontoxic, and nonallergenic. They also show great potential for reducing HCAs and PAHs in fried foods. The incorporation of nanoparticles improves mechanical and barrier properties of cellulose and chitosan coatings, which may also contribute to reducing carcinogens derived from deep-frying. Considering the potential for positive health outcomes, cellulose- and chitosan-based edible coatings could be a valuable method for the food industry to improve the quality and safety of deep-fried foods.

Utilization of Sunflower Oil-based Oleogel forDeep-Fried Coated Chicken Products

This study aimed to examine the effect of using oleogel as a frying medium on the quality of coated and deep-fried chicken products. Sunflower oil-based oleogels prepared with 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2% carnauba wax were produced for deep frying of coated chicken products and were compared to sunflower and commercial frying oil based on palm oil. The increased carnauba wax concentration in the oleogel decreased the pH, oil, oil absorbance and TBARS value of coated chicken (p < 0.05). Samples deepfried with oleogels containing 1.5% and 2% carnauba wax had the lowest pH values. In addition, since the oil absorption during deep-frying was significantly reduced in these groups (1.5 and 2%), the fat contents of coated products were also lower (p < 0.05). The use of oleogel as a frying medium did not cause a significant change in the color values of the coated chicken products. However, the increased carnauba wax concentration in the oleogel increased the hardness of coated chicken (p < 0.05). As a result, sunflower oilbased oleogels with a carnauba wax content of 1.5% and higher which is healthier in terms of saturated fat content can be used as frying media and can be improved the quality of coated and deep-fried chicken products.

New research development on trans fatty acids in food: Biological effects, analytical methods, formation mechanism, and mitigating measures

The trans fatty acids (TFAs) in food are mainly generated from the ruminant animals (meat and milk) and processed oil or oil products. Excessive intake of TFAs (>1% of total energy intake) caused more than 500,000 deaths from coronary heart disease and increased heart disease risk by 21% and mortality by 28% around the world annually, which will be eliminated in industrially-produced trans fat from the global food supply by 2023. Herein, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological effects, analytical methods, formation and mitigation measures of TFAs in food. Especially, the research progress on the rapid, easy-to-use, and newly validated analytical methods, new formation mechanism, kinetics, possible mitigation mechanism, and new or improved mitigation measures are highlighted. We also offer perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and new directions for future development, which will contribute to the advances in TFAs research.

Impact of different processing techniques on reduction in oil content in deep-fried donuts when using kombucha cellulose hydrolysates

To evaluate the efficiency of the oil-reducing properties of kombucha cellulose, enzymolysis and microwave-assisted enzymolysis methods were developed. The water-holding capacity of the kombucha cellulose hydrolysates formed by these two methods was higher than for the intact kombucha cellulose, while the oil-holding capacity was lower. The hydrolysates of kombucha cellulose and the intact kombucha cellulose were used to make deep-fried donuts. During this process, kombucha cellulose hydrolysates were added instead of 2% flour, and from the results, the oil content of the donut decreased significantly from ~28 to 15%, and the reduction was not related to the processing of the donut. The hardness and brittleness of all samples showed no significant change, and these samples had similar internal micro-structures, confirming texture profile analysis. In vitro digestion results suggested that there would be no adverse health effects from substituting kombucha cellulose hydrolysates in the deep-fried donut formula.

Identifying key factors and strategies for reducing oil content in fried instant noodles

Fried instant noodles have become a popular instant food in recent years, favored by consumers for their unique flavor and taste. Unfortunately, the oil content of instant noodles is generally high, so the rise of fat-related diseases poses a major health issue. From the perspective of the cost of instant noodle manufacturers and the health of consumers, it is of great significance to reduce the oil content of instant noodles. The aim of this review article is to provide an overview of the main factors, such as raw materials and production processes, affecting oil content in instant noodles in order to suggest specific strategies to reduce the oil content in the end product. From the literature reviewed, adding acetylated potato starch/carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, or preharvest-dropped apple powder in the noodle formulation could be a better choice to reduce oil uptake by 5%-20%. Instant noodles with lower oil content can be produced using novel alternative frying technologies, including microwave and vacuum frying. The proper management of the production processes and the implementation of enhancement strategies may result in a reduction of oil content in the end product.

Characterization and application of a coating of starch extracted from avocado (Persea americana L. cv. Hass) seeds as an alternative to reduce acrylamide content in French fries

The starch extracted from avocado (Persea americana L. cv. Hass) seeds was characterized and used in the preparation of an edible coating to reduce the oil uptake and acrylamide content in French fries. Starch characterization was carried out using Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry, gelatinization, and scanning electron microscopy. Uncoated (UFF) and coated (CFF) French fries were compared and evaluated for moisture, water activity (Aw), fat, color, firmness, acrylamide content, and sensorial analysis. The extracted starch presented a high crystalline structure and good stability to mechanical work and heat treatments. The CFF French fries showed significantly higher Aw, color parameter a*, but lower luminosity and acrylamide content than UFF samples. Similarly, the CFF samples tended to decrease the fat content, although without statistical differences. Avocado seed starch can be an economical and technically feasible alternative to the food industry as an effective coating to reduce acrylamide content in French fries.

Effect of lyophilized chive (Allium wakegi Araki) supplementation to the frying batter mixture on quality attributes of fried chicken breast and tenderloin

Batter mixtures for frying chicken breasts and tenderloins were supplemented with different amounts (0, 3, 5, and 7%) of lyophilized chives (Allium wakegi Araki). The viscosity of the batter mixture, crispness of the fried batter, fat and ash contents, caloric value, coating pickup, and frying yield were directly proportional, whereas the lightness, redness, yellowness, and pH were inversely proportional, to the amount of lyophilized chives in the batter. Principal component analysis revealed that the aromatic profiles varied between the 0%, 3%, and 5% lyophilized chive-supplemented groups in both the breast and tenderloin samples. However, the aromatic profiles of the 7% and 5% lyophilized chive-supplemented samples were similar. The taste profile of the 7% lyophilized chive-supplemented sample was different from those of the 0%, 3%, or 5% lyophilized chive-supplemented samples. The sensory characteristics of the 5% lyophilized chive-supplemented breast samples and 3% or 5% lyophilized chive-supplemented tenderloin samples received the best scores by sensory panelists.

The Effect of Batter Characteristics on Protein-Aided Control of Fat Absorption in Deep-Fried Breaded Fish Nuggets

Soy protein (SP), egg white protein (EP), and whey protein (WP) at 6% w/w were individually incorporated into the batter of a wheat starch (WS) and wheat gluten (WG) blend (11:1 w/w ratio). Moisture adsorption isotherms of WS and proteins and the viscosity, rheological behavior, and calorimetric properties of the batters were measured. Batter-breaded fish nuggets (BBFNs) were fried at 170 °C for 40 s followed by 190 °C for 30 s, and pick-up of BBFNs, thermogravimetric properties of crust, and fat absorption were determined. The moisture absorption capacity was the greatest for WS, followed by WG, SP, EP, and WP. The addition of SP significantly increased the viscosity and shear moduli (G″, G') of batter and pick-up of BBFNs, while EP and WP exerted the opposite effect (p < 0.05). SP, EP, and WP raised WS gelatinization and protein denaturation temperatures and crust thermogravimetry temperature, but decreased enthalpy change (ΔH) and oily characteristics of fried BBFNs. These results indicate that hydrophilicity and hydration activity of the added proteins and their interactions with batter matrix starch and gluten reinforced the batter and the thermal stability of crust, thereby inhibiting fat absorption of the BBFNs during deep-fat frying.

Applications of Microbial Exopolysaccharides in the Food Industry

Exopolysaccharides (EPSs) are high molecular weight polysaccharides secreted by microorganisms in the surrounding environment. In addition to the favorable benefits of these compounds for microorganisms, including microbial cell protection, they are used in various food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Investigating the functional and health-promoting characteristics of microbial EPS, identifying the isolation method of these valuable compounds, and their applications in the food industry are the objectives of this study. EPS are used in food industries as thickeners, gelling agents, viscosifiers, and film formers. The antioxidative, anticancer, prebiotic, and cholesterol-lowering effects of some of these compounds make it possible to use them in functional food production.

The influence of edible coatings and natural antioxidants on fresh-cut potato quality, stability and oil uptake after deep fat frying

The effect of four edible hydrocolloid coatings (carboxymethyl cellulose, chitosan, pectin and gum arabic) on fresh-cut potato's colour, pH and moisture content during storage was studied. Possibility of coating enrichment with natural olive leaf extract and sodium ascorbate was also evaluated. Coatings scored as the best ones straight after coating or during storage for 7 days at 10 ± 1 °C, were used for deep fat frying of potato. Chitosan was shown to cause significant decrease in pH and browning of potato strips. Pectin was classified as good coating alone but in combination with olive leaf extract showed lower quality parameters of fresh-cut samples compared to control. Only carboxymethyl cellulose and gum arabic itself or enriched with olive leaf extract or sodium ascorbate were shown not to affect colour, pH and moisture during storage. Moreover, these coatings significantly reduced fat content in deep fat fried potato strips, without influence on L*, b*, whiteness index (WI), and ΔE.

Effects of Methyl Cellulose and Soybean Protein Isolate Coating on Amount of Oil and Chemical Hazards in Chinese Fried Dough Cake

ABSTRACT

Fat-related diseases and chemical hazards produced during the frying process pose a major threat to human health. Coatings have been used as a practical method to reduce the amount of oil and chemical hazards associated with fried foods. Methyl cellulose (MC) and soy protein isolate were used as coating materials to pretreat Chinese fried dough cake (CFDC) before frying. The 1.5% MC concentration was the best choice for coating to simultaneously lower oil and chemical hazards in CFDC. The CFDC prepared using 1.5% MC had 11.3% oil, 73.70 μg/kg acrylamide, 0.15 mg KOH/100 kg acid, 8.54 mmol/kg peroxide, p-anisidine value of 6.36, 0.36 μg/g malondialdehyde, 0.13 μg/g 4-hydroxy-2-(E)-hexenal (HHE), 0.51 μg/g 4-hydroxy-2-(E)-nonenal (HNE), and 4,272 μg/kg glycidyl ester. In contrast, the uncoated CFDC had 19.2% oil, 117.55 μg/kg acrylamide, 0.25 mg KOH/100 kg acid, 14.40 mmol/kg peroxide, p-anisidine value of 9.76, 0.63 μg/g malondialdehyde, 0.23 μg/g HHE, 0.86 μg/g HNE, and 5,758 μg/kg glycidyl ester. MC and soy protein isolate enhanced the oil barrier of the coating film, which effectively reduced the heat transfer coefficients, oil transfer, oil oxidation, and chemical hazards in the CFDC. Our work on this edible coating contributes to methods for control of oil and chemical hazards in fried foods.

HIGHLIGHTS

Frying Conditions, Methyl Cellulose, and K-Carrageenan Edible Coatings: Useful Strategies to Reduce Oil Uptake in Fried Mushrooms

Despite being widely consumed and appreciated, fried food has the unhealthy characteristic of high final oil content. Therefore, alternatives to reduce the oil uptake of fried products are being researched. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 0.5% methyl cellulose and 0.5% kappa-carrageenan edible films, as well as different frying procedure parameters, such as oil temperatures (from 150 to 180 °C), and thickness of slices (from 2 to 6 mm) on the oil uptake of whole fried mushrooms and their parts. The results showed a lower final oil content when lower frying temperature and thicker slices are applied. Hydrocolloid suspensions of methyl cellulose and kappa-carrageenan, used as edible coatings, were effective at reducing moisture evaporation and, consequently, oil uptake independently of the hydrocolloid temperature. A reduction of 10–22% in the final oil content was achieved. Adjusting the frying parameters and the use of methyl cellulose or kappa-carrageenan as an edible coating were useful strategies to reduce the oil uptake in fried products.

Edible films and coatings: properties for the selection of the components, evolution through composites and nanomaterials, and safety issues

Edible films and coatings, despite their practical applications, have only entered the food industry in the last decade. Their main functions are to protect the food products from mechanical damage and from physical, chemical and microbiological deteriorative changes. The ingredients used for their formation are polysaccharides, proteins and lipids, in individual or combined formulations. The edible films and coatings have already been applied on various food products, such as fruits, vegetables, meat products, seafood products, cheese, baked products and deep fat fried products. The techniques for their application on foods are of particular interest. Nowadays, composite edible films and coatings are also being studied, based on combinations of the properties of individual components. In addition to conventional materials, new ones, such as nanomaterials, are being investigated, aiming to enhance the resulting properties. However, before the incorporation of new materials to films and coatings, they must be thoroughly checked according to the legislation, to assure their lawful use. This review covers the recent developments on the edible films and coatings area in terms of the contribution of novel constituting materials to the improvement of their properties.

Effects of preliminary treatment by ultrasonic and convective air drying on the properties and oil absorption of potato chips

The initial water content was closely related to the oil absorption and properties of fried food. The effects of convective air drying (D) and ultrasound combined convective air drying (UD) pretreatment on the properties and oil absorption of potato chips have been investigated. The oil contents were 48.48 ± 1.42% and 39.78 ± 3.08% for control samples (without D and UD pretreatment) and ultrasound treated samples (without D pretreatment). When the mass loss of samples was reached the proportion of quality to without drying samples quality 80%, 50%, and 20%, the oil contents of D pretreated samples decreased by 12.67%, 28.24% and 62.07%, respectively, and the oil contents of UD pretreated samples decreased by 7.42%, 24.10% and 51.76% (compared to the ultrasound pretreated samples ), respectively. By applying ultrasound before frying, more cracks and pores were exhibited of fried potato chips. After drying process, potato chips exhibited less disruption of cell structure and less deformation of cell irregular. The hardness of the D and UD pretreated potato chips increased with the extension of drying. The FTIR analysis stated the formation of amylose-lipid complexes. This research could contribute to providing evidence for the development and application of the pretreatment strategies.

Inhibitory effect of polysaccharides on acrylamide formation in chemical and food model systems

The inhibitory effect of three polysaccharides (alginate, pectin and chitosan) on acrylamide formation was investigated in chemical and fried potato food model systems, under two heating regimes (heating block and microwave). In the chemical system, acrylamide formation followed a second order reaction kinetic behaviour. Activation energies (Ea) were 17.85 and 110.78 kJ/mol for conventional and microwave heating respectively. Acrylamide content was highest at 180 °C after 60 min conventional heating (27.88 ng/ml) and 3.5 fold higher after microwave heating for 60 s (800 W, 98.02 ng/ml). Alginate (0.3% w/v) and pectin (0.2% w/v) solutions efficiently inhibited acrylamide formation by 65% and 56% respectively under conventional heating, and 36% and 30% respectively under microwave heating. Coating potatoes with alginate, pectin and chitosan (1% w/v) prior to frying dramatically inhibited acrylamide formation by 54%, 51% and 41% respectively. However only alginate and pectin slightly reduced acrylamide by 5% in the microwave.