A comparison of dietarian identity profiles between vegetarians and vegans

The Veg∗n Eating Motives Inventory Plus (VEMI+): A measure of health, environment, animal rights, disgust, social, pandemic and zoonotic diseases, and farm workers' rights motives

Health, environmental concern, and animal rights are established motives for reduced meat consumption that can be measured by the Vegetarian Eating Motives Inventory (VEMI). This preregistered study aimed to expand the VEMI to include four less-studied motives: disgust, social, concern about zoonotic diseases and pandemics, and concern for workers' rights. We had three objectives: to combine the seven motives into a comprehensive model, to test if the VEMI+ scales function equivalently across omnivore and vegan groups, and to validate and differentiate these motives against external measures and meat reduction appeals. In samples of 731 omnivores and 731 vegans (total N = 1,462), we found support for the measurement invariance of a seven-factor structure across groups and created a scale with reliable measures for each dimension (ω total between 0.82 and 0.97). Vegans scored higher overall, with substantially higher scores on environmental concern, animal rights, disgust, and zoonotic disease concerns, while omnivores had slightly higher scores on health, social, and workers' rights scales. Scale scores had expected correlations with criterion measures and differentially predicted support for motive-tailored appeals. This study enhances our understanding of dietary motivations and provides a valuable tool for future research.

From Pixels to Palate: Communication around #vegan on Instagram and its relation with eating intentions

Social media is an increasingly important yet understudied context for eating behaviors in general and veganism in particular. In four studies, we first explored and described the information environment the platform Instagram presents related to veganism. Second, we examined how engaging with this environment is associated with offline eating intentions via psychological mechanisms. We scraped datasets of Instagram posts tagged with #vegan (44,316 posts in total) and employed network analysis with their hashtags (Study 1), as well as clustering with images and sentiment analysis with texts (Study 2). Studies 3 (N = 117) and 4 (N = 251) used online surveys to investigate associations between different forms of engaging with social media content, psychological constructs, and offline eating intentions. Posts about veganism were frequently related to food, health and fitness, cosmetics, and photography. Images most often depicted food (34.7%), non-food products (30.4%), people (7.9%), and animals (2.0%). The sentiment of most posts was positive. Being exposed to Instagram content about veganism was more strongly and consistently associated with eating intentions than active forms of engagement. Attitude and self-identity emerged as the most relevant mechanisms for these effects. Food is the most prominent yet not sole topic among posts about veganism on Instagram, and hashtags used in this context partially relate to motives for following a vegan diet. Exposure to this information environment might influence offline eating decisions via psychological mechanisms. With growing usage and its potential influence, social media should receive increasing attention in (health) psychological research and practice.

Psychological differences and similarities between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians. Motivation, knowledge, vegan literacy - and cheese

Introduction

Although vegan and vegetarian diets and lifestyles differ significantly from each other, among other things, notably in their respective consequences regarding animal welfare and their ecological impact, vegans and vegetarians are often grouped together and usually compared to omnivores in psychological research. Considering that vegans and vegetarians often share similar motives for their lifestyle choices, namely animal and environmental issues, the question arises why similar motives lead to different conclusions and correspondingly different behaviors, most notably, of course, that vegetarians consume animal-derived foods such as cheese or milk while vegans do not consume animal-derived products (e.g., food, cosmetic products). This is why this study explored the psychological differences between vegans, vegetarians, and prospective vegans - the latter group being located in an intermediate, transitionary position. Focusing on the motivational, affective and cognitive components of dietary transition and participants' adherence to eating patterns, reasons for said patterns, possible hinderances to becoming vegan, the role of participants' social environments, and the impact of various misconceptions regarding the feasibility of a vegan diet in everyday life were all explored.

Methods

An observational study was conducted via online questionnaire (1420 participants).

Results

Significant differences were found between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians, especially concerning their knowledge of issues pertaining to their respective lifestyles.

Discussion

The critical role of knowledge is invoked as an explanation as to why vegans and vegetarians display different behaviors although they share a similar motivation. Thus, in this study the concept of vegan literacy is introduced. Additionally, the distinctive role of cheese is explored, discussing possible indications of its potentially addictive nature and, consequently, the importance of cheese as a hindering factor for pursuing a vegan diet.

Similarities and differences between vegetarians and vegans in motives for meat-free and plant-based diets

Plant-based diets are quickly gaining popularity for their benefits to animal welfare, the environment, and public health. Compared to meat-eaters, meat-abstainers such as vegetarians and vegans are especially motivated by animal rights and the environment. However, little is known about the motivational and psychological factors that distinguish vegetarians from vegans, and what prevents vegetarians to shift towards a fully plant-based diet. In a sample of vegans (n = 335) and vegetarians (n = 182), we investigated a) motives for reducing or quitting meat consumption and b) motives for reducing or quitting animal product (dairy and egg products) consumption, as well as moral psychological and social-contextual factors that may explain potential differences. Results demonstrate that vegetarians and vegans tend to be similar in their motives to abstain from meat consumption and are most strongly motivated by animal rights. However, vegetarians are less motivated by health, environmental, and especially animal rights for dairy/egg reduction compared to meat reduction and compared to vegans. Lower moral concern for animals, stronger beliefs in human supremacy over animals, and heightened veganism threat among vegetarians (vs. vegans) partly explained why vegetarians were less strongly motivated by animal rights for dairy/egg reduction. Human supremacy beliefs also explained differences between vegetarians and vegans in health and environmental motives for dairy/egg reduction. Furthermore, vegetarians reported significantly less social support for plant-based diets and perceived more practical barriers to plant-based diets than vegans. These findings reveal meaningful differences in the motivational and psychological profiles of vegetarians and vegans and highlight the value of distinguishing between motives for meat-free diets and motives for plant-based diets.

Masculinity, Meat, and Veg*nism: A Scoping Review

Men historically consume more meat than women, show fewer intentions to reduce meat consumption, and are underrepresented among vegans and vegetarians. Eating meat strongly aligns with normative masculinities, decisively affirming that "real men" eat meat and subordinating men who choose to be veg*n (vegan or vegetarian). The emergence of meat alternatives and increasing environmental concerns may contest these long-standing masculine norms and hierarchies. The current scoping review addresses the research question what are the connections between masculinities and men's attitudes and behaviors toward meat consumption and veg*nism? Using keywords derived from two key concepts, "men" and "meat," 39 articles were selected and analyzed to inductively derive three thematic findings; (a) Meat as Masculine, (b) Veg*n Men as Othered, and (c) Veg*nism as Contemporary Masculinity. Meat as Masculine included how men's gendered identities, defenses, and physicalities were entwined with meat consumption. Veg*n Men as Othered explored the social and cultural challenges faced by men who adopt meatless diets, including perceptions of emasculation. Veg*nism as Contemporary Masculinity was claimed by men who eschewed meat in their diets and advocated for veg*nism as legitimate masculine capital through linkages to physical strength, rationality, self-determination, courage, and discipline. In light of the growing concern about the ecological impact of meat production and the adverse health outcomes associated with its excessive consumption, this review summarizes empirical connections between masculinities and the consumption of meat to consider directions for future men's health promotion research, policy, and practice.

Is being anti-vegan a distinct dietarian identity? An investigation with omnivores, vegans, and self-identified "anti-vegans"

Adding to research on the form and content of anti-vegan sentiment, recent scholarship has identified a group of individuals who self-subscribe as "anti-vegan". Here, we sought to determine whether anti-veganism might reflect a distinct dietarian identity with its own unique ideological profile. Two-hundred and fourteen vegans, 732 omnivores, and 222 self-identified "anti-vegans" were assessed using a survey methodology that included the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire and ideological markers related to dark humour, social dominance orientation (SDO), speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and attitudes toward science. Our analysis revealed a dietarian identity unique to anti-vegans. The dietary patterns of anti-vegans were more central to their identity than for omnivores, though marginally lower than vegans. Like vegans, anti-vegans scored highly on dietarian measures of private regard and personal dietary motivations, and lower than omnivores on public regard. The diets of anti-vegans were more morally motivated than omnivores. However, anti-vegans scored higher than both omnivores and vegans on a number of ideological measures including dark humour, SDO, speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and distrust of science. Somewhat surprising, anti-vegans held greater trust than omnivores in the science of plant-based nutrition. We discuss the unique dietarian identities of anti-vegans, considering both intra-group differences of omnivores and anti-vegans (e.g., in right-wing ideology), and inter-group similarities of vegans and anti-vegans (e.g., in diet centrality).

Polarizing Plates: Both Omnivores and Vegans Represent In-Group Foods With Eating Simulations

In two pre-registered experiments, we assessed how people cognitively represent meat and plant-based foods, to examine processes underlying dietary polarization in society. Food descriptions from U.K.-based omnivores (NExp. 1 = 109; NExp. 2 = 436) and vegans (NExp. 1 = 111; NExp. 2 = 407) were coded for features about consumption and reward (e.g., "rich," "indulgent," and "treat") or features independent of the consumption situation (e.g., "healthy," "protein," and "eco-friendly"). Participants used more consumption and reward features for diet-congruent dishes (meat dishes for omnivores and plant-based dishes for vegans) than for diet-incongruent dishes (vice versa). Omnivores focused on abstract, long-term consequences of plant-based foods, whereas vegans focused on the socio-political associations with meat foods. Consumption and reward features also positively predicted attractiveness ratings, the likelihood of ordering a dish, and eating intentions. These findings indicate the cognitive processes of polarized dietary groups that may hinder the mainstream transition to more sustainable food choices.

A qualitative study of young peoples' thoughts and attitudes to follow a more plant-based diet

Plant-based diets (PBDs) refer to dietary habits that reduce the consumption of animal-based products and increase the consumption of nutritionally rich plant foods. PBD's have been shown to provide significant health benefits, such as reducing obesity and improving psychological wellbeing, and are environmentally friendly. However, few studies have investigated factors that influence young people's thoughts and attitudes toward following a PBD in western societies, particularly in the United Kingdom. Understanding these factors may benefit public health interventions that encourage the consumption of more fruit and vegetables. The aim of this study was to explore the factors that affect young people's intentions toward following a PBD. Twenty-one young people (18-24 years) participated in this qualitative study. Participants were asked about their views of PBDs in a semi-structured interview. Thematic analysis was utilized to explore views and the barriers and facilitators to following a PBD. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was used as a framework to organise the findings. Within attitudes, the sub-themes identified were an awareness of a healthy diet, environmental concerns, health concerns and distrust, perceptions of PBDs and associated stereotypes, perceived restriction and lack of enjoyment, and need for education. Within subjective norms, the sub-themes identified were cultural and familial norms, peer influence, and exposure through social media. Within perceived behavioral control (PBC), the sub-themes identified were a lack of independence and parental control, lack of knowledge and perceived difficulty, lack of inclusiveness and accessibility, and inconvenience. Overall, the findings suggest that increased provision of education and knowledge about PBDs to young people, and widening access to PBDs, could encourage and help improve their understanding and intention to follow this dietary style. Tailored health promotion strategies, which also consider additional barriers and facilitators found within this study, could motivate young people to consume a more PBD.

Sustainable choices of plant-based ('super') foods: examining the consumption patterns of German consumers on avocados

This paper aims to better understand consumer awareness of the environmental impact of plant-based ('super'-) foods, using avocados as an example. Since all food production impacts the environment, both meat-based and plant-based, there is scope for more sustainable food choices. Avocados have positive health properties while being considered critically for the potential negative environmental impact of their production. This study examines the avocado consumption behaviour of German consumers and the extent to which knowledge and dietary patterns are related to this. Data from 373 respondents from Germany were collected through an online consumer survey. Bivariate comparisons for avocado consumption and logistic regression analyses were performed to explore avocado consumption behaviour. The frequency of avocado consumption among respondents was moderate, averaging once per month. Avocado consumption was related to a flexitarian diet, older age and higher income, and urban dwellers. Knowledge of the environmental impacts of avocado cultivation had no influence. Respondents' self-assessed knowledge about avocados was low. To help consumers in making conscious, sustainable choices for plant-based foods, it is necessary to provide accessible and comparable information on the environmental impact of food products. However, further life cycle assessments on avocado production are clearly needed in order to produce valid information material. A flexitarian diet with reduced consumption of animal foods is an important prerequisite for environmental sustainability. Drawing attention to environmentally friendly plant-based food choices for flexitarian consumers could further encourage them to become food innovators for a healthy planet by reducing climate impact, land use, and energy and water consumption.

Selected plants producing mucilage: Overview, composition, and their potential as functional ingredients in the development of plant-based foods

The increase in the preference for vegan and vegetarian diets is directly related to changing eating habits and the need for plant-based alternatives to animal-based products, which are better for health, due to the high content of essential amino acids and lipid profile rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, and have lower environmental impacts. In this scenario, there is a growing demand for plant-based foods, making it necessary to find new plant-based ingredients for application in foods and beverages. Flaxseed, chia seed, and Barbados gooseberry contain mucilage, a component with potential application in plant-based products. These hydrocolloids can be used as gelling agents, texture modifiers, stabilizers, and emulsifiers in solid and semi-solid foods. This review presents the extraction, characterization, and application of flaxseed, chia seed, and Barbados gooseberry mucilage for use in plant-based foods. It was found that mucilage composition varies due to the extraction method used, extraction conditions, and geographic location of the seed or leaf. However, applications in plant-based foods are currently limited, mainly focused on applying chia mucilage in bakery products and packaging. Research on applying flaxseed and Barbados gooseberry mucilage to plant-based products is limited, though it has been shown to have potential applications in packaging. Mucilage may also increase the nutritional profile of the product and provide better technological, functional, and sensory characteristics. Therefore, because of mucilage's excellent functional and technological properties, it is a promising candidate to act as an ingredient in plant-based food products.

The motivations and practices of vegetarian and vegan Saudis

In the Middle East, particularly in Saudi Arabia, the offering of a meat dish to guests is a deeply embedded cultural tradition, and a meat-based diet is the standard in Saudi Arabia. Thus, the rise of veganism and vegetarianism within Saudi Arabia is surprising and worthy of attention, as is understanding the perceptions and motivations behind this phenomenon, particularly as they relate to food and sustainability. This research was designed to investigate this emerging phenomenon and to identify key differences in dietarian identity between Saudi vegetarians and vegans using Rosenfeld and Burrow's Dietarian Identity Questionnaire. Among other results, the vegan group scored significantly higher on the prosocial motivation construct, suggesting the desire to help society as a whole is a stronger motivating factor for vegans. As well, the vegan cohort scored higher in the personal motivation category. From an environmental and public health perspective, understanding the key factors motivating individuals to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet in a meat-based culture like Saudi Arabia can be used to encourage others to pursue more healthy and sustainable food behaviors.

Forty-five years of research on vegetarianism and veganism: A systematic and comprehensive literature review of quantitative studies

Meat production and consumption are sources of animal cruelty, responsible for several environmental problems and human health diseases, and contribute to social inequality. Vegetarianism and veganism (VEG) are two alternatives that align with calls for a transition to more ethical, sustainable, and healthier lifestyles. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic literature review of 307 quantitative studies on VEG (from 1978 to 2023), collected from the Web of Science in the categories of psychology, behavioral science, social science, and consumer behavior. For a holistic view of the literature and to capture its multiple angles, we articulated our objectives by responding to the variables of "WHEN," "WHERE," "WHO," "WHAT," "WHY," "WHICH," and "HOW" (6W1H) regarding the VEG research. Our review highlighted that quantitative research on VEG has experienced exponential growth with an unbalanced geographical focus, accompanied by an increasing richness but also great complexity in the understating of the VEG phenomenon. The systematic literature review found different approaches from which the authors studied VEG while identifying methodological limitations. Additionally, our research provided a systematic view of factors studied on VEG and the variables associated with VEG-related behavior change. Accordingly, this study contributes to the literature in the field of VEG by mapping the most recent trends and gaps in research, clarifying existing findings, and suggesting directions for future research.

The vegan dilemma: Do peaceful protests worsen attitudes to veganism?

A body of research has shown that violent protests reduce support for social movements. However, few studies have examined whether the same is true for protests which are peaceful, yet disruptive (e.g., blocking traffic). Across two pre-registered experimental studies, we explored whether pro-vegan protests that are depicted as causing social disruption lead to more negative attitudes towards veganism, compared to non-disruptive protests or a control condition. Study 1 utilised a combined sample of Australian and United Kingdom residents (N = 449; M_age = 24.7 years). Study 2 employed a larger sample of undergraduate Australian students (N = 934; M_age = 19.8 years). In Study 1, disruptive protests were associated with more negative attitudes towards vegans, but only among women. In Study 2, no such effect was found. Instead, a significant main effect was found for the protest's cause (vegan vs. fast fashion), but not protest type (disruptive vs. non-disruptive). That is, reading about a vegan protest, irrespective of how disruptive it was, led to worse attitudes towards vegans, and greater defense of meat consumption (i.e., endorsement of meat eating as natural, necessary, and normal), than reading about a control protest. This effect was mediated by the perceived immorality of the protestors, and, in turn, reduced identification with them. Taking together both studies, the purported location of the protest (i.e., domestic vs. overseas) did not significantly impact attitudes toward the protestors. The current findings suggest that depictions of vegan protests elicit worse attitudes toward this movement, regardless of how peaceful that protest may be. Future research is needed to examine whether other forms of advocacy can ameliorate negative reactions to vegan activism.

Plant-based and vegetarian diets: an overview and definition of these dietary patterns

PURPOSE

This paper aims to present an overview of the definitions of "plant-based and "vegetarian diets" adopted by different organizations worldwide, proposing new standard definitions and discussing the notion of vegetarianism as a restrictive dietary pattern.

METHODS

An extensive literature review on the different definitions of vegetarian and plant-based diets was conducted. Definitions of different international vegetarian and vegan organizations were also taken into account. Objective definitions for vegetarian and plant-based diets, as well as for their subcategories, were proposed. Other aspects related to how vegetarian diets are viewed and defined were also discussed.

RESULTS

We proposed that a vegetarian diet should be defined as "a dietary pattern that excludes meat, meat-derived foods, and, to different extents, other animal products". This definition would include, among others, ovolactovegetarian and vegan diets. The proposed definition for a plant-based diet was "a dietary pattern in which foods of animal origin are totally or mostly excluded". Other types of diets, such as flexitarian and pescetarian diets, could be considered plant-based. A vegetarian diet should not be considered restrictive. Instead, terms such as alternative or non-conventional could be used to define it and to distinguish it from the conventional diet adopted by most of the Western population.

CONCLUSION

This paper was able to elaborate objective definitions of vegetarian and plant-based diets. Standardizing nomenclatures may reduce misinterpretation and confusion in this field of study.

Ideological resistance to veg*n advocacy: An identity-based motivational account

Animal-based diets in Western countries are increasingly regarded as unsustainable because of their impact on human health, environmental and animal welfare. Promoting shifts toward more plant-based diets seems an effective way to avoid these harms in practice. Nevertheless, claims against the consumption of animal products contradict the ideology of the omnivorous majority known as carnism. Carnism supports animal-product consumption as a cherished social habit that is harmless and unavoidable and invalidates minorities with plant-based diets: vegetarians and vegans (veg*ns). In this theoretical review, we integrate socio-psychological and empirical literature to provide an identity-based motivational account of ideological resistance to veg*n advocacy. Advocates who argue against the consumption of animal products often make claims that it is harmful, and avoidable by making dietary changes toward veg*n diets. In response, omnivores are likely to experience a simultaneous threat to their moral identity and their identity as consumer of animal products, which may arouse motivations to rationalize animal-product consumption and to obscure harms. If omnivores engage in such motivated reasoning and motivated ignorance, this may also inform negative stereotyping and stigmatization of veg*n advocates. These "pro-carnist" and "counter-veg*n" defenses can be linked with various personal and social motivations to eat animal products (e.g., meat attachment, gender, speciesism) and reinforce commitment to and ambivalence about eating animal products. This does not mean, however, that veg*n advocates cannot exert any influence. An apparent resistance may mask indirect and private acceptance of advocates' claims, priming commitment to change behavior toward veg*n diets often at a later point in time. Based on our theoretical account, we provide directions for future research.

Nutritional Status and Habits among People on Vegan, Lacto/Ovo-Vegetarian, Pescatarian and Traditional Diets

Background: This study assessed the possible dependencies between nutritional habits and body composition among subjects with different dietary habits. Materials: A total of 196 healthy (aged 18−50 yrs) participants were enrolled in the study and divided into 4 groups according to their diet: vegans-VEGAN (n = 53), lacto/ovo-vegetarians—VEGE (n = 52), pescatarians-PESCA (n = 28), and omnivores-OMN (n = 43). Methods: The Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was used, and body composition was assessed on the In-Body120 analyzer. Results: Our result revealed in OMN + PESCA groups a higher average consumption frequency of sweets (p = 0.024), cheese/plant cheese (p < 0.001), eggs and egg dishes/egg substitutes (p < 0.001), butter, margarine/plant margarine (p < 0.001), cream /plant cream (p = 0.018), wine and cocktails (p = 0.028), vodka (p = 0.039) and lower of natural cottage cheese/tofu/tempeh (p < 0.001), vegetable oils (p = 0.036), legumes (p < 0.001) and nuts and seeds(p < 0.001) compared to the VEGAN + VEGE groups. The body composition analysis showed significant differences in skeletal muscle mass (SMM) (p = 0.019) and the content of minerals (p = 0.048) between groups. VEGAN disclosed the lowest average values of body fat mass (BFM), percentage body fat (PBF), and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) than other studied groups. Conclusions: The body composition analysis showed mean values within normal ranges in all of the groups, but some average results of OMN, PESCA, and VEGE compared to VEGAN were not highly satisfactory (in addition to eating behavior outcomes).

Disordered eating and the meat-avoidance spectrum: a systematic review and clinical implications

PURPOSE

Meat avoidance has long been thought to be related to eating psychopathology; however, research does not necessarily support this notion. Furthermore, commonly used eating disorder scales may be picking up on normal meat-avoiding behaviours in vegetarians and vegans. As such, we systematically reviewed the association between vegetarianism, veganism, and disordered eating, and reviewed the psychometric properties of eating disorder scales for use in these populations.

METHODS

We searched electronic databases MEDLINE, PsychINFO, and CINAHL for literature published until June 2021.

RESULTS

Forty-eight studies met eligibility criteria, with no consensus as to whether meat avoidance was associated with higher rates of disordered eating. Most studies reported a significant positive association with both vegetarianism and veganism, and orthorexia nervosa. Six studies provided evidence for the use of eating disorder measures in vegetarians and vegans, reporting poor psychometric fit among all scales.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review highlights the extent to which vegetarians and vegans have been highly understudied, with limited research suggesting higher levels of orthorexia nervosa behaviours in vegetarians and vegans. Furthermore, our results provide tentative evidence that the factorial validity of commonly used eating disorder scales, such as the EDE-Q, may be poor in vegans.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level I, systematic review.

Vegans, vegetarians and omnivores differ in nutrient hedonics, salt and sweet preference and flavouring

BACKGROUND

Dietary content can influence taste responses. Therefore, we compared nutrient hedonics (liking foods by nutrient content), and seasoning, including taste responses to the prime flavours salt and sweet in 30 vegan, 37 vegetarian and 56 omnivore men and women.

METHODOLOGY

Questionnaires and taste tests examined macronutrient and electrolyte intake and hedonics, seasoning, salt and sweet preferences and psychophysical taste responses.

RESULTS

Compared to omnivores, vegans had lower protein, Ca⁺⁺, Na⁺ intake, and increased carbohydrate (CHO) intake. Independently of intake, hedonics for protein Ca⁺⁺ and Na⁺ were reduced and increased for CHO. Psychophysical responses to NaCl and sucrose also differed slightly, vegans and vegetarians scoring high concentrations of sucrose as more intense, Vegans reported more sweetening and less salting of food, added more sucrose to a test tea, less salt to a test soup, but did not differ in seasoning with oil or hot spice.

PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS

Habitual vegan, vegetarian and omnivore diets may alter taste responses to nutrient content and salt and sweet, the latter more pronounced in vegan and vegetarian women. Recognising diet-dependent changes in taste hedonics can inform diets and products.

Psychological Processes Underlying an Omnivorous, Vegetarian, or Vegan Diet: Gender Role Self-Concept, Human Supremacy Beliefs, and Moral Disengagement from Meat

Most people consume meat regularly but simultaneously claim to be animal lovers, which should lead to a state of cognitive dissonance and cause distress. Against this backdrop, it is important to understand why some people decide to stop consuming meat or completely eschew animal products, while others do not. Research has shown gender and self-regulatory mechanisms as important factors, but the underlying psychological processes require further examination. In total, 3259 vegans, vegetarians, and omnivores completed an online questionnaire about their diet, gender role self-concept, moral disengagement from meat consumption, and human supremacy beliefs. The results showed that male vegans described themselves as more feminine but no less masculine than male omnivores, while no such differences were found in women. Furthermore, omnivores reported the highest moral disengagement from meat consumption, followed by vegetarians and vegans. The same was true of human supremacy beliefs. Moreover, the results showed that not only is diet itself related to differences in human supremacy beliefs but also the motives for this diet, with health and environmental motives being associated with stronger human supremacy beliefs than animal-related motives. These findings present practical implications for animal rights activists, marketing, and the health and education sectors.

'Against the cult of veganism': Unpacking the social psychology and ideology of anti-vegans

Despite the established health and ecological benefits of a plant-based diet, the decision to eschew meat and other animal-derived food products remains controversial. So polarising is this topic that anti-vegan communities - groups of individuals who stand vehemently against veganism - have sprung up across the internet. Much scholarship on veganism characterizes anti-vegans in passing, painting them as ill-informed, uneducated, or simply obstinate. However, little empirical work has investigated these communities and the individuals within them. Accordingly, we conducted a study using social media data from the popular platform, Reddit. Specifically, we collected all available submissions (∼3523) and comments (∼45,528) from r/AntiVegan subreddit users (N = 3819) over a five-year period. Using a battery of computerized text analytic tools, we examined the psychosocial characteristics of Reddit users who publicly identify as anti-vegan, how r/AntiVegan users discuss their beliefs, and how the individual user changes as a function of community membership. Results from our analyses suggest several individual differences that align r/AntiVegan users with the community, including dark entertainment, ex-veganism and science denial. Several topics were extensively discussed by r/AntiVegan members, including nuanced discourse on the ethicality and health implications of vegan diets, and the naturalness of animal death, which ran counter to our expectations and lay stereotypes of r/AntiVegan users. Finally, several longitudinal changes in language use were observed within the community, reflecting enhanced group commitment over time, including an increase in group-focused language and a decrease in cognitive processing. Implications for vegan-nonvegan relations are discussed.

Minor and inconsistent differences in Big Five personality traits between vegetarians and vegans

Most research examining individuals who follow different diets has combined vegetarians and vegans into a single group. To investigate whether this consolidation is justified, we analyzed possible differences between vegetarians and vegans for the Big Five personality traits in two studies. In our pre-study, we used data from a German convenience sample of 400 vegetarians and 749 vegans and found that vegans reported slightly higher scores in Openness compared to vegetarians (d = 0.22). In the preregistered main study, we used data provided by 1203 vegetarians and 128 vegans from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study; we found that vegetarians reported slightly higher scores in Neuroticism compared to vegans (d = 0.18) but did not differ in Openness. We found no differences in Conscientiousness, Extraversion, or Agreeableness in either study. Controlling for the socio-demographic variables of age, gender, and socio-economic status did not alter the pattern of results. Overall, these results suggest that there are no or only small differences in Openness or Neuroticism between vegetarians and vegans. Further studies utilizing very large, representative samples are needed to better understand the relationship between personality and diet groups.

Vegetarian and Vegan Private Label Products as a Challenging Trend in Addressing the Customers Within Sustainable Food Consumption—A Case Study of Slovakia

The meat consumption at the current level is highly unsustainable. Because of the problems that meat production causes to the environment, it is considered as one of the main problems. Vegetarian and vegan private label products represent a new challenging trend in addressing the customers within sustainable food consumption at affordable prices. The submitted paper aimed to find out whether Slovak consumers know and subsequently buy products of the private brand targeted on vegans and vegetarians, in which product categories they do so, how they perceive them and what attracts and discourages them. The research was carried out in the period from September to December 2020, when a total of 2,011 respondents from all over Slovakia took part. As we have focused only on consumers who know the product line of private labels targeted on vegans and vegetarians (product line of vegan and vegetarian products), we have further analyzed and interpreted only the answers of 978 respondents. For the need to obtain the main aim of the research, we have formulated four theoretical assumptions and five hypotheses, whose veracity was verified with the use of selected statistical methods and techniques processed out at statistical programs XL Stat, SAS Enterprise Guide 7.1. and SAS 9.4. The key finding of our research is, that even if it could be assumed that the products of this specific private label will be bought only by respondents from the vegan or vegetarian category, the opposite is true—the private label is known and bought by the respondents from the category “I eat everything,” which means that it is necessary to think about this product line, to wider it and continue in the improvement of its quality as this is what the customers want.

Differences between Vegetarians and Omnivores in Food Choice Motivation and Dietarian Identity

Vegetarianism is on the rise worldwide and its importance is being emphasized in various ways, such as in its sustainability, environmental, food system, and ethical aspects. The purpose of the study is to identify motivations behind food choices and dietarian identity, to investigate the perceptions about plant-based foods, and to identify differences between vegetarians and omnivores. We conducted an online survey of 245 vegetarians and 246 omnivores. There was a significant difference between vegetarians and omnivores. In food choice motivations, vegetarians scored higher in the factors of ‘ethical concern’, ‘health’, and ‘convenience and price’, while omnivores responded higher in ‘sensory appeal’ and ‘weight control’ factors. In the dietarian identity, vegetarians scored higher in the ‘complex motivation’ and ‘strictness’ factors, while on the other hand omnivores scored higher in ‘out-group regard’ and ‘public regard’ factors. Although the reasons can be different, we confirmed that both vegetarians and omnivores are positive toward plant-based foods. Our results suggest that different strategies will be needed to promote plant-based food consumption to vegetarians and to omnivores.

Replication dataset: the effect of compassion, biological sex, and gender identity threat on jerky choice

When it comes to food choices, high levels of trait compassion should decrease a person's likelihood to choose meat compared to a plant-based alternative [1], [2], [3], [4]. Because meat advertising often threatens masculinity, for men, this effect is expected to be moderated by gender identity threat. The data provided with this article were collected online from 1,350 participants to conduct a replication of study 1 in "The taste of compassion: Influencing meat attitudes with interhuman and interspecies moral appeals" [5]. The original study reports that men with high trait compassion [6] are significantly less likely to choose a vegetarian jerky-and more likely to choose a meat jerky instead-if masculinity is threatened. The replication is successful if the age range of participants between the two studies is matched. The size and direction of the effect tested in the replication study is comparable to that in the original study. This outcome suggests that the formation and the processing of meat attitudes depend on life stage, and it points to additional avenues for research in the fields of nutrition, social psychology, marketing, and consumer behavior. Additional variables in the dataset (e.g., items of the composite trait compassion variable, meat avoidance intent, social identity based on diet, and dietary pattern adherence [7], [8], [9], [10], [11]) may be used to develop and/or test hypotheses relating to meat attitudes and food-related choice behaviors. A print-out of the survey instrument, the dataset including scale items, and a script to perform the analysis are provided.

The Dietary Behaviors of Participants in UK-Based Meat Reduction and Vegan Campaigns - A Longitudinal, Mixed-Methods Study

Meat reduction, vegetarianism, and veganism have greatly increased in popularity during the 21st century, particularly in the United Kingdom. Yet, little is known about the process of reducing or abstaining. Through the use of focus groups and a longitudinal, web-based survey delivered over a twelve-month period, this project provides insights into the reported dietary habits and trends of participants in UK-based meat reduction and vegan campaigns (n = 1539). Drawing on Michie, Atkins, and West (2014)'s Behavior Change Wheel to better understand the process of dietary transition, findings reveal key opportunities for policymakers and non-profit organizations to better understand and support the process of dietary change. Reported planned dietary changes suggest a tendency for gradual transitions, with planned and achieved changes generally reflecting proposed reduction and abstention hierarchies. Planned reductions were most likely to include red meat and least likely to include seafood or eggs, while seafood abstention was more common than that of dairy or eggs. Those seeking to abstain from the consumption of some or all animal-derived foods were the most likely to report meeting their anticipated dietary changes, while meat reducers were generally unlikely to indicate that they were achieving planned reductions.

Food Neophobia or Distrust of Novelties? Exploring Consumers’ Attitudes toward GMOs, Insects and Cultured Meat

The food industry is constantly challenged to find new ideas to satisfy the increasingly specific consumer demand. However, innovative food products do not always become part of consumption habits or create a market. One of the major sources of resistance to novelty lies in the attitude of the consumer, who in many cases may be suspicious or hostile as a result of specific ideologies, overly attached to tradition, or affected by neophobia. This paper analyzes the construct of food neophobia (the “unwillingness to try new foods”) in its phenomenology and its actual power to explain hostility to innovation in the agri-food sector. The limits of the concept, which is not always sufficient to shed light on the many reasons that could underlie the rejection of certain foods, will also be discussed. In addition, we review the recent literature on Europeans’ attitude toward novel foods and innovation including Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), cultivated meat and insects as food. This literature reveals a number of paradoxes in consumers’ behavior, and in the many complex conditions underpinning the success of innovation in food production. These conditions can only be understood by reconstructing the meanings consumers assign to food, and are often embedded in larger social and political frameworks.

A social identity needs perspective to Veg*nism: Associations between perceived discrimination and well-being among Veg*ns in Turkey

We examined the associations between perceived discrimination, social identity need satisfaction, and well-being among a sample of vegetarians and vegans (veg*ns) in Turkey. Drawing on the Rejection Identification Model, Motivated Identity Construction Theory, and the Social Cure approach, we tested whether perceived discrimination was related to the satisfaction of esteem, meaning, belonging, efficacy, distinctiveness, and continuity needs derived from veg*n group membership and whether the satisfaction of these needs, in turn, was associated with psychological well-being and self-esteem. A total of 350 veg*ns living in Turkey participated in an online study and completed measures of perceived discrimination based on veg*n group membership, veg*n identity need satisfaction, psychological well-being, and global level self-esteem. As expected, perceived discrimination was prevalent among Turkish veg*ns (more so among vegans) and was strongly associated with the greater satisfaction of all identity needs. In turn, the satisfaction of efficacy and continuity needs was related to greater well-being, showing an indirect association between perceived discrimination and well-being. Findings also showed that the satisfaction of the esteem need predicted (less strongly) lower levels of psychological well-being and self-esteem, indicating only some aspects of need satisfaction through veg*n identities to have positive implications for well-being. Findings are discussed in terms of the relevant socio-cultural environment, social identity theories, and stigmatization in the context of veg*n group membership.

How proximal are pescatarians to vegetarians? An investigation of dietary identity, motivation, and attitudes toward animals

Research on the psychology of eating behavior often treats vegetarians as a monolithic group. Yet, a considerable proportion of people (17% in Study 1) who self-identify as vegetarian are actually pescatarians—those who forgo all meats except fish. Research on the psychology of pescatarianism is profoundly lacking, which may hinder future interventionists’ efforts to improve diet. Through two preregistered studies of adults from the United States recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk (total N = 490), we investigated pescatarianism with respect to dietary identity, motivation, and attitudes toward animals. Results suggest that future research may benefit from studying pescatarians as a distinct dietary group and paying greater attention to whether or not pescatarians self-identify as vegetarian.

Insect Consumption Attitudes among Vegans, Non-Vegan Vegetarians, and Omnivores

Abstract: Background: Consumption of foods of insect origin is encouraged, since insect consumption is seen as one of the responses to the environmental impact of meat production. This study examines the attitude (A), subjective norm (SN), perceived behavioral control (PC), and food neophobia (FN) toward the consumption of foods of insect origin, as well as the conditions for eating insect-based foods among vegans, vegetarians, and omnivores. Methods: The data was obtained by using an online survey and convenience sampling (n = 567, of whom omnivores represented 74%, vegans 5%, and non-vegan vegetarians 22%). Results: The three dietary groups exhibited significantly different intention (I) to eat foods of insect origin. Vegans held the most rigid negative attitude (A), and their subjective norm (SN) to eat insects was weaker compared to that of omnivores (p < 0.001) and non-vegan vegetarians (p < 0.001). Vegans’ perceived behavioral control (PC) over their eating of insects was stronger compared to that of omnivores (p < 0.001) and non-vegan vegetarians p < 0.001), and they were more neophobic than omnivores (p < 0.001) and non-vegan vegetarians (p < 0.001). Non-vegan vegetarians held the most positive attitude toward eating insects, and both non-vegan vegetarians and omnivores thought that insect consumption is wise and offers a solution to the world’s nutrition problems. In contrast, vegans regarded insect consumption as immoral and irresponsible. Conclusions: Vegans’ weak intention, negative attitude, and low willingness to eat insects in the future exhibit their different dietarian identity compared to that of omnivores and non-vegan vegetarians.