Distinguishing meat reducers from unrestricted omnivores, vegetarians and vegans: A comprehensive comparison of Australian consumers

Drivers of consumption of plant-based meat alternatives and their nutritional contributions: A mixed methods approach

BACKGROUND

Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMA) are considered an alternative to animal products. We aimed to understand the patterns and drivers of consumption of PBMA and their nutritional contributions using dietary modelling, whilst also considering the relevance of processing.

METHODS

This study used a mixed methods exploratory sequential approach. Semistructured online interviews (n = 19) with consumers and nonconsumers of PBMA were conducted. Thematic analysis of interviews considered drivers of PBMA consumption, with content used to develop personas to represent key concepts driving incorporation (or lack of intake) into dietary patterns. Diets were modelled for personas, based on recommended and typical population intake and with variations in processed foods based on the Nova food classification system, including PBMA. Diets were analysed against nutrient reference values.

RESULTS

The main drivers of PBMA consumption were animal welfare, health improvement and environmental concerns. Convenience, cost, taste, processing and thoughts that the nutritional value of PBMA was lesser than meats were all described. Six personas were identified from the interview content. The three most disparate personas (age, dietary pattern and nutrient requirements) were used for dietary modelling. Nutrient analyses showed diets predominantly meeting reference values, with deficiencies more likely when modelled on food choices typical of population intake and diets excluding processed foods.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that PBMA may have beneficial nutritional qualities such as lower saturated fat and higher dietary fibre when compared to their meat equivalents. PBMA may have a place in a healthy diet, whilst alleviating animal welfare and environmental concerns which were identified as key drivers of consumption.

Cognitive regulation of alternative proteins: Positive reappraisal enhances wanting for insects, plant-based meat analogies, cultured meat, and algae

Alternative proteins have attracted increasing attention from researchers and industry. Generally, consumers exhibit reluctance toward accepting alternative proteins. However, the potential of cognitive strategies to enhance consumer acceptance of alternative proteins remains unclear. Drawing on the literature on emotion regulation, we investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies, particularly positive cognitive reappraisal, could increase positive emotions and the wanting for alternative proteins. Across two pre-registered studies, our findings revealed that positive cognitive reappraisal significantly increased the wanting for various alternative proteins, including insects, plant-based meat analogs, cultured meat, and algae compared with considering the alternative proteins. Additionally, an increase in the wanting for alternative proteins was mediated by an increase in positive emotional responses. In other words, positive cognitive reappraisal (versus looking at alternative proteins) enhances positive emotional responses to alternative proteins, which in turn enhances wanting for alternative proteins. These findings reveal the role of cognitive strategies in enhancing consumer acceptance of alternative proteins and suggest that interventions focusing on positive cognitive reappraisal could effectively increase consumer acceptance of alternative proteins.

The willingness to transition to a more plant-based diet among omnivores: Determinants and socioeconomic differences

Plant-based diets benefit individual health and the environment, yet most people eat omnivorous diets. We aim to (1) assess the role of multiple determinants for transitioning to more plant-based diets in a sample of omnivorous respondents, such as recommendations from doctors, scientists and politicians; lower costs; and increased availability, and to (2) identify which subpopulations are most receptive to which determinants. Using data from a survey on the use and acceptance of Traditional, Complementary and Integrative Medicine in Germany (N = 4065; N omnivorous = 3419; 84%), we find that the overall willingness to change to a more plant-based diet is low (mean = 2.25 on a scale of 1-4). Respondents are most willing based on doctors' recommendations (mean = 2.61), and if prices for plant-based products were lower (mean = 2.55), and least willing based on scientists' and politicians' recommendations (mean = 1.86). Regression analyses reveal that men, the baby boomer cohort, and respondents with lower levels of education have a significantly lower willingness to transition to more plant-based diets. Further, recommendations from doctors, scientists, and politicians appear to be promising interventions for addressing the dietary behavior of men and older cohorts. Interventions by doctors and lower prices for plant-based products have the highest potential to induce dietary change even among the reluctant, reducing health inequalities and promoting environmentally friendly behavior.

Changing Our Food Habits One Bite at a Time: Exploring Young Flexitarians in a Country with a High Meat Intake

Flexitarian diets have gained attention for their potential positive impact on human health and greenhouse gas emissions reduction. However, a critical question remains: Can the segment of flexitarians significantly contribute to necessary changes in our current unsustainable food systems? Our study addresses this gap by examining meat consumption habits among young adults (n = 1023) in a country with traditionally high meat intake. Furthermore, we focus on a subset of flexitarians (n = 286). Our findings reveal two distinct groups of flexitarians: ethical (n1 = 140) and utilitarian (n2 = 148). Utilitarian flexitarians exhibit a stronger preference for meat (t(284)= -15.180, p < 0.001), greater food neophobia (t(284) = -4.785, p < 0.001), and lower environmental awareness (t(284) = 7.486, p < 0.001) compared to Ethical flexitarians. The Ethical group, predominantly female (χ2(1) = 13.366, p < 0.001), demonstrates higher life satisfaction (t(284) = 5.485, p < 0.001), better health perceptions (t(284) = 5.127, p < 0.001), and stronger beliefs in reducing meat consumption (t(284) = -8.968, p < 0.001). Additionally, Ethical flexitarians hold more positive views on plant-based meat, perceiving it as healthier (t(284) = 4.326, p < 0.001) and more ethical (t(284) = 4.942, p < 0.001), and show a greater willingness to adopt it (t(284) = 7.623, p < 0.001). While both groups possess similar knowledge and willingness regarding cultured meat and insects, Ethical flexitarians view cultured meat more favourably (t(250.976) = 2.964, p = 0.003). Our study provides insights into the evolving trends of flexitarianism within Central and Eastern European countries, where research on meat consumption and flexitarianism is scarce. These insights hold value for promoting behaviour change toward reduced meat consumption for both health and environmental reasons. Additionally, they offer guidance to the food industry, including producers, sellers, and providers of meals in educational and employment facilities.

To stand out or to conform: Stereotypes and meta-stereotypes as barriers in the transition to sustainable diets

What factors hinder the reduction of meat and/or dairy intake? In this study, we explored the perceived barriers that meat and/or dairy reducers experienced when shifting their diets. We particularly focused on how meat and/or dairy reducers were affected by their beliefs about how omnivores stereotype vegans (i.e., meta-stereotypes), as meta-stereotypes have not been previously explored in this context. Through open-ended questions in an online survey, we explored the experiences and perceived barriers among female meat and/or dairy reducers (n = 272), as well as their perceptions of vegans (i.e., stereotypes and meta-stereotypes), and how these perceptions affected their lived experiences. We analysed the data using reflexive thematic analysis and generated six themes. We highlighted perceptions of cost (Theme 1) and perceptions of health concerns (Theme 2) as the most dominant barriers to the reduction of meat and/or dairy intake. Regarding (meta) stereotypes, participants' perceptions of vegans were shaped by personal experiences and encounters with vegans (Theme 3), and how participants related to vegans was sometimes reflected in the language they used to describe vegans (Theme 4). Participants felt that they, or reducers more generally, were occasionally judged as vegans (Theme 5), which might influence participants' choices and conformity to eating norms (Theme 6). Meta-stereotypes may play a role in polarised dietary group perceptions, and we discuss how they are shaped by social identity processes as well as by aspects of Western food systems.

Predictors of Meat Reduction: The Case of Slovenia

Health, environmental, and animal advocacy organisations emphasise reducing or eliminating high meat consumption due to its adverse effects on health, sustainability, climate change, and animal welfare. Increasingly, people are deciding to reduce their meat consumption frequency. Our study aimed to examine predictors of meat reduction among Slovenian consumers, focusing on gender, age, partner and children status, size of residential settlement, socioeconomic status, and political orientation. We conducted a survey using non-probability sampling. We examined demographic, socioeconomic, and political predictors of individuals' self-assessed intent to reduce meat consumption in the month following the survey. Additionally, we analysed respondents' meat reduction during the three years prior. A correlation analysis revealed that higher age and education levels were significantly positively correlated with meat reduction patterns. An ordinal logistic regression analysis indicated that age was the only significant predictor of meat reduction intentions and past behaviour. Our findings suggest that middle-aged and elderly individuals are more likely than younger adults to report meat reduction behaviours. Future public health interventions should tailor approaches to different age groups, and, in particular, target younger individuals. Educational campaigns should highlight the health and environmental benefits of reducing meat and animal product consumption, particularly in primary and secondary schools.

Shades and shifts in flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles in a German panel study

Consumers' growing awareness of the adverse effects of high meat consumption has led to increased attention to flexitarian or meat-reduced diets. However, most flexitarians do not significantly reduce their meat consumption and still eat many meat-based meals. This study aims to classify the large and heterogeneous consumer group of flexitarians into different profiles based on attitudinal, normative, and control beliefs about meat reduction. Being aware that consumer profiles can change over time, this study explores the dynamics of the identified profiles using a two-wave panel survey of 430 German consumers. Latent profile analysis revealed distinct flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles, including three stable profiles and one non-stable profile across both waves. The findings indicate that flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles differ significantly in their belief structure about meat reduction and that consumers can switch back and forth to other profiles over time. Practitioners should be aware of changes in the belief structure of flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles when developing meat reduction interventions. Further research is needed to understand the reasons behind these profile shifts.

Predictors of Eating Less Meat and More Plant-Based Food in the Polish Sample

The study aimed to identify predictors of the intention to eat less meat and more plant-based foods, including attitudes towards eating meat, habitual meat eating, subjective norms, and self-identity. A cross-sectional study using CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview) was conducted in a group of 1003 Polish adults in 2023. To measure the predictor variables, the following tools were used: Beliefs and Eating Habits Questionnaire (KomPAN), Meat Attachment Questionnaire (MAQ), and scales to measure subjective norms and self-identity. Logistic regression analysis was used to verify associations between independent variables, and the intentions to eat more plant-based food and less meat next year were treated as dependent variables. More respondents were willing to increase their consumption of plant-based foods rather than reduce their meat consumption. The intention to consume less meat and more plant foods was more prevalent among women, older people (only intention to reduce meat consumption), and better-educated people (only intention to increase plant food consumption). Habitual frequency of eating plant foods, negative feelings about meat, and environmentally oriented identities had a stimulating effect on the intention to eat more plant foods and less meat, while experiencing pleasure in eating meat had a limiting effect on the intention to eat more plant foods and less meat. In addition, the habitual frequency of meat consumption and subjective norms reduced the likelihood of eating less meat, while no predictive effect was observed for the intention to eat more plant foods. In conclusion, educational and promotional activities to raise awareness of the link between food consumption and the environment can have a strong impact on eating less meat and more plant-based food, even among those strongly accustomed to meat consumption.

Willingness for more vegetarian meals in school canteens: Associations with family characteristics and parents' food choice motives in a French community

The school meal system could contribute to the transition towards more sustainable food system by promoting plant-based meals. Knowing whether parents want more vegetarian school meals for their children is a prerequisite for a successful implementation. The present study aimed to estimate the proportion of parents who would opt for more vegetarian school meals for their children and to study associations of willingness with family characteristics and food choice motives. An online survey was sent to parents whose children are registered for school canteen in Dijon (France). We collected child-level information, data on family sociodemographic characteristics, and data on dietary habits and food choice motives of the family. We examined family characteristics associated with the willingness to increase the frequency of vegetarian school meals from one meal per week to two or daily. Generalized linear models were performed. In total, 49% of parents were willing to opt for a second weekly vegetarian meal and 26% for a daily vegetarian meal for their children (n = 1261). Parents willing to opt for more vegetarian meal were more likely to have higher education, be flexitarian or vegetarian and to currently opt for pork-free meals for their children, and their children attended the school canteen less frequently. Environmental motives were positively associated with the willing to opt for a second weekly vegetarian meal; familiarity and sensory appeal motives were negatively associated. Health and animal welfare motives were positively associated with the willing to opt for a daily vegetarian meal and sensory appeal was negatively associated. Increasing the frequency of vegetarian school meals would satisfy a demand expressed by parents but must be accompanied by interventions enhancing pleasure of eating vegetarian meals.

Investigating pre-professional dancer health status and preventative health knowledge

Introduction

Dance is a highly demanding physical pursuit coupled with pressure to conform to aesthetic ideals. Assessment of health status and preventative health knowledge of pre-professional dancers may help inform educational strategies promoting dancers' health and career longevity. The aim of this research was to establish a baseline understanding of dance students at a single pre-professional institution based on metrics focused on current health, nutrition, lifestyle, and wellbeing while also gauging knowledge of longer-term health implications.

Methods

Adopting a cross-sectional study design, the Dance-Specific Energy Availability Questionnaire was tailored for Australian participants and administered online.

Results

The response rate was 59.5% (69/116 eligible students) and the survey was completed in full by 63 students. Mean BMI was 20 kg/m2, although among females, 47% had a BMI < 20 (range 16 to 25 kg/m2), and at their lowest reported weight BMI was 14 to 25 kg/m2. Over a third had either experienced (31%) or were currently experiencing (3.4%) secondary amenorrhea (period absence ≥ 3 consecutive months). Most dancers did not exclude food groups, however, 24% had been advised to exclude particular foods in the past, mostly by dance teachers. A large percentage used nutritional supplements (68%) with 60% supplementing with iron and more than half (53%) taking two or more supplements. Only 25% had ever utilised a qualified dietitian, although 16% reported a history of eating disorders and 25% reported vegetarian or vegan eating patterns. REDs risk scores ranged from -16 to +16 points with negative scores indicating LEA and higher risk of REDs. The mean score for males was 5.2 (SD = 3.9) and 2.1 (SD = 5.9) for females, with 33.3% producing a negative score.

Conclusion

Results provide insight to health knowledge and particular issues pertinent for dancers and highlights the need for specific education strategies to promote a preventative health focus for those entering a pre-professional programme. This study also highlights the need for improved awareness of LEA and REDs among all practitioners working with dancers along with cultural and structural changes within the broader dance community to help protect and promote the wellbeing of dancers.

Nutritional status of flexitarians compared to vegans and omnivores - a cross-sectional pilot study

BACKGROUND

In the Western world, there has been a notable rise in the popularity of plant-based, meat-reduced flexitarian diets. Nevertheless, there is insufficient data on the nutritional status of individuals following this dietary pattern. The aim of this study was to investigate the intake and endogenous status of various nutrients in a healthy German adult study population consisting of flexitarians (FXs), vegans (Vs) and omnivores (OMNs).

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, dietary intake of 94 non-smoking adults (32 FXs, 33 Vs, 29 OMNs) between 25 and 45 years of age was assessed using 3-day dietary records. In addition, blood samples were collected to determine different endogenous nutrient status markers.

RESULTS

32%, 82% and 24% of the FXs, Vs, and OMNs respectively reported using dietary supplements. In the FXs, intake of total energy as well as macronutrients and most micronutrients were within the reference range. FXs had higher intakes of fiber, retinol-equ., ascorbic acid, folate-equ., tocopherol-equ., calcium, and magnesium compared to OMNs. However, cobalamin intake in FXs (2.12 µg/d) was below the reference (4 µg/d). Based on 4cB12, 13% of FXs showed a cobalamin undersupply [< -0.5 to -2.5] compared to 10% of OMNs, and 9% of Vs. The median 25(OH)D serum concentrations in FXs, Vs and OMNs were 46.6, 55.6, and 59.6 nmol/L. The prevalence of an insufficient/deficient vitamin-D status [< 49.9 nmol 25(OH)D/L] was highest in FXs (53%), followed by Vs (34%) and OMNs (27%). In FXs and Vs, the supplement takers had better cobalamin and vitamin-D status than non-supplement takers. Anemia and depleted iron stores were found only occasionally in all groups. In women, the prevalence of pre-latent iron deficiency and iron deficiency was highest in FXs (67%) compared to Vs (61%) and OMNs (54%).

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicated that all three diets delivered sufficient amounts of most macro- and micronutrients. However, deficiencies in cobalamin, vitamin-D, and iron status were common across all diets. Further studies are needed to investigate the nutrient supply status and health consequences of meat-reduced plant-based diets. The study was registered in the German Clinical Trial Register (number: DRKS 00019887, data: 08.01.2020).

Consumer attitudes and behaviors toward more sustainable diets: a scoping review

There is an urgent need to move toward more sustainable diets. Although this will require radical and systemic changes across food systems, altering consumer ideologies and practices is essential to garner support for such actions. In this scoping review, the evidence on consumers' attitudes and behaviors toward more sustainable diets is synthesized and a range of factors, considerations, and proposed strategies are presented that can contribute to building the societal-level support for urgent and systems-level changes. The findings suggest that consumers, insofar as they are interested in sustainability and have the capacity to engage with the concept, primarily approach the concept of sustainable diet from a human health perspective. However, the interconnectedness of human health and well-being with environmental health is poorly understood and under-researched in the context of consumer behaviors and attitudes toward sustainable diets. This highlights the need for (1) sustained efforts from public health professionals to encourage a realignment of the term sustainable diet with its multidimensional meaning by championing an ecological public health approach in all efforts aimed at promoting more sustainable consumption, from awareness raising to policy development; (2) a broader research lens focused on the multidimensional concept of sustainability in the literature exploring consumer attitudes and behaviors; and (3) the development of multidisciplinary, clear, and evidence-based sustainable-eating messages, including holistic sustainable dietary guidance, to address knowledge gaps, minimize conflicting narratives, and build consumer agency. The findings contribute to understanding how support can be generated for the necessary structural and system-level changes required to support behavior change.

Meat reduction among post-secondary students: Exploration of motives, barriers, diets and preferences for meals with partial and full meat substitution

Before developing new meat reduction interventions to support increased sustainability, it is important to understand the motives, diets and preferences of consumers who have already made efforts to reduce meat consumption. While self-declaration has been typically used to identify meat reducers, food frequency data suggests some reducers still identify as omnivores, here termed transitional meat reducers. We compared these "transitional" meat reducers to self-declared meat reducers, unrestricted omnivores and vegetarians/vegans for differences in diet, motives for reducing meat, and perceived barriers to consuming more legumes (dried beans, peas or lentils) and plant-based meat alternative products (PBMAs). We also compared their intention to choose four specific entrees where legumes or PBMAs had partially or fully replaced meat. A convenience sample of Canadian university students completed an online survey (N = 438). 34% of participants were self-declared meat reducers, 16% transitional meat reducers, 33% unrestricted omnivores and 16% vegetarians/vegans. Frequency of eating red meat differed, with self-declared meat reducers eating red meat less often than either transitional meat reducers or unrestricted omnivores. Motives for meat reduction were similar in the two reducer groups. Transitional meat reducers reported significantly more frequent consumption of other protein foods and more barriers to legumes but not PBMA, than either unrestricted omnivores or self-declared meat reducers. Lastly, intention to consume all versions of entrees was very similar in both reducer groups, but with increased preference for full vs partial substitution among self-declared reducers. Transitional meat reducers may be a distinct group for meat reduction interventions compared to omnivores or self-declared reducers.

How Different Dimensions Shape the Definition of Meat Alternative Products: A Scoping Review of Evidence between 2000 and 2021

Consumer awareness of meat-associated health and environmental risks is increasing and motivates a shift toward consuming meat alternatives. This is also reflected in efforts invested in studying meat alternatives from the perspective of nutritional, environmental, and consumer sciences. Despite shared research interest, these studies cannot be readily compared and interpreted because there is no clear consensus on what meat alternatives are. Scholarly debates on acceptance, nutritional value, and environmental advantages of meat alternatives would benefit from a clear definition of meat alternatives. With the goal of defining meat alternatives, relevant scientific literature in the past 10 years was systematically searched and screened guided by the scoping review Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension. The initial search resulted in >100,000 hits, which was reduced to 2465 papers. Next, titles and abstracts were scrutinized using Rayyan.ai, resulting in 193 articles considered for the present review. Article screening and data extraction was performed using ATLAS.ti software. Three major themes were identified to define meat alternative products including: 1) producing and sourcing of ingredients; 2) product characteristics (that is, sensory characteristics, nutritional value, and health profile, social and environmental sustainability profile); and 3) consumer characteristics concerning the marketing and consumption context. Meat alternatives are multifaceted, that is, certain products can be considered as meat alternatives in some context, but not in another context. For any product, it is impossible to unequivocally state that it is a meat alternative. There is a lack of consensus from the diverse literature on what constitutes meat alternatives. However, products may be qualified as meat alternatives according to three key criteria as proposed in a taxonomy: 1) production and sourcing, 2) product characteristics, and/or 3) consumption. We recommend researchers (and other stakeholders) to do so as it allows for better informed future discussions of meat alternatives.

Loss framing effect on reducing excessive red and processed meat consumption: Evidence from Italy

A reduction of meat consumption is crucial for addressing public health problems, especially in industrialized countries. Among low-cost interventions, emotionally provocative health-information strategies could be effective options in fostering meat reduction. Through an online experimental survey, administrated to a quota-based national sample (N = 1142), this study analysed the profile of Italians consuming red/processed meat above World Health Organization (WHO) recommended amounts. Via a between-subjects design, the research tested whether two health frame-nudges (societal impact and individual impact of over consumption) persuaded these individuals to reduce future meat consumption. Results showed that adhering to an omnivore diet, higher consumption of meat than peers, household size (larger) and positive moral perception of meat consumption increased the likelihood of overconsumption. In addition, both nudges proved to be effective in positively impacting future intentions to reduce meat consumption among individuals exceeding WHO recommended amounts. The two frame-nudges were more effective among females, respondents with children in the household and individuals with a low health status perception.

Changes in the Current Patterns of Beef Consumption and Consumer Behavior Trends-Cross-Cultural Study Brazil-Spain-Turkey

This cross-cultural study aimed to determine the main factors behind potential changes in eating habits by analyzing changes in the patterns of beef consumption currently observed in Brazil, Spain, and Turkey. To achieve this aim, 412 regular beef consumers from Brazil, 407 from Spain, and 424 from Turkey answered a self-administered questionnaire. The study surveyed the effects of economic factors, switching from beef to other sources of protein, aspects of credence, health-related concerns, the influence of lifestyle on beef consumption patterns, and purchasing decision factors. The most important factors that changed consumer behavior and resulted in a decrease in consumption, mostly among Brazilian and Turkish consumers, were the economics and accessibility of the products. Beef was replaced by other alternative sources of protein that were likewise derived from animals. The consumers whose purchasing intentions were most significantly influenced by credence factors (e.g., indiscriminate use of agricultural products, substandard animal welfare requirements, among others) were Brazilian and Turkish and, to a lesser degree, Spanish consumers. Lifestyle factors (e.g., consumption of out-of-home meals, available time to cook, among others) were demonstrated to alter consumption patterns and therefore must be carefully considered by the industry, taking into account cultural differences and consumer needs. The population under investigation considered that eating beef had no impact on their health.

Comparing meat abstainers with avid meat eaters and committed meat reducers

Shifting our eating patterns toward less animal-based and more plant-based diets is urgently needed to counter climate change, address public health issues, and protect animal welfare. Although most consumers agree that these are important topics, many consumers are not particularly willing to decrease the meat intensity of their diets. In supporting consumers to shift their diets, it is important to understand consumers' attitudes, motivations, and preferences related to meat consumption and to take differences across consumers on these aspects into account. This study aims to in-depth research meat abstainers (vegetarians and vegans), and to explore how and to what extent they differ from avid meat eaters and committed meat reducers in terms of their (1) socio-demographic characteristics, (2) attitudes and norms, (3) food choice motives, and (4) food preferences and behavior. A survey has been conducted among a representative sample of Dutch adults. Comparisons show that meat abstainers (N = 198) differ from committed meat reducers (N = 171) and avid meat eaters (N = 344) on the four included categories of variables. In terms of demographics, we largely confirm the stereotype of vegans and vegetarians being highly educated females. In attitudes and norms, large differences exist with meat abstainers being least pro-meat and avid meat eaters being most pro-meat. Food choice motives confirm this, with meat abstainers valuing animal welfare and a good feeling higher than committed meat reducers and avid meat eaters. Finally, differences across the groups are most pronounced in terms of their food preferences and consumption, with a much higher appreciation of plant-based protein sources among meat abstainers, a high appreciation of non-meat animal-based proteins across committed meat reducers and a high appreciation of meat products among avid meat eaters. This shows that although differences across the groups are gradual and expected, in terms of reduction motivations and preferences of protein sources the three groups (frequent meat consumption-meat reduction-meat avoidance) are very distinct, which makes it unlikely to expect big shifts from one group to another in the short term.

Social Norms Support the Protein Transition: The Relevance of Social Norms to Explain Increased Acceptance of Alternative Protein Burgers over 5 Years

Developing alternative protein products-based on protein sources other than regular meat-is a possible pathway to counter environmental and health burdens. However, alternative proteins are not always accepted by consumers, and more research is needed to support a shift to more alternative proteins. Prior studies have mainly focused on individual drivers and perceptions; although we expect that social norms-the perceptions of the opinions of relevant others-are highly relevant in accepting alternative proteins. Online surveys were conducted among 2461 respondents in 2015 and 2000 respondents in 2019 (cross-sectional datasets); a subsample (n = 500) responded to both surveys (longitudinal dataset). We add to the literature by (1) demonstrating the added explanatory value of social norms beyond a range of individual drivers; (2) showing that this finding holds over time, and (3) comparing the impact of social norms across different dietary consumer groups. Meat lovers and flexitarians are more prone to follow social norms whereas meat abstainers are more prone to follow their individual attitudes and values. This study highlights the relevance of investigations beyond personal variables such as personal norms and attitudes and underscores the relevance of considering the social aspects of accepting alternative proteins.

Lowering Red Meat and Processed Meat Consumption With Environmental, Animal Welfare, and Health Arguments in Italy: An Online Experiment

Introduction

In addition to being a source of valuable nutrients, meat consumption has several negative consequences; for the environment, for animal welfare, and for human health. To persuade people to lower their meat consumption, it is assumed that the personal relevance of the topic of lowering meat consumption is important as it determines how people perceive the quality of the arguments.

Method

In an experimental exploratory field study (n = 139), participants recruited from the general Italian population were randomized to one of the four conditions with a text with pictures on the environmental, animal welfare, or health consequences of meat consumption, or a text on mustard (the control condition). The dependent variables were self-reported consumption of red meat and processed meat after 2 weeks. Personal relevance was assessed in the pre-test with self-reported meat consumption and intention.

Results

The interaction between pre-test meat consumption and condition was significant: In participants who scored high on pre-test meat consumption, the self-reported red meat consumption after 2 weeks in the health argument condition was significantly lower compared to the control condition and the environmental argument condition. The effects of pre-test intention as a moderator were less certain.

Discussion

The persuasive effects of the different arguments made a difference only in people who ate a relatively high level of meat in pre-test, and the type of arguments made a difference. Although the present outcomes are caused by the specific formulations of the arguments in this study, the results do show that it is relevant to choose the arguments carefully to ensure effectiveness.

Plant-Based Diets Are Not Enough? Understanding the Consumption of Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Along Ultra-processed Foods in Different Dietary Patterns in Germany

A low-processive plant-based diet is considered valuable for a sustainable diet profile-it is supposed to meet health as well as environmental concerns. However, there is a growing trend toward plant-based meat alternatives, most of which are to be classified as ultra-processed food (UPF). The paper aimed to understand the consumption of different ultra-processed foods to describe their relation to dietary patterns and sustainability. The objective was (1) to depict the status-quo of consumption of plant-based meat alternatives along with other UPF groups (i.e., convenience products, fast foods, snacks, ultra-processed beverages) in a German sample (n = 814) and (2) to investigate the extent to which all examined UPFs are represented in different dietary patterns (vegetarian, flexitarian, regular meat-eaters, high meat-eaters). UPF intake and dietary groups were determined using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Potential factors influencing UPF consumption, such as attitudes toward sustainability and healthy eating practices, were assessed using validated and fitted psychometric scales. Overall, the frequency of UPF consumption varies significantly along the product groups studied. Plant-based meat alternatives were the least consumed food (12.3%), followed by convenience products (57.4%), fast foods (55.9%), ultra-processed beverages (80.1%), and sweet and salty snacks (97.3%). Plant-based meat alternative consumption predominated within a vegetarian diet, while other UPFs, like convenience products, fast foods, sweet and salty snacks, and ultra-processed beverages, were mainly consumed by meat-eaters. Remarkably, flexitarian diets depict low consumption of all types of ultra-processed foods. In order to meet societal sustainability goals, diets and corresponding societal and political actions should emphasize not only plant orientation but also the increase of non- and low-processed foods.

Making More Sustainable Food Choices One Meal at a Time: Psychological and Practical Aspects of Meat Reduction and Substitution

Switching out meat in favour of plant-based alternatives such as meat substitutes is an important step towards eating more sustainably. Here, the aim was to identify and explore the specific barriers experienced by Swedish consumers when replacing meat with more sustainable alternatives. All meat-eating participants in this study reported some interest in reducing their meat consumption. Aspects of home-use and central-location test methods were combined by using a digital conferencing system to host cooking sessions and focus group discussions online, which was shown to be a viable setup even in this hands-on setting. The discussions targeted participants' experience preparing meals using meat substitutes as well as their perceived motivators and barriers to reducing meat consumption. Four themes identified through thematic analysis indicated that meat-eating participants, despite their desire or intent to reduce their meat consumption, experienced barriers relating to the following: internal conflict due to holding multiple positive and negative beliefs about meat simultaneously (ambivalence), justification of eating meat (rationalisation), a desire for variety in and control over their food choices (agency), and sensitivity to the views and expectations of other people and the situational context regarding meat (social and structuralfactors). Possible strategies to support ambivalent individuals in aligning their behaviour with their beliefs instead of vice versa are discussed in the context of the meat paradox. Agency and practical skills, including increasing knowledge in preparing meals with plant-based proteins, likely play a role in bridging this intention-behaviour gap.

Why They Eat What They Eat: Comparing 18 Eating Motives Among Omnivores and Veg*ns

While the diets of most people include meat, millions of individuals follow a meat-free diet. But why do people eat what they eat? Here we explored differences and commonalities in the eating motives of omnivores and veg^*ns (i.e., both vegetarians and vegans). Specifically, we compared mean levels and rank order of 18 eating motives in two samples (Study 1: 294 omnivores, 321 veg^*ns; Study 2: 112 omnivores, 622 veg^*ns). We found that omnivores were more motivated than veg^*ns by the eating motives of Traditional Eating and Habits, while veg^*ns were more motivated by Animal Protection and Environmental Protection. Differences among groups in Health were inconsistent across studies. Despite these differences in mean levels, the rank order of the eating motives was very similar: Two of the top four eating motives of both diet groups in both studies were Liking and Health, while Social Norms, Social Image, and Religion were among the four least important motives of both groups. Overall, while we did find differences in the absolute importance of certain motives, we also found striking similarities in the relative importance of eating motives, suggesting that including a wide range of eating motives could be beneficial when examining dietary behaviors.

The Evolution of Urban Australian Meat-Eating Practices

This qualitative study used social practice theory to explore how meat-eating practices are changing in contemporary urban Australia, drawing on a sample of Sydney residents aged 23–45 years. The research used an iterative study design and an inductive analysis approach. Semi-structured face-to-face in-depth interviews were the main mode of data collection, supplemented by observations in places such as markets and local neighborhoods. Research participants explained that the role of meat in their diet has changed in response to shifting conventions and social infrastructures. They have reduced consumption of red meat in favor of meats considered healthier or more ethical. Key factors driving the change include exposure to alternative eating practices brought about through changes in political policy and the advent of globalization. Changing discourses of masculinity and the move toward embracing more fluid representations of gender have, in turn, changed meanings in relation to the meat-eating man and a meat-heavy diet. Rising environmental and health consciousness, and concerns for animal welfare have also contributed to dietary changes. While several participants claimed to have increased their consumption of plant-based foods, meat still continues to maintain a significant presence within their diets. Many participants expressed interest in cutting back further on meat consumption and adopting more plant-based foods but they also identified several challenges—e.g., limited access to plant-based ingredients and recipes, negative meanings associated with vegetarian and vegan diets, and a lack of competence in relation to preparing and consuming appetizing meals using plant-based foods.

Introducing Tempeh as a New Plant-Based Protein Food Item on the Danish Market

Decreasing meat consumption has resulted in a need for new high-quality protein sources. Tempeh is relatively unknown in Denmark and might be capable of meeting this need. The aim of the study was to describe the success criteria for introducing locally produced tempeh and to investigate the sensory quality of three types of tempeh. Only 24% of the consumers in the survey (n = 395) used meat alternatives, which might be explained by a low level of satisfaction with availability. Tempeh was known by 26%—the less meat eaten, the greater the knowledge of tempeh. Twenty-three per cent of the consumers had positive attitudes towards tempeh. The three types of tempeh had markedly different sensory profiles. Nevertheless, the home use test showed that they could be used interchangeably in different recipes. In addition, the consumers were more positive about recipes in which tempeh did not resemble meat compared with meat-inspired recipes. In conclusion, introducing locally produced tempeh on the Danish market is possible but would require further knowledge of the product. In addition, tempeh should be sold as a tasty, high-quality protein food item in its own right. Recipes using tempeh should reflect this and not mimic meat recipes.

Green or clean? Perception of clean label plant-based products by omnivorous, vegan, vegetarian and flexitarian consumers

Consumers are increasingly interested in health and sustainability aspects of their diets. Meat reduction diets have gained popularity with some consumers, leading to an increase in plant-based products in the markets. Additionally, the demand for more natural and healthier products is associated with the clean label trend. But how these two trends relate to each other, has not yet been widely investigated. The aim of the present research was to explore the perception of different consumers (vegans, vegetarians, flexitarians and omnivores), towards clean label, plant-based products in order to better understand their motivations and attitudes. Consumers in Spain, followers of these four diets, participated in a projective mapping task - categorisation of twenty plant-based products (ten clean label and ten original products) - and answered a health and sustainability attitudes survey. The results showed that according to the diet followed by the consumers, they categorised and perceived the products differently, in line with their attitudes. Meat-reducer and avoider consumers paid more attention to quality and health and presented a greater concern for animal welfare and sustainability. Also, they focused on the clean label status for product categorization, while omnivores did not separate between original and clean label products. The present study shows a first exploration of how consumers with different relation to meat (frequent consumption-reduction-avoidance) perceive clean label plant-based products, in relation to their attitudes to health and sustainability, a building block on the way to support consumers in the transition to healthier, more sustainable diets.

Perceptions of Vegan Food among Organic Food Consumers Following Different Diets

This article identifies consumer segments for vegan food by analysing perceptions of vegan food among food organic consumers following different diets: vegans, vegetarians, former vegetarians, flexitarians, and omnivores. The analysis is based on responses to a quantitative consumer survey for which 503 participants were recruited from customers at German grocery stores by quota sampling according to diet and region. From the responses to an open-ended question eliciting the participants’ associations with vegan food, the analysis finds that vegans and vegetarians perceive vegan foods primarily as being beneficial for animal welfare, healthy, and environmentally friendly, while those who ate meat perceive vegan food primarily as containing no animal ingredients and as being healthy. The respondents’ varying assessments of the taste, diversity, and environmental benefits of vegan food were found to differ in relation to the various diets they followed, as did their assessments of how long the vegan trend is likely to last. A cluster analysis based on the consumers’ perceptions and attitudes revealed three consumer groups: “vegan fans”, “enjoyment sceptics”, and “originality-sceptics”. Scepticism about the originality of vegan food was found in all diet groups. These findings can help inform more effective targeting of consumer needs for vegan organic food.

Sustainable Meat: Looking through the Eyes of Australian Consumers

Sustainability is a complex and multifaceted concept that comprises environmental, economic, social, and cultural dimensions. Growing consumer concerns over the impacts of global meat production and consumption have led to increasing interest in sustainability initiatives and the use of sustainability labels. Yet, an understanding of what sustainability means to consumers in the context of meat and how consumers relate production-related credence attributes of chicken meat to sustainability remains limited. Between September 2019 and January 2020, an exploratory research study was conducted using a multi-method approach. Participants completed an online survey before participating in a series of eye-tracking choice tasks followed by in-depth interviews. The study revealed that the environmental dimension of sustainability is most important to consumers’ definition of a “sustainable food system”. Likewise, the sustainability of chicken meat products was most commonly associated with the perceived environmental impact of chicken meat production, followed by animal welfare aspects. Consumers made incorrect inferences about some sustainability labels and these inferences sometimes contributed to positive associations with sustainability. Consumers frequently associated a higher price with higher sustainability, indicating a belief that “doing the right thing” might cost more. This study provides new insights regarding consumers’ perceptions of production-related credence attributes and sustainability labels.

Plant Protein and Plant-Based Meat Alternatives: Consumer and Nutrition Professional Attitudes and Perceptions

Plant-based and flexitarian eating patterns are increasingly popular, and the food supply system has responded with a wide range of convenience products despite a lack of understanding regarding consumer views. The aim of this study was to explore consumer and nutrition professional (NP) perceptions and attitudes to plant protein, including plant-based meat alternatives (PBMA) within an Australian context. Using an online survey promoted via social media, 679 responses (89% completion rate), achieved an even spread across key age groups. A total of sixty percent reported following a special diet, with 25% vegan and 19% flexitarian. ‘Health’ was a key driver for diet type among the NPs (53.3%) and they were less likely to follow a special diet, while “ethical” reasons were cited by consumers (69%). Plant-based eating was considered a vegan dietary pattern and the most frequently consumed plant-based proteins were whole grains. Most (74%) had tried PBMA, but they were more frequently chosen by consumers, with burger patties then sausages and mince selected as a ‘trendy’ choice; taste was very important across both groups. Products mimicking chicken and fish were of less interest. Plant-based claims were observed by 78% but these were also of greater interest to consumers. Participants reported looking for whole ingredients and iron content and expected that both iron and vitamin B12 would be comparable to red meat. Sodium was the nutrient of greatest interest to NPs and, together, these results help inform the direction for product innovation, while also highlighting the need to assess the adequacy of the dietary pattern when promoting sustainable plant-based eating.

Young adults' experiences with flexitarianism: The 4Cs

Meat reduction has important implications for public health and the environment. With people more likely to reduce their meat consumption than eliminate it completely, there is increased interest in flexitarian (reduced meat) diets. Young adults in particular are transitioning towards a flexitarian diet, yet there is very little research on this crucial sub-set of the population. In this research, 23 interviews are conducted with young adults aged 18-35 in New Zealand to explore their lived experiences (i.e., motivations, strategies and barriers) towards flexitarianism. The research finds young adults are encouraged to transition towards flexitarianism due to increased control, through a transition away from home which is enabled through cooking strategies, social support and experimentation. Young flexitarians are motivated to reduce meat consumption due to concern about various individual (health, variety, price, reduce social unease) and altruistic (environment and ethics) motivations. Continued meat consumption is mainly driven by a need to compromise at social gatherings, and due to positive associations with variety, nutrients and fullness as well as taste due to cravings. The findings have several implications for social marketing and public health, particularly around supportive social settings, seeing flexitarianism as a 'not all or nothing approach' (one does not have to be a full vegetarian or a meat eater, but can instead be something in between), positive emotions such as pride associated with meat reduction, and that documentaries and social networks are key triggers for meat reduction.