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Jones JD, Chaple M, Rozen S, DelaCuesta C, Sosa ES, Bryant K. Empirical assessment of wounds among people who use substances. Drug Alcohol Depend 2024; 262:111375. [PMID: 38971028 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2024.111375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wounds are a significant source of morbidity among people who use substances (PWUS). This project sought to identify the incidence and severity of wounds among PWUS in the South Bronx, a region of New York City with one of the highest morbidities of substance use disorder. METHODS This study recruited PWUS within the past 30 days. Research staff were trained to document the presence and severity of wounds. The primary outcome measure was the incidence of wounds. Acceptability of on-the-street wound care was assessed by the number of participants encountered. The association between participant characteristics and wounds was also evaluated. RESULTS In total, 586 PWUS were assessed (19.4 % female: 69 % Hispanic; 23 % Black; 5 % White). Heroin (65.7 %) and psychostimulants (58.3 %) were the most commonly used drugs. Approximately 23 % of outreach recipients disclosed a wound. Among those with a wound, 60.9 % reported one wound, 27.8 % had two wounds, and 11.3 % had three or more wounds. Small wounds (approximately the size of a cherry) were the most common (78.6 %). Recent use of stimulants or heroin, along with intravenous use of any substance were significantly associated with having a wound. CONCLUSIONS This study found that drug-related wounds were common among PWUS. Toxicology data from other sources indicate that xylazine was present in the NYC market at the time, though its prevalence among the current sample is difficult to determine. The occurrence and severity of substance-related wounds in NYC should continue to be monitored as a function of changes in the xylazine adulteration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jermaine D Jones
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 W. 168th St, New York, NY 10032, United States; New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY 10032, United States.
| | - Michael Chaple
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 W. 168th St, New York, NY 10032, United States; New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Stephanie Rozen
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 W. 168th St, New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Courtney DelaCuesta
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 W. 168th St, New York, NY 10032, United States; New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Emely Santiago Sosa
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 W. 168th St, New York, NY 10032, United States; New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Kellie Bryant
- Columbia University School of Nursing, 560 W 168th St, New York, NY 10032, United States
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2
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Slosse A, Van Durme F, Samyn N, Mangelings D, Vander Heyden Y. Cannabis profiling of seized samples: An intra-location variability study using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry profiles and multivariate data analysis. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:504-514. [PMID: 37691538 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Yearly, cannabis belongs to the most seized drugs worldwide. During judicial investigations, illicit cannabis profiling can be performed to compare seized herbal material. However, comparison is challenging because of the natural heterogeneity of the psychoactive crop. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) profiles, consisting of eight cannabinoids, were used to study the intra-location (within) and inter-location (between) variabilities. Decision thresholds were derived from the 95% and 99% confidence limits, applying Pearson correlation coefficients for the intra-location samples. The false negatives and false positives (FPs) determined the discriminative power of different pretreatments applied to obtain the lowest FP error rate possible. Initially, a 97 samples data set was used and with log transformation as pretreatment, a decrease in FPs from 38% and 45% FPs to 17% and 22%, for both confidence limits, respectively, was seen relative to internal standard normalization that was used as reference. An additional intra-plantation variability study with 130 samples verified whether the initial model contained sufficient within-location information, but this was not the case. Hence, a combined data matrix was constructed with all seized samples. Log transformation provided the best FP results for both limits, that is, an improvement from 58% and 64% to 21% and 26%, respectively, was seen. The representativeness of these 'linked' thresholds was demonstrated using both cross-validation and an external set, for which similar FP results as for the calibration set were obtained. By applying data pretreatment, a significant improvement was observed to distinguish seized samples. However, the FP rate is still not at an acceptable level to defend in court.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amorn Slosse
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Applied Chemometrics and Molecular Modelling, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
- Department Drugs and Toxicology, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Durme
- Department Drugs and Toxicology, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Nele Samyn
- Department Drugs and Toxicology, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Debby Mangelings
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Applied Chemometrics and Molecular Modelling, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yvan Vander Heyden
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Applied Chemometrics and Molecular Modelling, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
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3
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Horn J. The dichotomy between health and drug abuse in bodybuilding. NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS 2024; 41:212-225. [PMID: 38645972 PMCID: PMC11027851 DOI: 10.1177/14550725231206011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Aim: The aim of the present study was to investigate the expansion and prevalence of anabolic steroid use by examining the divergent effects between health and drug abuse and to create more awareness around the harmful consequences of these drugs when administered at abusive levels. Methods: A focused and concise literature search was conducted, and 101 high-quality articles were included in the review. Results: The findings underscore the adverse health risks of steroid abuse, emphasizing the stark contrast between health and drug abuse. Conclusions: While steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs can yield muscle growth, strength and even fat loss, abusing these substances can lead to adverse health outcomes. Furthermore, within the fitness subculture, particularly in the realm of bodybuilding, steroid abuse fosters an atmosphere of cheating and deception, frequently downplaying or ignoring the negative and sometimes deadly consequences it brings.
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4
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Galust H, Seltzer JA, Hardin JR, Friedman NA, Salamat J, Clark RF, Harmon J. Adulterants present in the San Diego county fentanyl supply: a laboratory analysis of seized law enforcement samples. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:923. [PMID: 38553721 PMCID: PMC10981322 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-18459-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The opioid overdose crisis is one of the worst public health crises ever to face the US and emerging evidence suggests its effects are compounded by the presence of drug adulterants. Here we report our efforts to characterize the adulterants present within the local fentanyl supply of San Diego County, obtained from undifferentiated drug samples seized by local law enforcement over the calendar year 2021. METHODS Thirty-two participating local law enforcement agencies across San Diego submitted 4838 unknown individual illicit drug samples (total of 312 kg) to the San Diego County Sheriff's Department Regional Crime Laboratory for identification. RESULTS Qualitative analysis of these samples via FTIR and GC-MS identified methamphetamine (38.7%), fentanyl (20.8%), diacetylmorphine (heroin) (10.2%), codeine (5.8%) and alprazolam (4.3%) as the most common illicit substances and the presence of 52 unique adulterants. The most common adulterants included 4-methylaminoantipyrine (4-MAAP) (10.9%), mannitol (9%), acetaminophen (8.5%), methamphetamine (4.2%), diacetylmorphine (heroin) (3.6%), tramadol (1.9%), and xylazine (1.7%). Several additional pharmacologically active adulterants and contaminants of interest were also identified. CONCLUSION This analysis is vital for public health use and harm reduction efforts at the level of the individual consumer. Continued direct surveillance of the drug supply is necessary for the detection of potentially harmful adulterants that may pose serious threats to the public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Galust
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA.
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA.
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA.
| | - Justin A Seltzer
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jeremy R Hardin
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Nathan A Friedman
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jeff Salamat
- San Diego County Sheriff's Crime Laboratory. John F. Duffy Administrative Center, 9621. Ridgehaven Ct, 92123, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Richard F Clark
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, UC San Diego Health, 200 W. Arbor Dr. #8676, 92103, San Diego, CA, USA
- VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
- California Poison Control System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer Harmon
- San Diego County Sheriff's Crime Laboratory. John F. Duffy Administrative Center, 9621. Ridgehaven Ct, 92123, San Diego, CA, USA
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5
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Alexander-Savino CV, Mirowski GW, Culton DA. Mucocutaneous Manifestations of Recreational Drug Use. Am J Clin Dermatol 2024; 25:281-297. [PMID: 38217568 DOI: 10.1007/s40257-023-00835-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Recreational drug use is increasingly common in the dermatology patient population and is often associated with both general and specific mucocutaneous manifestations. Signs of substance use disorder may include changes to general appearance, skin, and mucosal findings associated with particular routes of drug administration (injection, insufflation, or inhalation) or findings specific to a particular drug. In this review article, we provide an overview of the mucocutaneous manifestations of illicit drug use including cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, hallucinogens, marijuana, and common adulterants to facilitate the identification and improved care of these patients with the goal being to connect this patient population with appropriate resources for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina V Alexander-Savino
- State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
- Department of Dermatology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 410 Market Street, Suite 400, Chapel Hill, NC, 27516, USA
| | - Ginat W Mirowski
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Oral Pathology, Medicine, Radiology, Indiana University School of Dentistry, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Donna A Culton
- Department of Dermatology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 410 Market Street, Suite 400, Chapel Hill, NC, 27516, USA.
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6
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Zamengo L, Frison G, Bettin C, Badocco D, Ghezzo N, Di Pino G, Favaretto A, Pani A. Predicting heroin potency from the analysis of paraphernalia: A tool for overdose prevention projects. Forensic Sci Int 2023; 352:111834. [PMID: 37806165 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2023.111834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, fatal and non-fatal heroin-related overdoses have increased in northeastern Italy, and the change in potency of heroin available at street level has been identified as a prominent factor associated with acute toxicity. Two very different products, high-potency and low-potency heroin were becoming available on the street, and no clear morphological characteristics could be used to easily distinguish them. A theoretical model for predicting heroin potency from rapid analysis of cigarette filters was developed as part of an overdose prevention project. The model was derived from the analysis of real heroin samples and exploits the common presence of caffeine in heroin as an adulterant. It was tested on laboratory prepared filters, real filters used to prepare heroin injections, and other paraphernalia. The model showed strong predictive ability and was used to implement a rapid alert system to inform drug users and healthcare institutions about the potency of heroin or other psychoactive substances circulating in the area. Cigarette filters were used as standard material, but other paraphernalia were successfully tested. The developed model is a dynamic tool whose parameters can be updated according to the market characteristics, so it can be useful for laboratories involved in drug analysis and similar prevention programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Zamengo
- Laboratory of Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, DMPO Department, AULSS 3, Venice, Italy.
| | - Giampietro Frison
- Laboratory of Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, DMPO Department, AULSS 3, Venice, Italy
| | - Chiara Bettin
- Laboratory of Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, DMPO Department, AULSS 3, Venice, Italy
| | - Denis Badocco
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Di Pino
- Harm reduction activities, Department of Social Services, Municipality of Venice, Italy
| | - Alberto Favaretto
- Harm reduction activities, Department of Social Services, Municipality of Venice, Italy
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7
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Midthun KM, Nelson BN, Strathmann FG, Browne T, Logan BK. Analysis of umbilical cord tissue as an indicator of in utero exposure to toxic adulterating substances. Front Pediatr 2023; 11:1127020. [PMID: 37025298 PMCID: PMC10070803 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2023.1127020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In utero drug exposure is a significant public health threat to the well-being and normal development of the neonate. Recently, testing of umbilical cord tissue (UCT) has been employed to measure illicit drug exposure, as drugs used by the mother during the third trimester may be retained in the UCT. Focus has also been given to potential adverse health effects among drug users, resulting from exposure to pharmacologically active adulterants and cutting agents in the street drug supply. The in utero effects of these substances have not been well studied in humans, nor has their presence been demonstrated as a means for assessing adverse health effects in the neonate. Here, we describe the application of a novel test method to analyze UCT for the presence of more than 20 common adulterating/cutting substances via LC/Q-TOF. In total, 300 de-identified UCT samples were analyzed-all had previously tested positive for cocaine or opiates. Generally, the positivity rates of individual compounds were similar between the Cocaine and Opiates Subgroups, apart from levamisole, xylazine, dipyrone (metabolites), and promethazine. Many of the adulterants used in the street drug supply do have legitimate medicinal/therapeutic uses, including several of the compounds most frequently detected in this study. Caffeine and lidocaine were the most frequently identified compounds both individually (>70% each) and in combination with each other. Alternatively, levamisole, an adulterant with no legitimate therapeutic use, was present in 12% of cases. Importantly, this data demonstrates that the detection of traditional drugs of abuse may serve as indicators of potential in utero exposure to toxic adulterating substances during gestation. While there is cause for concern with respect to any unintentional drug exposure, illicit drug use during pregnancy, including uncontrolled dosing, poly-adulterant consumption, and the interactions of these drug mixtures, produces a significant public health threat to the neonate which warrants further study.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Thom Browne
- Colombo Plan Secretariat, Colombo, Sri Lanka
| | - Barry K. Logan
- NMS Labs, Horsham, PA, United States
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE) at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, United States
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8
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Doyle WS, Huskinson SL. Environmental Uncertainty and Substance Use Disorders: A Behavior Analytic Perspective. POLICY INSIGHTS FROM THE BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES 2023; 10:96-103. [PMID: 38550572 PMCID: PMC10978010 DOI: 10.1177/23727322231152451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
Substance use disorder (SUD) and drug overdose deaths represent major economic, health, and safety issues in the United States. The psychology of uncertainty provides a mechanism for understanding, reducing, and controlling the damage from substance misuse. Illicit drugs (such as heroin or cocaine) are uncertain in their availability, quality, and acquisition (the time and effort required to obtain them) compared with nondrug-related alternatives (such as consumable goods, hobbies, or paychecks). Furthermore, the severity and likelihood of negative outcomes associated with drug use likewise are uncertain. Such uncertainties worsen substance use outcomes. The current review conveys what is known about the impact of uncertainty on substance use: laboratory investigations of uncertain time and effort required to obtain a substance and uncertain drug quality show uncertainty exacerbates harm. Furthermore, uncertain negative outcomes are not likely to deter substance use in individuals with a SUD. Finally, several policy implications include access to agonist medications; creating a safer drug supply; access to clean syringes/needles, naloxone, and safe-injection sites; and ending incarceration for substance use.
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Affiliation(s)
- William S. Doyle
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS USA
| | - Sally L. Huskinson
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS USA
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
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9
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Rich KM, Solomon DA. Medical Complications of Injection Drug Use - Part I. NEJM EVIDENCE 2023; 2:EVIDra2200292. [PMID: 38320040 DOI: 10.1056/evidra2200292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Medical Complications of Injection Drug Use - Part IDuring the past 2 decades, the risk of death and the prevalence of hospitalizations in the United States have increased substantially among people who inject drugs, in large part because of the opioid epidemic. This article reviews the complications observed in people who inject drugs as well as strategies to reduce harm.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel A Solomon
- Harvard Medical School, Boston
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston
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10
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Burton K, Nic Daeid N, Adegoke O. Surface plasmon-enhanced aptamer-based fluorescence detection of cocaine using hybrid nanostructure of cadmium-free ZnSe/In2S3 core/shell quantum dots and gold nanoparticles. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2022.114131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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11
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Heroin detection in a droplet hosted in a 3D printed support at the miniaturized electrified liquid-liquid interface. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18615. [PMID: 36329050 PMCID: PMC9633610 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21689-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple sensing protocols for the detection of illicit drugs are needed. Electrochemical sensing is especially attractive in this respect, as its cost together with the analytical accuracy aspires to replace still frequently used colorimetric tests. In this work, we have shown that the interfacial transfer of protonated heroin can be followed at the electrified water-1,2-dichloroethane interface. We have comprehensively studied the interfacial behavior of heroin alone and in the presence of its major and abundant cutting agents, caffeine and paracetamol. To maximally increase developed sensing protocol applicability we have designed and 3D printed a platform requiring only a few microliters of the aqueous and the organic phase. The proposed sensing platform was equipped with a cavity hosting a short section of Ag/AgCl electrode, up to 20 µL of the aqueous phase and the end of the micropipette tip being used as a casing of a fused silica capillary having 25 µm as the internal pore diameter. The volume of the organic phase was equal to around 5 µL and was present inside the micropipette tip. We have shown that under optimized conditions heroin can be detected in the presence of caffeine and paracetamol existing in a sample with 10,000 times excess over the analyte of interest. The calculated limit of detection equal to 1.3 µM, linear dynamic range spanning to at least 50 µM, good reproducibility, and very low volume of needed sample is fully in line with forensic demands.
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12
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Mital R, Chung CG, Kaffenberger BH. Recognizing cutaneous signs of addiction: the "shooter's patch" and surrounding buckshot tattoos. Int J Dermatol 2022. [PMID: 36250777 DOI: 10.1111/ijd.16455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rohan Mital
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Dermatology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Catherine G Chung
- Department of Dermatology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Benjamin H Kaffenberger
- Department of Dermatology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
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13
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Assessment of opioid surrogates for spectroscopic testing (Part III). Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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14
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Griffin A, Henry J, Kirkbride KP, Painter B, Linacre A. A survey of the effects of common illicit drugs on forensic DNA analysis. Forensic Sci Int 2022; 336:111314. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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15
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Arantes LC, da Silva CM, Caldas ED. Plastic antioxidants: A family of cocaine cutting agents analyzed by short column gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1675:463170. [PMID: 35660316 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Plastic antioxidants (PAOs), which are used in the industry to prevent degradation caused by thermo-mechanical or thermo-oxidative conditions, have been found in cocaine products seized by the Civil Police of the Federal District, Brazil, since 2019. In this study, a 4-meter short column gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) qualitative method was optimized and validated to detect cocaine, PAOs (antioxidant 168, FOS; antioxidant 1076, NOX; and butylated hydroxytoluene, BHT) and 16 other cutting agents in cocaine base and salt. NOX and FOS are high-boiling-point compounds that are not amenable to the standard GC-MS methods. The method uses a 250 °C split mode injection, final temperature of 280 °C, and a total run time of 16.5 min. PAOs were found in 84.2% of the 38 cocaine base samples and in 21.5% of the 65 cocaine salt samples (mainly NOX); 20 samples that did not contain any cocaine also contained PAOs (30% NOX and 25% FOS). Other cutting agents found in the samples included phenacetin, aminopyrine, and lidocaine in cocaine base; lidocaine, tetracaine, and caffeine in cocaine salt. This is the first report of PAOs detected as cocaine cutting agents and shows another important application of the short column GC-MS method in forensic science that can also be applied in other areas involving these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano Chaves Arantes
- Forensic Analysis Laboratory, Criminalistics Institute, Civil Police of the Federal District, 70610-907 Brasília, Federal District, Brazil; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacy, University of Brasília, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, 70910-900 Brasília, Federal District, Brazil
| | - Camilla Morandi da Silva
- Forensic Analysis Laboratory, Criminalistics Institute, Civil Police of the Federal District, 70610-907 Brasília, Federal District, Brazil
| | - Eloisa Dutra Caldas
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacy, University of Brasília, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, 70910-900 Brasília, Federal District, Brazil.
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16
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Swift electrochemical sensing of diltiazem employing highly-selective molecularly-imprinted 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.116207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Luger S, Mayerhuber L, Weigelhofer G, Hein T, Hametner C, Fruhmann P. Development of Ion‐selective electrodes for tropane, atropine, and scopolamine ‐ a concept for the analysis of tropane alkaloids. ELECTROANAL 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.202100594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Luger
- Competence Centre for Electrochemical Surface Technology AUSTRIA
| | - Lisa Mayerhuber
- Competence Centre for Electrochemical Surface Technology AUSTRIA
| | | | - Thomas Hein
- WasserCluster Lunz, Biological Station AUSTRIA
| | - Christian Hametner
- Vienna University of Technology Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry AUSTRIA
| | - Philipp Fruhmann
- Competence Centre for Electrochemical Surface Technology AUSTRIA
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18
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Rapid On-Site Detection of Illicit Drugs in Smuggled Samples with a Portable Electrochemical Device. CHEMOSENSORS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors10030108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The smuggling of illicit drugs urges the development of new tools for rapid on-site identification in cargos. Current methods rely on presumptive color tests and portable spectroscopic techniques. However, these methods sometimes exhibit inaccurate results due to commonly used cutting agents, the colorful nature of the sample or because the drugs are smuggled in common goods. Interestingly, electrochemical sensors can deal with these specific problems. Herein, an electrochemical device is presented that uses affordable screen-printed electrodes for the electrochemical profiling of several illicit drugs by square-wave voltammetry (SWV). The identification of the illicit compound is based on the oxidation potential of the analyte. Hence, a library of electrochemical profiles is built upon the analysis of illicit drugs and common cutting agents. This library allows the design of a tailor-made script that enables the identification of each drug through a user-friendly interface (laptop or mobile phone). Importantly, the electrochemical test is compared by analyzing 48 confiscated samples with other portable devices based on Raman and FTIR spectroscopy as well as a laboratory standard method (i.e., gas chromatography–mass spectrometry). Overall, the electrochemical results, obtained through the analysis of different samples from confiscated cargos at an end-user site, present a promising alternative to current methods, offering low-cost and rapid testing in the field.
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19
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Hendijani F, Hosseini FS. Interindividual variability in diabetic patients’ response to opium poppy: an overview of impressive factors. Per Med 2022; 19:155-163. [PMID: 35220727 DOI: 10.2217/pme-2021-0107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic patients always seek alternative treatments to lower their blood glucose level efficiently, because antidiabetic drugs produce adverse effects and many patients experience reduced response after a treatment period. Opium poppy ( Papaver somniferum) is frequently consumed by diabetic patients for reduction of blood glucose level. Scientific studies found controversial results in the investigation of the blood glucose-lowering effects of opium poppy. In this regard, we explored the antidiabetic effect of opium poppy more closely. The antidiabetic or antihyperglycemic effect of P. somniferum alkaloids were reviewed. Next, opioid receptors and their role in diabetes were explored. In the final part origins of interindividual variabilities in opioid receptors and metabolizing enzymes’ functions including genetic and epigenetic factors were reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Hendijani
- Department of Pharmacognosy & Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sadat Hosseini
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
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20
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Ferris TJ, Haigh LD, Jenner SJ. Identification of Common Cutting Agents in Latent Fingerprints by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography – Electrospray Ionization – Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-qToF-MS). ANAL LETT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2022.2033255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Trevor J. Ferris
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Lisa D. Haigh
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College, London, UK
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21
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Kranenburg RF, Ramaker H, Sap S, Asten AC. A Calibration Friendly Approach to Identify Drugs of Abuse Mixtures with a Portable Near‐Infrared Analyzer. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1089-1101. [PMID: 35098685 PMCID: PMC9305489 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Both the increasing number and diversity of illicit‐drug seizures complicate forensic drug identification. Traditionally, colorimetric tests are performed on‐site, followed by transport to a laboratory for confirmatory analysis. Higher caseloads increase laboratory workload and associated transport and chain‐of‐evidence assurance performed by police officers. Colorimetric tests are specific only for a small set of drugs. The rise of new psychoactive substances therefore introduces risks for erroneous results. Near‐infrared (NIR)‐based analyzers may overcome these encumbrances by their compound‐specific spectral selectivity and broad applicability. This work introduces a portable NIR analyzer that combines a broad wavelength range (1300–2600 nm) with a chemometric model developed specifically for forensic samples. The application requires only a limited set of reference spectra for time‐efficient model training. This calibration‐light approach thus eliminates the need of extensive training sets including mixtures. Performance was demonstrated with 520 casework samples resulting in a 99.6% true negative and 97.6% true positive rate for cocaine. Similar results were obtained for MDMA, methamphetamine, ketamine, and heroin. Additionally, 236 samples were analyzed by scanning directly through their plastic packaging. Also here, a >97% true positive rate was obtained. This allows for non‐invasive, operator‐safe chemical identification of potentially potent drugs of abuse. Our results demonstrate the applicability for multiple drug‐related substances. Ideally, the combination of this NIR approach with other portable techniques, such as Raman and IR spectroscopy and electrochemical tests, may eventually eliminate the need for subsequent laboratory analysis; therefore, saving tremendous resources in the overall forensic process of confirmatory illicit drug identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben F. Kranenburg
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25 Amsterdam BA The Netherlands
- Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences University of Amsterdam Amsterdam GD The Netherlands
| | | | - Sharon Sap
- Dutch Customs Laboratory, Kingsfordweg 1 Amsterdam GN The Netherlands
| | - Arian C. Asten
- Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences University of Amsterdam Amsterdam GD The Netherlands
- Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Postbus 94157 Amsterdam GD The Netherlands
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22
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Laposchan S, Kranenburg RF, van Asten AC. Impurities, adulterants and cutting agents in cocaine as potential candidates for retrospective mining of GC-MS data. Sci Justice 2022; 62:60-75. [PMID: 35033329 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine is one of the most widely used illicit drugs worldwide. Cocaine powders seized by the Police may contain numerous other substances besides the drug itself. These can be impurities originating from the coca plant or the production process, or be purposely added to the drug formulation as adulterants and cutting agents. In forensic laboratories, identification of cocaine is routinely done through GC-MS analysis, but other components are often ignored even if the method allows for their detection. Yet, they can provide valuable insight into the history of a seizure and its potential connection to other samples. To explore this idea, an extensive review of common impurities and adulterants encountered in cocaine is presented. Based on their incidence, concentration in the end product and compatibility with GC-MS methods, their overall usefulness as candidates for the statistical investigation of existing forensic data is evaluated. The impurities cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine, tropacocaine, norcocaine and N-benzoylnormethylecgonine as well as the adulterants lidocaine, procaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, caffeine, acetylsalicylic acid, phenacetin, ibuprofen, levamisole, hydroxyzine and diltiazem are promising candidates to provide additional forensic intelligence. Future research on optimized routine GC-MS methods, signal reproducibility, comparison, statistics and databases is suggested to facilitate this concept. Ultimately, such an approach may significantly advance the amount of information that is extracted from routine casework data, elucidate developments in the cocaine markets in the past and facilitate Police work in the future. Preliminary assessment of existing data from the forensic laboratory of the Amsterdam Police has been included to show that the detection of the identified target impurities is feasible, and that small adjustments to the analysis method could significantly increase the detectability of these analytes in prospective drug screenings. Forensic intelligence based on retrospective data mining of cocaine containing casework samples may thus be realized with minimal additional laboratory efforts by using already available instrumentation, samples and data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Laposchan
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25, Amsterdam 1014 BA, The Netherlands; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands
| | - Ruben F Kranenburg
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25, Amsterdam 1014 BA, The Netherlands; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands.
| | - Arian C van Asten
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands; Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands
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23
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Żubrycka A, Kwaśnica A, Haczkiewicz M, Sipa K, Rudnicki K, Skrzypek S, Poltorak L. Illicit drugs street samples and their cutting agents. The result of the GC-MS based profiling define the guidelines for sensors development. Talanta 2022; 237:122904. [PMID: 34736717 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we have focused on the profiling of 5647 street samples covering marijuana, common and new recreational illicit drugs. All samples were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. In total we have identified 53 illicit drugs with Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), amphetamine, N-ethylhexedrone, 3,4-methylenedioxy methamphetamine (MDMA), 4-chloromethcathinone (4-CMC), α-pyrrolidinoisohexaphenone (α-PHiP), cocaine, and 4-chloroethcathinone (4-CEC) being most commonly found and making 38.5, 17.8, 15.5, 8.0, 3.5, 2.7, 2.1, and 2.0% of the total studied pool, respectively. Except for methadone, all analyzed street samples were spiked with at least one cutting agent. Caffeine was the most frequently found adulterating addition present in around 33% (excluding marijuana) of the analyzed samples. Other identified cutting agents make an impressive group of more than 160 compounds. Finally, we have tabulated, illustrated, and discussed presented data in a view of smart and portable sensors development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Żubrycka
- Laboratorium Badań Toksykologicznych Lab4Tox Sp. Z o.o., Skłodowskiej-Curie 55/61, 50-369, Wroclaw, Poland; Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Andrzej Kwaśnica
- Laboratorium Badań Toksykologicznych Lab4Tox Sp. Z o.o., Skłodowskiej-Curie 55/61, 50-369, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Monika Haczkiewicz
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 25, 50-375 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Karolina Sipa
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Konrad Rudnicki
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Sławomira Skrzypek
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Lukasz Poltorak
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland.
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24
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Classification of carfentanil synthesis methods based on chemical impurity profile. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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25
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Voltammetric sensing using an array of modified SPCE coupled with machine learning strategies for the improved identification of opioids in presence of cutting agents. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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26
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Hesse M, Thomsen KR, Thylstrup B, Andersen CU, Reitzel LA, Worm-Leonhard M, Lindholst C. Purity of street-level cocaine across Denmark from 2006 to 2019: Analysis of seized cocaine. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 329:111050. [PMID: 34736046 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.111050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine-related emergency department admissions are increasing, and cocaine seizures are at an all-time high in Europe. Our aim was to investigate the trends in purity and adulterants over time in cocaine available to cocaine users at street level in Denmark. We used a representative sample of cocaine seized at street level and analyzed by the national departments of forensic medicine between 2006 and 2019 (n = 1460). Latent profile analysis was used to classify the samples based on cocaine, levamisole, and phenacetin content. Low purity cocaine comprised most of the cocaine seizures in early years, but its share began to decline in 2013, and from 2016 to 2019, the high purity profile was dominant. While the total number of samples containing adulterants decreased, levamisole remained a common and dangerous adulterant. The findings underline the need to inform the public, medical doctors, and service providers for people with drug use disorders about the higher potency of street cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morten Hesse
- Aarhus University, Center for Alcohol and Drug Research, Bartholins Allé 10, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Kristine Rømer Thomsen
- Aarhus University, Center for Alcohol and Drug Research, Bartholins Allé 10, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Birgitte Thylstrup
- Aarhus University, Center for Alcohol and Drug Research, Bartholins Allé 10, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Charlotte Uggerhøj Andersen
- Aarhus University, Department of Forensic Medicine, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, Building Z, 3.017, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark.
| | | | | | - Christian Lindholst
- Aarhus University, Department of Forensic Medicine, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, Building Z, 3.017, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark.
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27
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White CM, Browne T, Nafziger AN. Inherent Dangers of Using Non-US Food and Drug Administration-Approved Substances of Abuse. J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 61 Suppl 2:S129-S141. [PMID: 34396559 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Use of US Food and Drug Administration-approved substances of abuse has innate risks due to pharmacologic and pharmacokinetic properties of the medications, but the risk when using nonapproved drug products is much greater. Unbeknownst to the user, the dose of active ingredients in substances of abuse can vary substantially between different products because of manufacturing practices or improper storage. Even naturally occurring substances of abuse can have extensive dosage variability because of effects of the growing season and conditions, or differences in harvesting, storage, or manufacture of the finished products. Many illicit substances are adulterated, to make up for intentional underdosing or to enhance the effect of the intended active ingredient. These adulterants can be dangerous and produce direct cardiovascular, neurologic, hematologic, or dermatologic reactions or obscure adverse effects. Finally, an illicit substance can be contaminated or substituted for another one during its manufacture, leading to differences in adverse events, adverse event severity, or the drug interaction profile. Substances can be contaminated with microbes that induce infections or heavy metals that can damage organs or cause cancer. This milieu of undisclosed substances can also induce drug interactions. For reasons that are discussed, individuals who use substances of abuse are at increased risk of morbidity or mortality if they develop coronavirus disease 2019. Health professionals who treat patients with acute, urgent events associated with substances of abuse, or those treating the chronic manifestations of addiction, need to appreciate the complex and variable composition of substances of abuse and their potential health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Michael White
- Pharmacy Practice, University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.,HOPES Research Group, UConn and Hartford Hospital, Hartford, Connecticut, USA
| | - Thom Browne
- Rubicon Global Enterprises & Colombo Plan Secretariat, Huachuca City, Arizona, USA
| | - Anne N Nafziger
- Bertino Consulting, Schenectady, New York, USA.,Department of Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, USA
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28
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Vearrier D, Grundmann O. Clinical Pharmacology, Toxicity, and Abuse Potential of Opioids. J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 61 Suppl 2:S70-S88. [PMID: 34396552 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Opioids were the most common drug class resulting in overdose deaths in the United States in 2019. Widespread clinical use of prescription opioids for moderate to severe pain contributed to the ongoing opioid epidemic with the subsequent emergence of fentanyl-laced heroin. More potent analogues of fentanyl and structurally diverse opioid receptor agonists such as AH-7921 and MT-45 are fueling an increasingly diverse illicit opioid supply. Overdose from synthetic opioids with high binding affinities may not respond to a typical naloxone dose, thereby rendering autoinjectors less effective, requiring higher antagonist doses or resulting in a confusing clinical picture for health care providers. Nonscheduled opioid drugs such as loperamide and dextromethorphan are associated with dependence and risk of overdose as easier access makes them attractive to opioid users. Despite a common opioid-mediated pathway, several opioids present with unique pharmacodynamic properties leading to acute toxicity and dependence development. Pharmacokinetic considerations involve half-life of the parent opioid and its metabolites as well as resulting toxicity, as is established for tramadol, codeine, and oxycodone. Pharmacokinetic considerations, toxicities, and treatment approaches for notable opioids are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Vearrier
- Emergency Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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29
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Carby-Robinson D, Dalsgaard PW, Mollerup CB, Linnet K, Rasmussen BS. Cocaine profiling method retrospectively developed with nontargeted discovery of markers using liquid chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry data. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:462-473. [PMID: 34265168 PMCID: PMC9291609 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug profiling performed by forensic laboratories assists law enforcement agencies through providing information about chemical and/or physical characteristics of seized specimens. In this article, a model was developed for the comparison of seized cocaine based on retrospective analysis of data generated from ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography with time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC‐TOF‐MS) comprehensive drug screening. A nontargeted approach to discover target compounds was employed, which generated 53 potential markers using data from cocaine positive samples. Twelve marker compounds were selected for the development of the final profiling model. The selection included a mixture of commonly used cocaine profiling targets and other cocaine‐related compounds. Combinations of pretreatments and comparison metrics were assessed using receiver operating characteristic curves to determine the combination with the best discrimination between linked and unlinked populations. Using data from 382 linked and 34,519 unlinked distances, a classification model was developed using a combination of the standardization and normalization transformations with Canberra distance, resulting in a linked cut‐off with a 0.5% false positive rate. The present study demonstrates the applicability of retrospectively developing a cocaine profiling model using data generated from UHPLC‐TOF‐MS nontargeted drug screening without pre‐existing information about cocaine impurities. The developed workflow was not specific to cocaine and thus could potentially be applied to any seized drug in which there are both sufficient data and impurities present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Carby-Robinson
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Petur Weihe Dalsgaard
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christian Brinch Mollerup
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristian Linnet
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Brian Schou Rasmussen
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Nastev A, Sommer JU, Behr W, Stuck BA, Mueller CE, Schell A, Kramer B, Haeussler D, Hoermann K, Birk R. Cocaine Reduces Ciliary Beat Frequency of Human Nasal Epithelial Cells. In Vivo 2021; 34:3285-3289. [PMID: 33144435 DOI: 10.21873/invivo.12166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM Cocaine is a widely used recreational drug and is known for its nasal complications including epithelial, cartilage and bone damage. The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of cocaine on ciliary beat frequency (CBF) of human nasal epithelial cells and therefore better understand its side effects on nasal mucosa. MATERIALS AND METHODS Nasal epithelial cells of 21 healthy subjects were harvested and exposed in vitro to cocaine hydrochloride solutions ranging from 0.875% to 7%. High-speed video footage was acquired with phase contrast microscopy and CBF was analyzed with Sissons-Ammons Video Analysis (SAVA) software. RESULTS All tested concentrations led to a significant reduction in CBF compared to the control. Effects increased over time and with concentration. A mechanical inhibition of cilia by cocaine crystals was also observed. CONCLUSION We assume that CBF reduction is part of the pathomechanism leading to nasal complications in cocaine abuse. Considering these results, clinical usage of cocaine should be critically evaluated and restricted to select cases only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Nastev
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Marburg, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - J Ulrich Sommer
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Helios University Hospital Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Wieland Behr
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Marburg, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Boris A Stuck
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Marburg, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - C Emika Mueller
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Marburg, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Angela Schell
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Mannheim Medical Faculty, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Benedikt Kramer
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Mannheim Medical Faculty, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Daniel Haeussler
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Mannheim Medical Faculty, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Karl Hoermann
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Mannheim Medical Faculty, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Richard Birk
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Marburg, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
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31
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Identifying Cocaine Adulteration in the Unregulated Drug Supply in British Columbia, Canada. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF ADDICTION 2021. [DOI: 10.1097/cxa.0000000000000112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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32
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Mail R, Teoh WK, Kunalan V, Chang KH, Abdullah AFL. Quick discrimination of seized Erimin-5 tablets by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00450618.2021.1921266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Radwan Mail
- Forensic Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
- Department of Chemistry Malaysia (Kelantan Branch, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Way Koon Teoh
- Forensic Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Vanitha Kunalan
- Narcotics Division, Forensic Science Analysis Centre, Department of Chemistry Malaysia (Headquarter), Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kah Haw Chang
- Forensic Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Ahmad Fahmi Lim Abdullah
- Forensic Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
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33
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Felipe Montiel N, Parrilla M, Beltrán V, Nuyts G, Van Durme F, De Wael K. The opportunity of 6-monoacetylmorphine to selectively detect heroin at preanodized screen printed electrodes. Talanta 2021; 226:122005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.122005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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34
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Kranenburg RF, Verduin J, de Ridder R, Weesepoel Y, Alewijn M, Heerschop M, Keizers PH, van Esch A, van Asten AC. Performance evaluation of handheld Raman spectroscopy for cocaine detection in forensic case samples. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1054-1067. [PMID: 33354929 PMCID: PMC8248000 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Handheld Raman spectroscopy is an emerging technique for rapid on-site detection of drugs of abuse. Most devices are developed for on-scene operation with a user interface that only shows whether cocaine has been detected. Extensive validation studies are unavailable, and so are typically the insight in raw spectral data and the identification criteria. This work evaluates the performance of a commercial handheld Raman spectrometer for cocaine detection based on (i) its performance on 0-100 wt% binary cocaine mixtures, (ii) retrospective comparison of 3,168 case samples from 2015 to 2020 analyzed by both gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Raman, (iii) assessment of spectral selectivity, and (iv) comparison of the instrument's on-screen results with combined partial least square regression (PLS-R) and discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) models. The limit of detection was dependent on sample composition and varied between 10 wt% and 40 wt% cocaine. Because the average cocaine content in street samples is well above this limit, a 97.5% true positive rate was observed in case samples. No cocaine false positives were reported, although 12.5% of the negative samples were initially reported as inconclusive by the built-in software. The spectral assessment showed high selectivity for Raman peaks at 1,712 (cocaine base) and 1,716 cm-1 (cocaine HCl). Combined PLS-R and PLS-DA models using these features confirmed and further improved instrument performance. This study scientifically assessed the performance of a commercial Raman spectrometer, providing useful insight on its applicability for both presumptive detection and legally valid evidence of cocaine presence for law enforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben F. Kranenburg
- Forensic LaboratoryDutch National Police, Unit AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Joshka Verduin
- Forensic LaboratoryDutch National Police, Unit AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Renee de Ridder
- Forensic LaboratoryDutch National Police, Unit AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Yannick Weesepoel
- Wageningen Food Safety ResearchWageningen University and ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Martin Alewijn
- Wageningen Food Safety ResearchWageningen University and ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
| | | | - Peter H.J. Keizers
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM)BilthovenThe Netherlands
| | | | - Arian C. van Asten
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and MedicineAmsterdamThe Netherlands
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Roberts DM, Premachandra KH, Chan BS, Auld R, Jiranantakan T, Ewers C, McDonald C, Shaw V, Brown JA. A cluster of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) poisonings following insufflation of a white powder sold as cocaine. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2021; 59:969-974. [PMID: 33849370 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2021.1904140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Adulteration, substitution or contamination of illicit substances can have clinically significant implications when other illicit substances are included. Such circumstances can present as clusters of poisonings, including severe toxicity and death following exposure to unexpected illicit substances. We report a cluster of laboratory-confirmed lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in a powder that was sold as cocaine and used recreationally. METHODS The Prescription, Recreational and Illicit Substance Evaluation (PRISE) program established by the New South Wales Ministry of Health includes State-based hospital toxicology services, Poisons Information Centre, Forensic & Analytical Science Service and emergency services to identify clusters of severe and unusual toxicity associated with substance use. PRISE criteria include a known cluster (geographically or situationally related) of people with acute severe toxicity, especially when accompanied by a toxidrome that is inconsistent with the history of exposure. A timely comprehensive drug screen and quantification is performed in eligible cases and the results are related to the clinical features. The need for a public health response is then considered. Four individuals inhaled a white powder that was sold as cocaine and developed severe toxicity that was not consistent with cocaine which prompted transfer to hospital for further management. RESULTS LSD was confirmed in four subjects, and the concentrations in 3 of the individuals were 0.04-0.06 mg/L which are among the highest reported in the literature. Common clinical features were hallucinations, agitation, vomiting, sedation, hypertension, and mydriasis. One subject required intubation and admission to the intensive care unit, two required overnight admission, and the fourth was discharged following oral diazepam after observation. No subject suffered persistent injury. CONCLUSIONS A close working relationship between pre-hospital emergency services, hospital-based clinical services, public health authorities, and analytical laboratories appears to be advantageous. Favourable clinical outcomes are observed from LSD poisoning despite high exposures with good supportive care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren M Roberts
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Darlinghurst, Australia.,NSW Poisons Information Centre, Sydney Children's Hospitals Network, Westmead, Australia.,Drug Health Services, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, Australia
| | - Kulanka H Premachandra
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Darlinghurst, Australia
| | - Betty S Chan
- NSW Poisons Information Centre, Sydney Children's Hospitals Network, Westmead, Australia.,Clinical Toxicology Unit and Emergency Department, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, Australia
| | - Robin Auld
- Centre for Alcohol and Other Drugs, NSW Ministry of Health, St Leonards, Australia
| | - Thanjira Jiranantakan
- NSW Poisons Information Centre, Sydney Children's Hospitals Network, Westmead, Australia.,Drug Health Services, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, Australia.,Centre for Alcohol and Other Drugs, NSW Ministry of Health, St Leonards, Australia.,Edith Collins Centre, Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Christopher Ewers
- Illicit Drugs Analysis Unit, NSW Health Pathology, Forensic & Analytical Science Service, Lidcombe, Australia
| | - Catherine McDonald
- Forensic Toxicology, NSW Health Pathology, Forensic & Analytical Science Service, Lidcombe, Australia
| | - Vanessa Shaw
- Forensic Toxicology, NSW Health Pathology, Forensic & Analytical Science Service, Lidcombe, Australia
| | - Jared A Brown
- NSW Poisons Information Centre, Sydney Children's Hospitals Network, Westmead, Australia.,Centre for Alcohol and Other Drugs, NSW Ministry of Health, St Leonards, Australia
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Laing MK, Ti L, Marmel A, Tobias S, Shapiro AM, Laing R, Lysyshyn M, Socías ME. An outbreak of novel psychoactive substance benzodiazepines in the unregulated drug supply: Preliminary results from a community drug checking program using point-of-care and confirmatory methods. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2021; 93:103169. [PMID: 33627302 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND From mid-2018, an increase in novel psychoactive substance (NPS) benzodiazepines was noted on surveillance of the unregulated drug market around Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The rise was concordant with an outbreak of atypical overdoses suspicious for benzodiazepine adulteration of unregulated opioids. This study sought to describe the number and type of NPS benzodiazepines in a sample drawn from a community drug checking program during this period, and to explore accuracy of point-of-care drug checking technologies when compared to confirmatory methods in this sample. METHODS Point-of-care drug checking data using fentanyl and benzodiazepine test strips as well as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were gathered at harm reduction sites in the Vancouver area from October 2018 to January 2020. A convenience subsample underwent confirmatory testing with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, or quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. RESULTS Of 159 samples with both point-of-care and confirmatory results, 24 (15.1%) contained at least one NPS benzodiazepine, including etizolam (n = 18), flubromazolam (n = 3), flualprazolam (4), and flubromazepam (n = 1). Of 114 confirmatory samples expected by participants on self-report to contain opioids, 18 (15.8%) contained some NPS benzodiazepine, with 16 (14.0%) containing both an NPS benzodiazepine and an opioid, always fentanyl. False positive and negative rates were 15.5% and 37.5% for test strips, and 3.9% and 91.7% for FTIR, respectively. Combined together, false positive and negative rates of point-of-care methods were 17.8% and 29.2%. CONCLUSIONS NPS benzodiazepine adulteration in an unregulated drug supply sample reveals new risks compounding ongoing harms associated with the synthetic opioid epidemic. Given substantial false positive and false negative rates noted in our sample for point-of-care detection methods, cautious use of combined point-of-care methods, routinely paired with confirmatory drug checking may aid in early detection and monitoring of unregulated drug markets and inform targeted harm reduction strategies and health policy approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew K Laing
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, 1045 Howe Street, Vancouver, BC, V6Z 2A9, Canada
| | - Lianping Ti
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, 1045 Howe Street, Vancouver, BC, V6Z 2A9, Canada
| | - Allison Marmel
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Samuel Tobias
- British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, 1045 Howe Street, Vancouver, BC, V6Z 2A9, Canada
| | - Aaron M Shapiro
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Provincial Toxicology Centre, 655W 12th Ave, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Richard Laing
- Strategic Research and Science Development: Drug Analysis Service
- Stratégique et Développement Scientifique: Service d'analyse des drogues, Health Canada, 3155 Willingdon Green, Burnaby, BC, V5G 4P2, Canada
| | - Mark Lysyshyn
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, 2206 E. Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada; Vancouver Coastal Health Authority, 801-601 West Broadway, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4C2, Canada
| | - M Eugenia Socías
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, 1045 Howe Street, Vancouver, BC, V6Z 2A9, Canada.
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DiSalvo P, Cooper G, Tsao J, Romeo M, Laskowski LK, Chesney G, Su MK. Fentanyl-contaminated cocaine outbreak with laboratory confirmation in New York City in 2019. Am J Emerg Med 2021; 40:103-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2020.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Roberson ZR, Goodpaster JV. Optimization of the qualitative and quantitative analysis of cocaine and other drugs of abuse via gas chromatography - Vacuum ultraviolet spectrophotometry (GC - VUV). Talanta 2021; 222:121461. [PMID: 33167202 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Gas Chromatography-Vacuum UV Spectroscopy (GC-VUV) has seen increased attention in many areas, however, a statistical optimization of VUV method parameters has not been published. This article presents the first statistical optimization of parameters influencing analytes such as cocaine in the VUV flow-cell. Flow-cell temperature, make-up gas pressure, and carrier gas flow rate from the GC were examined and optimized for the detection of controlled substances. The accuracy, precision, linearity, and optimized detection limits for drugs such as cocaine (98.5%, 1.2%, 0.9998, 1.5 ng), heroin (99.3%, 0.94%, 0.9998, 2.0 ng), and fentanyl (98.5%, 1.7%, 0.9752, 9.7 ng) are reported. In general, the limits of detection for cocaine, heroin, fentanyl, and methamphetamine after optimization were comparable to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in "scan mode", which had detection limits of 1.1-38 ng on column. The VUV absorption spectra of cocaine, PCP, lorazepam, and HU-210 are also reported. And three samples of "real world" cocaine are analyzed to demonstrate applicability to forensic drug analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zackery R Roberson
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 North Blackford St., LD326, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, United States
| | - John V Goodpaster
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 North Blackford St., LD326, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, United States; Forensic and Investigative Sciences Program, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 North Blackford St., LD326, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, United States.
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Ameku W, Gonçalves JM, Ataide VN, Ferreira Santos MS, Gutz IGR, Araki K, Paixão TRLC. Combined Colorimetric and Electrochemical Measurement Paper-Based Device for Chemometric Proof-of-Concept Analysis of Cocaine Samples. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:594-605. [PMID: 33458511 PMCID: PMC7807801 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c05077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Cocaine (COC) is one of the most widely consumed illegal drugs around the world. Street COC is commonly adulterated with pharmaceutical compounds that mimic or intensify the COC's sensory effect. Adulteration is performed to increase the profit of criminal organizations and each one has their own way of doing it. Therefore, determining the composition of seized COC samples (chemical profile) provides evidence for the police to track criminal organization networks and their activity patterns. Using filter paper as a substrate, we developed a multiple detection paper-based analytical device (PAD) that combines colorimetric and electrochemical measurements to discriminate COC samples according to adulterant's content. A regular graphite lead modified with a gold film made from Au leaf (graphite/Au) to improve electron transfer was used as a working electrode. Silver and Ag/AgCl were used as auxiliary and reference electrodes, respectively. The colorimetric device was patterned using a laser cutter and coupled to the electrochemical device using a double-sided tape, allowing simultaneous analysis to gather more analytical information about COC samples. Graphite/Au was characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopies and electrochemical assays. The simultaneous colorimetric and electrochemical analyses combined to principal component analysis improved the analytical characterization of COC trial samples and provided a fast discrimination based on the assembled database.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilson
A. Ameku
- Departamento
de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Josué M. Gonçalves
- Departamento
de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Vanessa N. Ataide
- Departamento
de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Mauro S. Ferreira Santos
- Departamento
de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Ivano G. R. Gutz
- Departamento
de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Koiti Araki
- Departamento
de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Thiago R. L. C. Paixão
- Departamento
de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
- Instituto
Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Bioanalítica, Campinas, São Paulo 13084-971, Brazil
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40
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Di Candia D, Boracchi M, Muccino E, Gentile G, Zoja R. The Lethal Cutting: An Unexpected Cause of Death. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:e28-e35. [PMID: 33417700 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cocaine is among the illicit substances most frequently implicated in deaths related to the use of drugs of abuse both worldwide and in Italy. Cutting agents involved in the adulterations of this substance are many and the process of lacing can take place at various stages of the production of the drug. In this Report we are discussing the case of a 27-year-old woman found death next to her car in a wooded area in the suburban area of Milan. On the crime scene, several specimens of white powder were collected and subsequently analyzed via Q-Exactive Orbitrap with a HPLC system and LC/MS-MS analysis along with biological matrices sampled during autopsy examination. The toxicological analysis revealed that the death could be ascribed to a lethal dose of methomyl, a carbamide pesticide used as cutting agent for cocaine. According to Literature, this is the first time that this substance is used as an adulterant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Di Candia
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Sezione di Medicina Legale e delle Assicurazioni, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via L. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Michele Boracchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Sezione di Medicina Legale e delle Assicurazioni, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via L. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Enrico Muccino
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Sezione di Medicina Legale e delle Assicurazioni, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via L. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Guendalina Gentile
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Sezione di Medicina Legale e delle Assicurazioni, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via L. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Riccardo Zoja
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Sezione di Medicina Legale e delle Assicurazioni, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via L. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milano, Italy
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Fregonese M, Albino A, Covino C, Gili A, Bacci M, Nicoletti A, Gambelunghe C. Drug Checking as Strategy for Harm Reduction in Recreational Contests: Evaluation of Two Different Drug Analysis Methodologies. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:596895. [PMID: 33692707 PMCID: PMC7938318 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.596895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Drug checking as a part of drug harm-reduction strategies represents an essential aspect of public health policies. It focuses on rapid identification of drugs that individuals intend to use during night events, in order to implement health-protective behaviors. Chemical drug analysis techniques vary considerably, from simple colorimetric reagents to advanced forensic methods such as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Materials and Methods: In 2019, drug-check services were offered at some night events in Umbria (Central Italy). One hundred and twenty attendees directly delivered unidentified substances to a harm-reduction worker, who collected a few milligrams of the substances on ceramic plates and added a drop of colorimetric reagent. Multiple reagents were used to increase the diagnostic capacity of a substance, which may react with a specific drug or a few drugs. Later, a fraction of the samples was analyzed by GC/MS. The concordance of the results obtained using these two methodologies and the intended behaviors of consumers after being informed of the test result was evaluated. Results: We analyzed 120 samples by colorimetric test: 32 MDMA, 25 ketamine, 10 amphetamine, 11 cocaine, 8 heroin, and 4 LSD samples. The results were inconclusive for 29 samples. The GS/MS analysis confirmed MDMA in 84%, ketamine in 78%, amphetamine in 91%, cocaine in 92%, heroin in 88%, and LSD in 100% of the samples. The results of samples with inconclusive results were as follows: 2, MDMA; 7, ketamine; 2, amphetamine; 2, cocaine; 2, heroin; 2, mephedrone; 6, mixes; 1, debris; and 5, adulterants as the main component. Twenty-one of 29 participants reported that they had no intention of consuming the unidentified substance. Discussion: The high percentage of individuals who claimed no intention of consuming the unidentified drugs indicates that drug checking is viable as a part of drug harm-reduction strategies. Overall, colorimetric reagents showed a good performance with regard to samples being unadulterated (LSD) or minimal in quantity, but failed to identify mixtures of substances and the adulterants present in them. Therefore, the use of more discriminatory on-site methods such as Raman or infrared spectrometry is strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrea Albino
- Harm Reduction Services, Cooperative "Borgorete", Perugia, Italy
| | - Claudia Covino
- Local Health Unit, USL Umbria 1, Ser.T Perugia, Ospedale S. Maria della Misericordia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Alessio Gili
- Hygiene and Public Health Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Mauro Bacci
- Forensic Medicine, Forensic Science and Sports Medicine Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Alessia Nicoletti
- Forensic Medicine, Forensic Science and Sports Medicine Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Cristiana Gambelunghe
- Forensic Medicine, Forensic Science and Sports Medicine Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
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Bouquet E, Pain S, Fauconneau B, Lesbordes M, Frouin E, Silvain C, Pérault-Pochat MC. Cocaine-induced acute hepatitis: A diagnosis not to forget. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2021; 45:101462. [PMID: 32586784 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinre.2020.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Bouquet
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Poitiers University Hospital, 2, rue de la Milétrie, 86021 Poitiers, France.
| | - Stéphanie Pain
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Poitiers University Hospital, 2, rue de la Milétrie, 86021 Poitiers, France
| | - Bernard Fauconneau
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Poitiers University Hospital, 2, rue de la Milétrie, 86021 Poitiers, France
| | - Matthieu Lesbordes
- Department of Cardiology, Poitiers University Hospital, 2, rue de la Milétrie, 86021 Poitiers, France
| | - Eric Frouin
- Department of Pathology, Poitiers University Hospital, 2, rue de la Milétrie, 86021 Poitiers, France
| | - Christine Silvain
- Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Poitiers University Hospital, 2, rue de la Milétrie, 86021 Poitiers, France
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He X, Wang J, You X, Niu F, Fan L, Lv Y. Classification of heroin, methamphetamine, ketamine and their additives by attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 241:118665. [PMID: 32683249 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2020.118665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Drug crime is a prominent issue of concern from pole to pole. In order to seek higher profits, drug gangs often add diluents and adulterants to the drugs to disperse drug products Analysis of these additives would be greatly conducive to determine the origin of drug products for law enforcement departments. A method using attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics methods to classify the heroin hydrochloride, methamphetamine hydrochloride, ketamine hydrochloride and their five additives (caffeine, phenacetin, starch, glucose, and sucrose), was developed. The Baseline correction, multivariate scatter correction, standard normal variate and Savitzky-Golay algorithm were adopted to pre-process the spectral data. Several supervised pattern recognition methods including decision tree, Bayes discriminant analysis, and support vector machine were considered as algorithms of constructing classifiers. The results reveal that, repetitive and interfering data in original spectrum data could be eliminated by principal component analysis and factor analysis. F-measure, as a comprehensive evaluation index of precision rate and recall rate, was more objective than precision rate and recall rate to reflect the ability of model to distinguish samples. It should be used as one of the indicators to evaluate the model. The CHAID classification tree could be identified as priorities in the decision tree model, while the linear kernel could be considered as the optimal kernel in the support vector machine model. The classification ability of three hydrochloride mixtures based on Bayes discriminant analysis was better than that of another models. Bayes discriminant analysis model was the more useful and practical method for classifying the target drugs of abuse than that of decision trees and support vector machine. The designed approach represents a potentially simple, non-destructive, and rapid method of classifying hydrochloride mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlong He
- School of investigation and forensic science, People's Public Security University of China, Beijing 100038, China
| | - Jifen Wang
- School of investigation and forensic science, People's Public Security University of China, Beijing 100038, China.
| | - Xinwei You
- Cadres Branch Of Personnel & Training Department, Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China, 100740, China
| | - Fan Niu
- Tian 'anmen branch of Beijing Municipal Public Security Bureau, Beijing 100006, China
| | - Linyuan Fan
- School of investigation and forensic science, People's Public Security University of China, Beijing 100038, China
| | - Yufan Lv
- Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing 100038, China
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Barreto DN, Ribeiro MM, Sudo JT, Richter EM, Muñoz RA, Silva SG. High-throughput screening of cocaine, adulterants, and diluents in seized samples using capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection. Talanta 2020; 217:120987. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Borden SA, Saatchi A, Krogh ET, Gill CG. Rapid and quantitative determination of fentanyls and pharmaceuticals from powdered drug samples by paper spray mass spectrometry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ansa.202000083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Scott A. Borden
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL) Department of Chemistry Vancouver Island University Nanaimo British Columbia Canada
- Department of Chemistry University of Victoria Victoria British Columbia Canada
| | - Armin Saatchi
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL) Department of Chemistry Vancouver Island University Nanaimo British Columbia Canada
| | - Erik T. Krogh
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL) Department of Chemistry Vancouver Island University Nanaimo British Columbia Canada
- Department of Chemistry University of Victoria Victoria British Columbia Canada
| | - Chris G. Gill
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL) Department of Chemistry Vancouver Island University Nanaimo British Columbia Canada
- Department of Chemistry University of Victoria Victoria British Columbia Canada
- Department of Chemistry Simon Fraser University Burnaby British Columbia Canada
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences University of Washington Seattle Washington
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Karakka Kal AK, Karatt TK, Philip M, Meissir S, Nalakath J. Separation and Determination of the Enantiomeric Levamisole and Dexamisole in Equine Plasma Samples Using Chiral Polysaccharide Column/ LC-MS/MS. CURR ANAL CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1573411015666190808103143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:
Drug Enforcement Administration confirmed that many manufacturers began
adding tetramisole or its individual isomers to cocaine as an adulterant, and believed that
tetramisole may augment cocaine’s effects. In recent times, there is an increasing trend in the usage
of tetramisole and its individual enantiomer in race sports especially in horse and camel races. So it’s
is very much required to confirm the stereochemistry of this illicit drug in the routine race day samples
coming to the anti-doping labs in order to avoid legal arguments and challenges to the analytical
findings.
Methods:
The aim of the study was to develop a simple, rapid and accurate method for the chiral
separation and determination of enantiomeric mixtures of levamisole and dexamisole using Thermo
Q-Exactive High-Resolution Mass Spectrometer. In order to evaluate the suitability of the method for
determining the enantiomeric purity of tetramisole, validation studies were also carried out by using
equine plasma.
Results:
The enantio-separation was achieved using the Lux i-cellulose-5 column. Isocratic flow was
used with a 1:1 mixture of mobile phase A (10 mM ammonium acetate in water) and mobile phase B
(acetonitrile), at a flow rate of 0.6 mL/min. The run time was 8.0 min, and the column temperature
was 50°C. Dexamisole eluted at 5.94 min, and levamisole eluted at 6.62 min, giving the R-value of
1.50. The obtained inter-day precisions of dexamisole, levamisole were 3.16% and 2.85%, respectively.
The accuracy of dexamisole was in the range of 97.78 to 102.44%, and that for levamisole
was 99.16 to 102.82%. The limit of quantification value for both isomers in this method was 0.1 ng/
mL. The method was linear in the range of 0 to 50 ng/mL.
Conclusion:
Chromatographic separation was achieved using the polysaccharide cellulose chiral
column, and the reverse-phase separation approach was found to have the highest potential for successful
chiral resolution in LC-MS. Linearity, precision, accuracy, detection limit, recovery, and the
matrix effect in equine plasma were determined. Under the optimized conditions, the validated method
can be applied for the identification and detection of the tetramisole enantiomers in different
sources of illicit drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Khader Karakka Kal
- Equine Forensic Unit, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, PO Box 597, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Tajudheen K. Karatt
- Equine Forensic Unit, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, PO Box 597, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Moses Philip
- Equine Forensic Unit, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, PO Box 597, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Samir Meissir
- Equine Forensic Unit, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, PO Box 597, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jahfar Nalakath
- Equine Forensic Unit, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, PO Box 597, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
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Fiorentin TR, Logan BK, Martin DM, Browne T, Rieders EF. Assessment of a portable quadrupole-based gas chromatography mass spectrometry for seized drug analysis. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 313:110342. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 05/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Uppu SN, Agu OA, Deere CJ, Fronczek FR. N-(4-Eth-oxy-2,5-di-nitro-phen-yl)acetamide. IUCRDATA 2020; 5:x201121. [PMID: 36338512 PMCID: PMC9462240 DOI: 10.1107/s2414314620011219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In the title compound, C10H11N3O6, the torsion angles about the bonds to the benzene ring are less than 4°, except for the nitro groups, which are twisted out of the ring plane by 25.27 (3) and 43.63 (2)°. The N-H group forms a bifurcated hydrogen bond, with an intra-molecular component to a nitro group O atom and an inter-molecular component to the other nitro group, thereby forming chains propagating in the [010] direction. Several weak C-H⋯O inter-actions are also present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sannihith N. Uppu
- Department of Biological Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Southern University and A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA, 70813, USA
| | - Ogad A. Agu
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Southern University and A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA, 70813, USA
| | - Curtistine J. Deere
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Southern University and A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA, 70813, USA
| | - Frank R. Fronczek
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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49
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Mella-Raipán J, Romero-Parra J, Recabarren-Gajardo G. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Heroin and Desomorphine. ACS Chem Neurosci 2020; 11:3905-3927. [PMID: 32568519 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Opioids are arguably one of the most important pharmacologic classes, mainly due to their rich history, their useful and potent analgesic effects, and also, just as importantly, their "Dark Side", constituted by their reinforcing properties that have led countless of users to a spiral of addiction, biological dependence, tolerance, withdrawal syndromes, and death. Among the most significant abused and addictive known opioids are heroin and desomorphine, both synthetic derivatives of morphine that belong to the 4,5-epoxymorphinan structural chemical group of the opioid family drugs. These agents share not only structural, pharmacological, and epidemiological features but also a common geographical distribution. A drop in Afghan heroin production and its "exports" to Russia gave rise to widespread consumption of desomorphine in ex-Soviet republics during the first decade of the 21st century, representing an economical and accessible alternative for misusers to this sort of derivative. Herein we review the state of the art of history, chemistry and synthesis, pharmacology, and impact on society of these "cursed cousins".
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Mella-Raipán
- Instituto de Quı́mica y Bioquı́mica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaı́so, Av. Gran Bretaña 1111, Valparaı́so 2360102, Chile
- Facultad de Farmacia, Centro de Investigación Farmacopea Chilena, Universidad de Valparaı́so,, Av. Gran Bretaña 1093, Valparaı́so 2360102, Chile
| | - Javier Romero-Parra
- Departamento de Quı́mica Orgánica y Fisicoquı́mica, Facultad de Ciencias Quı́micas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Sergio Livingstone 1007, Casilla
233, 8380492 Santiago, Chile
| | - Gonzalo Recabarren-Gajardo
- Bioactive Heterocycles Synthesis Laboratory, BHSL, Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Quı́mica y de Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Casilla 306, Avda. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, 7820436 Santiago, Chile
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile,, Marcoleta 391, 8330024 Santiago, Chile
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50
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Huskinson SL. Unpredictability as a modulator of drug self-administration: Relevance for substance-use disorders. Behav Processes 2020; 178:104156. [PMID: 32526314 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Drug self-administration has been regarded as a gold-standard preclinical model of addiction and substance-use disorder (SUD). However, investigators are becoming increasingly aware, that certain aspects of addiction or SUDs experienced by humans are not accurately captured in our preclinical self-administration models. The current review will focus on two such aspects of current preclinical drug self-administration models: 1) Predictable vs. unpredictable drug access in terms of the time and effort put into obtaining drugs (i.e., response requirement) and drug quality (i.e., amount) and 2) rich vs. lean access to drugs. Some behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms that could contribute to excessive allocation of behavior toward drug-seeking and drug-taking at the expense of engaging in nondrug-related activities are discussed, and some directions for future research are identified. Based on the experiments reviewed, lean and unpredictable drug access could worsen drug-seeking and drug-taking behavior in individuals with SUDs. Once more fully explored, this area of research will help determine whether and how unpredictable and lean cost requirements affect drug self-administration in preclinical laboratory studies with nonhuman subjects and will help determine whether incorporating these conditions in current self-administration models will increase their predictive validity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally L Huskinson
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500N. State Street, Jackson, MS, 39216, United States.
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