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Wang J, Chen Y, Wang X, Sun Y, Jiang M, Ye Y, Wu H, Lu Y, Zhong H, Wu Y, Zhou E, Yang Z. Cadmium aggravates liver injury by activating ferroptosis and neutrophil extracellular traps formation in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2024; 39:4047-4057. [PMID: 38644733 DOI: 10.1002/tox.24276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is a pervasive environmental contaminant and a significant risk factor for liver injury. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the involvement of ferroptosis and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in Cd-induced liver injury in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), and to explore its underlying mechanism. Cd-induced liver injury was associated with increased total iron, malondialdehyde (MDA), and Acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4), together with reduced levels of glutathione, glutathione peroxidase-4a (Gpx4a), and solute carrier family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11), which are all hallmarks of ferroptosis. Moreover, liver hyperemia, neutrophil infiltration, increased inflammatory factors and myeloperoxidase, as well as elevated serum DNA content in Cd-stimulated Nile tilapia suggested that a considerable number of neutrophils were recruited to the liver. Furtherly, in vitro experiments demonstrated that Cd induced the formation of NETs, and the possible mechanism was related to the generation of reactive oxygen species and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, along with the P38 and extracellular regulated protein kinase (ERK) signaling pathways. We concluded that ferroptosis and NETs are the critical mechanisms contributing to Cd-induced liver injury in Nile tilapia. These findings will contribute to Cd toxicological studies in aquatic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Wang
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Yichun Chen
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Xia Wang
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Youpeng Sun
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Mingzhen Jiang
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Yingrong Ye
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Hanpeng Wu
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Yun Lu
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Huabing Zhong
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Yihe Wu
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Ershun Zhou
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhengtao Yang
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
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2
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Zhang M, Liu J, Gao Y, Zhao B, Xu ML, Zhang T. Se site targeted-two circles antioxidant in GPx4-like catalytic peroxide degradation by polyphenols (-)-epigallocatechin gallate and genistein using SERS. Food Chem X 2024; 22:101387. [PMID: 38665629 PMCID: PMC11043887 DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
A Se site targeted-two circles antioxidant of polyphenols EGCG and genistein in glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4)-like catalytic peroxide H2O2 and cumene hydroperoxide degradation was demonstrated by surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Se atom's active center is presenting a 'low-oxidation' and a 'high-oxidation' catalytic cycle. The former is oxidized to selenenic acid (SeO-) with a Raman bond at 619/ 610 cm-1 assigned to the νO - Se by the hydroperoxide substrate at 544/ 551 cm-1 assigned to ωHSeC decreased. Under oxidative stress, the enzyme shifted to 'high-oxidation' catalytic cycle, in which GPx4 shuttles between R-SeO- and R-SeOO- with a Raman intensity of bond at 840/ 860 cm-1 assigned to νO[bond, double bond]Se. EGCG could act as a reducing agent both in H2O2 and Cu-OOH degradation, while, genistein can only reduce Cu-OOH, because it binds more readily to the selenium site in GPx4 than EGCG with a closer proximity, therefore may affect its simultaneous binding to coenzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengmeng Zhang
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Functional Food/ College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, PR China
| | - Jingbo Liu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Functional Food/ College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, PR China
| | - Yu Gao
- College of Plant Protection, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, PR China
| | - Bing Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, PR China
| | - Meng-Lei Xu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Functional Food/ College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, PR China
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, PR China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Functional Food/ College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, PR China
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3
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Jangir A, Kumar Biswas A, Arsalan A, Faslu Rahman CK, Swami S, Agrawal R, Bora B, Kumar Mendiratta S, Talukder S, Chand S, Kumar D, Ahmad T, Ratan Sen A, Naveena BM, Singh Yadav A, Jaywant Rokade J. Development of superoxide dismutase based visual and spectrophotometric method for rapid differentiation of fresh and frozen-thawed buffalo meat. Food Chem 2024; 444:138659. [PMID: 38325091 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Study aimed to develop biomarker-based assay for rapid detection of fresh and frozen-thawed buffalo meat in the supply chain. The method is based on development of a solvent system and identification of suitable substrate and developer for screening of biomarkers. For the confirmation column chromatography, gel electrophoresis and Western Blotting were carried out. Validation was done by intra- and inter-day validation, storability study, and determination of thermal history. Best results were shown with pH 8.0 Tris-HCl; extraction buffer, 205 µM nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen; substrate, 184 µM Nitroblue tetrazolium, and 1.9 µM phenazine methosulfate; developer. The thermal history ranged from 0.14 to 0.17 during storage at -20 °C. The intra- and inter-day assay precision (CV %) ranged from 5.3 to 6.5 %; in chilled and 14.1 - 9.2 % in frozen-thawed samples. The study confirmed SOD as a viable biomarker. Developed method using SOD has significant potential for rapidly differentiating chilled or frozen-thawed meat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apeksha Jangir
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Ashim Kumar Biswas
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India.
| | - Abdullah Arsalan
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - C K Faslu Rahman
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Shalu Swami
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Ravikant Agrawal
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Bedika Bora
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Sanjod Kumar Mendiratta
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Suman Talukder
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Sagar Chand
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Devendra Kumar
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Tanbir Ahmad
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Arup Ratan Sen
- Division of Livestock Products Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Basappa M Naveena
- ICAR-National Meat Research Institute, Chengicherla, Boduppal 500 092, A.P., India
| | - Ajit Singh Yadav
- Division of Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
| | - Jaydip Jaywant Rokade
- Division of Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, U.P., India
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4
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Zeppilli D, Madabeni A, Nogara PA, Rocha JBT, Orian L. Reactivity of Zinc Fingers in Oxidizing Environments: Insight from Molecular Models Through Activation Strain Analysis. Chempluschem 2024:e202400252. [PMID: 38842473 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202400252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
The reactivity of Zn2+ tetrahedral complexes with H2O2 was investigated in silico, as a first step in their disruption process. The substrates were chosen to represent the cores of three different zinc finger protein motifs, i. e., a Zn2+ ion coordinated to four cysteines (CCCC), to three cysteines and one histidine (CCCH), and to two cysteines and two histidines (CCHH). The cysteine and histidine ligands were further simplified to methyl thiolate and imidazole, respectively. H2O2 was chosen as an oxidizing agent due to its biological role as a metabolic product and species involved in signaling processes. The mechanism of oxidation of a coordinated cysteinate to sulfenate-κS and the trends for the different substrates were rationalized through activation strain analysis and energy decomposition analysis in the framework of scalar relativistic Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations at ZORA-M06/TZ2P ae // ZORA-BLYP-D3(BJ)/TZ2P. CCCC is oxidized most easily, an outcome explained considering both electrostatic and orbital interactions. The isomerization to sulfenate-κO was attempted to assess whether this step may affect the ligand dissociation; however, it was found to introduce a kinetic barrier without improving the energetics of the dissociation. Lastly, ligand exchange with free thiolates and selenolates was investigated as a trigger for ligand dissociation, possibly leading to metal ejection; molecular docking simulations also support this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Zeppilli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Andrea Madabeni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Pablo A Nogara
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecolar, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), 97105-900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
- Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Sul-rio-grandense (IFSul), Av. Leonel de Moura Brizola, 2501, 96418-400, Bagé, RS, Brasil
| | - João B T Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecolar, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), 97105-900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy
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5
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Wang W, Qiu S, Zhang T, Zheng Z, Zhu K, Gao X, Zhao F, Ma X, Lin H, He Y, Zheng C. Quantum chemistry calculation-aided discovery of potent small-molecule mimics of glutathione peroxidases for the treatment of cisplatin-induced hearing loss. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 271:116404. [PMID: 38631262 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 03/30/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Hearing loss (HL) is a health burden that seriously affects the quality of life of cancer patients receiving platinum-based chemotherapy, and few FDA-approved treatment specifically targets this condition. The main mechanisms that contribute to cisplatin-induced hearing loss are oxidative stress and subsequent cell death, including ferroptosis revealed by us as a new mechanism recently. In this study, we employed the frontier molecular orbital (FMO) theory approach as a convenient prediction method for the glutathione peroxidase (GPx)-like activity of isoselenazolones and discovered new isoselenazolones with great GPx-like activity. Notably, compound 19 exhibited significant protective effects against cisplatin-induced hair cell (HC) damage in vitro and in vivo and effectively reverses cisplatin-induced hearing loss through oral administration. Further investigations revealed that this compound effectively alleviated hair cell oxidative stress, apoptosis and ferroptosis. This research highlights the potential of GPx mimics as a therapeutic strategy against cisplatin-induced hearing loss. The application of quantum chemistry (QC) calculations in the study of GPx mimics sheds light on the development of new, innovative treatments for hearing loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wentao Wang
- The Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Siyu Qiu
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Tianyi Zhang
- The Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Zhiwei Zheng
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Kongkai Zhu
- Advanced Medical Research Institute, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, China
| | - Xing Gao
- The Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Fengping Zhao
- The Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Xinyuan Ma
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Hongyan Lin
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Yingzi He
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai, 200031, China.
| | - Canhui Zheng
- The Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai, 200433, China.
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6
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Andrés CMC, Pérez de la Lastra JM, Juan CA, Plou FJ, Pérez-Lebeña E. Antioxidant Metabolism Pathways in Vitamins, Polyphenols, and Selenium: Parallels and Divergences. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2600. [PMID: 38473850 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Free radicals (FRs) are unstable molecules that cause reactive stress (RS), an imbalance between reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in the body and its ability to neutralize them. These species are generated by both internal and external factors and can damage cellular lipids, proteins, and DNA. Antioxidants prevent or slow down the oxidation process by interrupting the transfer of electrons between substances and reactive agents. This is particularly important at the cellular level because oxidation reactions lead to the formation of FR and contribute to various diseases. As we age, RS accumulates and leads to organ dysfunction and age-related disorders. Polyphenols; vitamins A, C, and E; and selenoproteins possess antioxidant properties and may have a role in preventing and treating certain human diseases associated with RS. In this review, we explore the current evidence on the potential benefits of dietary supplementation and investigate the intricate connection between SIRT1, a crucial regulator of aging and longevity; the transcription factor NRF2; and polyphenols, vitamins, and selenium. Finally, we discuss the positive effects of antioxidant molecules, such as reducing RS, and their potential in slowing down several diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - José Manuel Pérez de la Lastra
- Institute of Natural Products and Agrobiology, CSIC-Spanish Research Council, Avda. Astrofísico Fco. Sánchez, 3, 38206 La Laguna, Spain
| | - Celia Andrés Juan
- Cinquima Institute and Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Valladolid University, Paseo de Belén, 7, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Francisco J Plou
- Institute of Catalysis and Petrochemistry, CSIC-Spanish Research Council, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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7
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Masuda R, Karasaki T, Sase S, Kuwano S, Goto K. Highly Electrophilic Intermediates in the Bypass Mechanism of Glutathione Peroxidase: Synthesis, Reactivity, and Structures of Selenocysteine-Derived Cyclic Selenenyl Amides. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202302615. [PMID: 37738074 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202302615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Selenocysteine (Sec)-derived cyclic selenenyl amides, formed by the intramolecular cyclization of Sec selenenic acids (Sec-SeOHs), have been postulated to function as protective forms in the bypass mechanism of glutathione peroxidase (GPx). However, their chemical properties have not been experimentally elucidated in proteins or small-molecule systems. Recently, we reported the first nuclear magnetic resonance observation of Sec-SeOHs and their cyclization to the corresponding cyclic selenenyl amides by using selenopeptide model systems incorporated in a molecular cradle. Herein, we elucidate the structures and reactivities of Sec-derived cyclic selenenyl amides. The crystal structures and reactions toward a cysteine thiol or a 1,3-diketone-type chemical probe indicated the highly electrophilic character of cyclic selenenyl amides. This suggests that they can serve not only as protective forms to suppress the inactivation of Sec-SeOHs in GPx but also as highly electrophilic intermediates in the reactions of selenoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Masuda
- School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Takafumi Karasaki
- School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Shohei Sase
- School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Satoru Kuwano
- School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Kei Goto
- School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
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8
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Goto K, Kimura R, Masuda R, Karasaki T, Sase S. Demonstration of the Formation of a Selenocysteine Selenenic Acid through Hydrolysis of a Selenocysteine Selenenyl Iodide Utilizing a Protective Molecular Cradle. Molecules 2023; 28:7972. [PMID: 38138461 PMCID: PMC10746021 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28247972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Selenocysteine selenenic acids (Sec-SeOHs) and selenocysteine selenenyl iodides (Sec-SeIs) have long been recognized as crucial intermediates in the catalytic cycle of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and iodothyronine deiodinase (Dio), respectively. However, the observation of these reactive species remained elusive until our recent study, where we successfully stabilized Sec-SeOHs and Sec-SeIs using a protective molecular cradle. Here, we report the first demonstration of the chemical transformation from a Sec-SeI to a Sec-SeOH through alkaline hydrolysis. A stable Sec-SeI derived from a selenocysteine methyl ester was synthesized using the protective cradle, and its structure was determined by crystallographic analysis. The alkaline hydrolysis of the Sec-SeI at -50 °C yielded the corresponding Sec-SeOH in an 89% NMR yield, the formation of which was further confirmed by its reaction with dimedone. The facile and nearly quantitative conversion of the Sec-SeI to the Sec-SeOH not only validates the potential involvement of this process in the catalytic mechanism of Dio, but also highlights its utility as a method for producing a Sec-SeOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Goto
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
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9
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Zeppilli D, Madabeni A, Sancineto L, Bagnoli L, Santi C, Orian L. Role of Group 12 Metals in the Reduction of H 2O 2 by Santi's Reagent: A Computational Mechanistic Investigation. Inorg Chem 2023; 62:17288-17298. [PMID: 37769326 PMCID: PMC10598800 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.3c02568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
PhSeZnCl, which is also known as Santi's reagent, can catalyze the reduction of hydrogen peroxide by thiols with a GPx-like mechanism. In this work, the first step of this catalytic cycle, i.e., the reduction of H2O2 by PhSeZnCl, is investigated in silico using state-of-the-art density functional theory calculations. Then, the role of the metal is evaluated by replacing Zn with its group 12 siblings (Cd and Hg). The thermodynamic and kinetic factors favoring Zn are elucidated. Furthermore, the role of the halogen is considered by replacing Cl with Br in all three metal compounds, and this turns out to be negligible. Finally, the overall GPx-like mechanism of PhSeZnCl and PhSeZnBr is discussed by evaluating the energetics of the mechanistic path leading to the disulfide product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Zeppilli
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli
Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Andrea Madabeni
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli
Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Luca Sancineto
- Gruppo
di Catalisi Sintesi e Chimica Organica Verde Dipartimento di Scienze
Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi
di Perugia, Via del Liceo 1, 06122 Perugia, Italy
| | - Luana Bagnoli
- Gruppo
di Catalisi Sintesi e Chimica Organica Verde Dipartimento di Scienze
Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi
di Perugia, Via del Liceo 1, 06122 Perugia, Italy
| | - Claudio Santi
- Gruppo
di Catalisi Sintesi e Chimica Organica Verde Dipartimento di Scienze
Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi
di Perugia, Via del Liceo 1, 06122 Perugia, Italy
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli
Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
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10
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Strizzi S, Bernardo L, D'Ursi P, Urbinati C, Bianco A, Limanaqi F, Manconi A, Milanesi M, Macchi A, Di Silvestre D, Cavalleri A, Pareschi G, Rusnati M, Clerici M, Mauri P, Biasin M. An innovative strategy to investigate microbial protein modifications in a reliable fast and sensitive way: A therapy oriented proof of concept based on UV-C irradiation of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Pharmacol Res 2023; 194:106862. [PMID: 37479104 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
The characterization of modifications of microbial proteins is of primary importance to dissect pathogen lifecycle mechanisms and could be useful in identifying therapeutic targets. Attempts to solve this issue yielded only partial and non-exhaustive results. We developed a multidisciplinary approach by coupling in vitro infection assay, mass spectrometry (MS), protein 3D modelling, and surface plasma resonance (SPR). As a proof of concept, the effect of low UV-C (273 nm) irradiation on SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein was investigated. Following UV-C exposure, MS analysis identified, among other modifications, the disruption of a disulphide bond within the conserved S2 subunit of S protein. Computational analyses revealed that this bond breakage associates with an allosteric effect resulting in the generation of a closed conformation with a reduced ability to bind the ACE2 receptor. The UV-C-induced reduced affinity of S protein for ACE2 was further confirmed by SPR analyses and in vitro infection assays. This comprehensive approach pinpoints the S2 domain of S protein as a potential therapeutic target to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection. Notably, this workflow could be used to screen a wide variety of microbial protein domains, resulting in a precise molecular fingerprint and providing new insights to adequately address future epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Strizzi
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy
| | - Letizia Bernardo
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council (ITB-CNR), 20054 Segrate, MI, Italy
| | - Pasqualina D'Ursi
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council (ITB-CNR), 20054 Segrate, MI, Italy
| | - Chiara Urbinati
- Unit of Macromolecular Interaction Analysis, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Andrea Bianco
- Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) - Brera Astronomical Observatory, Via E. Bianchi, 46, Merate, 23807 Lecco, Italy
| | - Fiona Limanaqi
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Via Francesco Sforza, 20122 Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Manconi
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council (ITB-CNR), 20054 Segrate, MI, Italy
| | - Maria Milanesi
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council (ITB-CNR), 20054 Segrate, MI, Italy; Unit of Macromolecular Interaction Analysis, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Alberto Macchi
- Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) - Brera Astronomical Observatory, Via E. Bianchi, 46, Merate, 23807 Lecco, Italy
| | - Dario Di Silvestre
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council (ITB-CNR), 20054 Segrate, MI, Italy
| | - Adalberto Cavalleri
- Epidemiology and Prevention Unit, IRCCS Foundation, Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Via Giacomo Venezian, 1, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Pareschi
- Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) - Brera Astronomical Observatory, Via E. Bianchi, 46, Merate, 23807 Lecco, Italy
| | - Marco Rusnati
- Unit of Macromolecular Interaction Analysis, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Mario Clerici
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Via Francesco Sforza, 20122 Milan, Italy; Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Foundation, Via A. Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, íItaly
| | - PierLuigi Mauri
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council (ITB-CNR), 20054 Segrate, MI, Italy; Interdisciplinary Research Center "Health Science", Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, 56127 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Mara Biasin
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy
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11
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Roveri A, Di Giacinto F, Rossetto M, Cozza G, Cheng Q, Miotto G, Zennaro L, Di Paolo ML, Arnér ESJ, De Spirito M, Maiorino M, Ursini F. Cardiolipin drives the catalytic activity of GPX4 on membranes: Insights from the R152H mutant. Redox Biol 2023; 64:102806. [PMID: 37413766 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2023.102806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine, in biochemical detail, the functional role of the Arg152 residue in the selenoprotein Glutathione Peroxidase 4 (GPX4), whose mutation to His is involved in Sedaghatian-type Spondylometaphyseal Dysplasia (SSMD). Wild-type and mutated recombinant enzymes with selenopcysteine (Sec) at the active site, were purified and structurally characterized to investigate the impact of the R152H mutation on enzymatic function. The mutation did not affect the peroxidase reaction's catalytic mechanism, and the kinetic parameters were qualitatively similar between the wild-type enzyme and the mutant when mixed micelles and monolamellar liposomes containing phosphatidylcholine and its hydroperoxide derivatives were used as substrate. However, in monolamellar liposomes also containing cardiolipin, which binds to a cationic area near the active site of GPX4, including residue R152, the wild-type enzyme showed a non-canonical dependency of the reaction rate on the concentration of both enzyme and membrane cardiolipin. To explain this oddity, a minimal model was developed encompassing the kinetics of both the enzyme interaction with the membrane and the catalytic peroxidase reaction. Computational fitting of experimental activity recordings showed that the wild-type enzyme was surface-sensing and prone to "positive feedback" in the presence of cardiolipin, indicating a positive cooperativity. This feature was minimal, if any, in the mutant. These findings suggest that GPX4 physiology in cardiolipin containing mitochondria is unique, and emerges as a likely target of the pathological dysfunction in SSMD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Flavio Di Giacinto
- Neuroscience Department, Biophysics Section, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Monica Rossetto
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Giorgio Cozza
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Qing Cheng
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 17177, Sweden
| | - Giovanni Miotto
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Lucio Zennaro
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy
| | | | - Elias S J Arnér
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 17177, Sweden; Department of Selenoprotein Research and the National Tumor Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Marco De Spirito
- Neuroscience Department, Biophysics Section, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Fulvio Ursini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy.
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12
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Chaudière J. Biological and Catalytic Properties of Selenoproteins. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10109. [PMID: 37373256 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Selenocysteine is a catalytic residue at the active site of all selenoenzymes in bacteria and mammals, and it is incorporated into the polypeptide backbone by a co-translational process that relies on the recoding of a UGA termination codon into a serine/selenocysteine codon. The best-characterized selenoproteins from mammalian species and bacteria are discussed with emphasis on their biological function and catalytic mechanisms. A total of 25 genes coding for selenoproteins have been identified in the genome of mammals. Unlike the selenoenzymes of anaerobic bacteria, most mammalian selenoenzymes work as antioxidants and as redox regulators of cell metabolism and functions. Selenoprotein P contains several selenocysteine residues and serves as a selenocysteine reservoir for other selenoproteins in mammals. Although extensively studied, glutathione peroxidases are incompletely understood in terms of local and time-dependent distribution, and regulatory functions. Selenoenzymes take advantage of the nucleophilic reactivity of the selenolate form of selenocysteine. It is used with peroxides and their by-products such as disulfides and sulfoxides, but also with iodine in iodinated phenolic substrates. This results in the formation of Se-X bonds (X = O, S, N, or I) from which a selenenylsulfide intermediate is invariably produced. The initial selenolate group is then recycled by thiol addition. In bacterial glycine reductase and D-proline reductase, an unusual catalytic rupture of selenium-carbon bonds is observed. The exchange of selenium for sulfur in selenoproteins, and information obtained from model reactions, suggest that a generic advantage of selenium compared with sulfur relies on faster kinetics and better reversibility of its oxidation reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Chaudière
- CBMN (CNRS, UMR 5248), University of Bordeaux, 33600 Pessac, France
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13
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Masuda R, Kuwano S, Goto K. Modeling Selenoprotein Se-Nitrosation: Synthesis of a Se-Nitrososelenocysteine with Persistent Stability. J Am Chem Soc 2023. [PMID: 37267591 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c03394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The Se-nitrosation in selenoproteins such as glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase to produce Se-nitrososelenocysteines (Sec-SeNOs) has been proposed to play crucial roles in signaling processes mediated by reactive nitrogen species and nitrosative-stress responses, although chemical evidence for the formation of Sec-SeNOs has been elusive not only in proteins but also in small-molecule systems. Herein, we report the first synthesis of a Sec-SeNO by employing a selenocysteine model system that bears a protective molecular cradle. The Sec-SeNO was characterized using 1H and 77Se nuclear magnetic resonance as well as ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy and found to have persistent stability at room temperature in solution. The reaction processes involving the Sec-SeNO provide experimental information that serves as a chemical basis for elucidating the reaction mechanisms involving the SeNO species in biological functions, as well as in selenol-catalyzed NO generation from S-nitrosothiols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Masuda
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Satoru Kuwano
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Kei Goto
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
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14
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Omage FB, Madabeni A, Tucci AR, Nogara PA, Bortoli M, Rosa ADS, Neuza Dos Santos Ferreira V, Teixeira Rocha JB, Miranda MD, Orian L. Diphenyl Diselenide and SARS-CoV-2: in silico Exploration of the Mechanisms of Inhibition of Main Protease (M pro) and Papain-like Protease (PL pro). J Chem Inf Model 2023; 63:2226-2239. [PMID: 36952618 PMCID: PMC10091420 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c00168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has prompted global efforts to develop therapeutics. The main protease of SARS-CoV-2 (Mpro) and the papain-like protease (PLpro) are essential for viral replication and are key targets for therapeutic development. In this work, we investigate the mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 inhibition by diphenyl diselenide (PhSe)2 which is an archetypal model of diselenides and a renowned potential therapeutic agent. The in vitro inhibitory concentration of (PhSe)2 against SARS-CoV-2 in Vero E6 cells falls in the low micromolar range. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and density functional theory (DFT) calculations [level of theory: SMD-B3LYP-D3(BJ)/6-311G(d,p), cc-pVTZ] are used to inspect non-covalent inhibition modes of both proteases via π-stacking and the mechanism of covalent (PhSe)2 + Mpro product formation involving the catalytic residue C145, respectively. The in vitro CC50 (24.61 μM) and EC50 (2.39 μM) data indicate that (PhSe)2 is a good inhibitor of the SARS-CoV-2 virus replication in a cell culture model. The in silico findings indicate potential mechanisms of proteases' inhibition by (PhSe)2; in particular, the results of the covalent inhibition here discussed for Mpro, whose thermodynamics is approximatively isoergonic, prompt further investigation in the design of antiviral organodiselenides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Folorunsho Bright Omage
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Andrea Madabeni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università Degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, Padova 35131, Italy
| | - Amanda Resende Tucci
- Laboratório de Vírus Respiratórios e Do Sarampo, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil
| | - Pablo Andrei Nogara
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Marco Bortoli
- Institute of Computational Chemistry and Catalysis (IQCC) and Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Girona, C/M. A. Capmany 69, Girona 17003, Spain
| | - Alice Dos Santos Rosa
- Laboratório de Vírus Respiratórios e Do Sarampo, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil
| | - Vivian Neuza Dos Santos Ferreira
- Laboratório de Vírus Respiratórios e Do Sarampo, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil
| | - João Batista Teixeira Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Milene Dias Miranda
- Laboratório de Vírus Respiratórios e Do Sarampo, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università Degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, Padova 35131, Italy
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15
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ROS: Basic Concepts, Sources, Cellular Signaling, and its Implications in Aging Pathways. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:1225578. [PMID: 36312897 PMCID: PMC9605829 DOI: 10.1155/2022/1225578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are bioproducts of cellular metabolism. There is a range of molecules with oxidizing properties known as ROS. Despite those molecules being implied negatively in aging and numerous diseases, their key role in cellular signaling is evident. ROS control several biological processes such as inflammation, proliferation, and cell death. The redox signaling underlying these cellular events is one characteristic of the new generation of scientists aimed at defining the role of ROS in the cellular environment. The control of redox potential, which includes the balance of the sources of ROS and the antioxidant system, implies an important target for understanding the cells' fate derived from redox signaling. In this review, we summarized the chemical, the redox balance, the signaling, and the implications of ROS in biological aging.
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16
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Karaj E, Sindi SH, Kuganesan N, Perera L, Taylor W, Viranga Tillekeratne LM. Tunable Cysteine-Targeting Electrophilic Heteroaromatic Warheads Induce Ferroptosis. J Med Chem 2022; 65:11788-11817. [PMID: 35984756 PMCID: PMC10408038 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Once considered potential liabilities, the modern era witnesses a renaissance of interest in covalent inhibitors in drug discovery. The available toolbox of electrophilic warheads is limited by constraints on tuning reactivity and selectivity. Following our work on a class of ferroptotic agents termed CETZOLEs, we discovered new tunable heterocyclic electrophiles which are capable of inducing ferroptosis. The biological evaluation demonstrated that thiazoles with an alkyne electrophile at the 2-position selectively induce ferroptosis with high potency. Density functional theory calculations and NMR kinetic studies demonstrated the ability of our heterocycles to undergo thiol addition, an apparent prerequisite for cytotoxicity. Chemoproteomic analysis indicated several potential targets, the most prominent among them being GPX4 protein. These results were further validated by western blot analysis and the cellular thermal shift assay. Incorporation of these heterocycles into appropriate pharmacophores generated highly cytotoxic agents such as the analogue BCP-T.A, with low nM IC50 values in ferroptosis-sensitive cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Endri Karaj
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606
| | - Shaimaa H. Sindi
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606
| | - Nishanth Kuganesan
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606
| | - Lalith Perera
- Laboratory of Genome Integrity and Structural Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - William Taylor
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606
| | - L. M. Viranga Tillekeratne
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606
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17
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Madabeni A, Zucchelli S, Nogara PA, Rocha JBT, Orian L. In the Chalcogenoxide Elimination Panorama: Systematic Insight into a Key Reaction. J Org Chem 2022; 87:11766-11775. [PMID: 35951408 PMCID: PMC9442651 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.2c01454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The selenoxide elimination is a well-known reaction in
organochalcogen
chemistry, with wide synthetic, biological, and toxicological implications.
In this work, we apply benchmarked density functional theory (DFT)
calculations to investigate different aspects of the title reaction
in three (bio)chemically relevant models, spanning minimal systems
of theoretical interests as well as biological or synthetic organochalcogenides.
The activation strain analysis (ASA) methodology is employed along
a suitable reaction coordinate to obtain insight into the role of
the chalcogen and of the oxidation state, to pinpoint the factors
that tune the elimination reactivity of the investigated systems.
Lastly, we computationally validate the hypothesis that telluroxides
eliminate more slowly than selenoxides because of a detrimental hydration
process that leads to unreactive hydrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Madabeni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Simone Zucchelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Pablo A Nogara
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, 97105-900, RS, Brazil
| | - João B T Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, 97105-900, RS, Brazil
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
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18
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Ursini F, Bosello Travain V, Cozza G, Miotto G, Roveri A, Toppo S, Maiorino M. A white paper on Phospholipid Hydroperoxide Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx4) forty years later. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 188:117-133. [PMID: 35718302 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.06.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The purification of a protein inhibiting lipid peroxidation led to the discovery of the selenoperoxidase GPx4 forty years ago. Thus, the evidence of the enzymatic activity was reached after identifying the biological effect and unambiguously defined the relationship between the biological function and the enzymatic activity. In the syllogism where GPx4 inhibits lipid peroxidation and its inhibition is lethal, cell death is operated by lipid peroxidation. Based on this rationale, this form of cell death emerged as regulated iron-enforced oxygen toxicity and was named ferroptosis in 2012. In the last decades, we learned that reduction of lipid hydroperoxides is indispensable and, in cooperation with prooxidant systems, controls the critical steady state of lipid peroxidation. This concept defined the GPx4 reaction as both the target for possible anti-cancer therapy and if insufficient, as cause of degenerative diseases. We know the reaction mechanism, but the details of the interaction at the membrane cytosol interface are still poorly defined. We know the gene structure, but the knowledge about expression control is still limited. The same holds true for post-transcriptional modifications. Reverse genetics indicate that GPx4 has a role in inflammation, immunity, and differentiation, but the observations emerging from these studies need a more specifically addressed biochemical evidence. Finally, the role of GPx4 in spermatogenesis disclosed an area unconnected to lipid peroxidation. In its mitochondrial and nuclear form, the peroxidase catalyzes the oxidation of protein thiols in two specific aspects of sperm maturation: stabilization of the mid-piece and chromatin compaction. Thus, although available evidence converges to the notion that GPx4 activity is vital due to the inhibition of lipid peroxidation, it is reasonable to foresee other unknown aspects of the GPx4 reaction to be disclosed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulvio Ursini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Viale G. Colombo, 3, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Giorgio Cozza
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Viale G. Colombo, 3, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Giovanni Miotto
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Viale G. Colombo, 3, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Antonella Roveri
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Viale G. Colombo, 3, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Stefano Toppo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Viale G. Colombo, 3, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Matilde Maiorino
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Viale G. Colombo, 3, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy.
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19
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Masuda R, Kuwano S, Sase S, Bortoli M, Madabeni A, Orian L, Goto K. Model Study on the Catalytic Cycle of Glutathione Peroxidase Utilizing Selenocysteine-Containing Tripeptides: Elucidation of the Protective Bypass Mechanism Involving Selenocysteine Selenenic Acids. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2022. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20220156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Masuda
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Satoru Kuwano
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Shohei Sase
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Marco Bortoli
- Institut de Química Computacional i Catàlisi (IQCC) i Departament de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat de Girona, C/M. A. Capmany 69, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Andrea Madabeni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Kei Goto
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
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20
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Kulik K, Sadowska K, Wielgus E, Pacholczyk-Sienicka B, Sochacka E, Nawrot B. 2-Selenouridine, a Modified Nucleoside of Bacterial tRNAs, Its Reactivity in the Presence of Oxidizing and Reducing Reagents. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147973. [PMID: 35887319 PMCID: PMC9325004 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The 5-substituted 2-selenouridines are natural components of the bacterial tRNA epitranscriptome. Because selenium-containing biomolecules are redox-active entities, the oxidation susceptibility of 2-selenouridine (Se2U) was studied in the presence of hydrogen peroxide under various conditions and compared with previously reported data for 2-thiouridine (S2U). It was found that Se2U is more susceptible to oxidation and converted in the first step to the corresponding diselenide (Se2U)2, an unstable intermediate that decomposes to uridine and selenium. The reversibility of the oxidized state of Se2U was demonstrated by the efficient reduction of (Se2U)2 to Se2U in the presence of common reducing agents. Thus, the 2-selenouridine component of tRNA may have antioxidant potential in cells because of its ability to react with both cellular ROS components and reducing agents. Interestingly, in the course of the reactions studied, we found that (Se2U)2 reacts with Se2U to form new ‘oligomeric nucleosides′ as linear and cyclic byproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Kulik
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland; (E.W.); (B.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-(42)-68-03-215
| | - Klaudia Sadowska
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland; (K.S.); (B.P.-S.); (E.S.)
| | - Ewelina Wielgus
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland; (E.W.); (B.N.)
| | - Barbara Pacholczyk-Sienicka
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland; (K.S.); (B.P.-S.); (E.S.)
| | - Elzbieta Sochacka
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland; (K.S.); (B.P.-S.); (E.S.)
| | - Barbara Nawrot
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland; (E.W.); (B.N.)
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21
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Flohé L, Toppo S, Orian L. The glutathione peroxidase family: Discoveries and mechanism. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 187:113-122. [PMID: 35580774 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The discoveries leading to our present understanding of the glutathione peroxidases (GPxs) are recalled. The cytosolic GPx, now GPx1, was first described by Mills in 1957 and claimed to depend on selenium by Rotruck et al., in 1972. With the determination of a stoichiometry of one selenium per subunit, GPx1 was established as the first selenoenzyme of vertebrates. In the meantime, the GPxs have grown up to a huge family of enzymes that prevent free radical formation from hydroperoxides and, thus, are antioxidant enzymes, but they are also involved in regulatory processes or synthetic functions. The kinetic mechanism of the selenium-containing GPxs is unusual in neither showing a defined KM nor any substrate saturation. More recently, the reaction mechanism has been investigated by the density functional theory and nuclear magnetic resonance of model compounds mimicking the reaction cycle. The resulting concept sees a selenolate oxidized to a selenenic acid. This very fast reaction results from a concerted dual attack on the hydroperoxide bond, a nucleophilic one by the selenolate and an electrophilic one by a proton that is unstably bound in the reaction center. Postulated intermediates have been identified either in the native enzymes or in model compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leopold Flohé
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy; Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay.
| | - Stefano Toppo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Laura Orian
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy
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22
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GPX4: old lessons, new features. Biochem Soc Trans 2022; 50:1205-1213. [PMID: 35758268 DOI: 10.1042/bst20220682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
GPX4 is a selenocysteine-containing protein that plays an essential role in repairing peroxidised phospholipids. Its role in organismal homeostasis has been known for decades, and it has been reported to play a pivotal role in cell survival and mammalian embryonic development. In recent years, GPX4 has been associated with a cell death modality dubbed ferroptosis. The framing of this molecular pathway of cell death was essential for understanding the conditions that determine GPX4 dependency and ultimately to the process of lipid peroxidation. Since its discovery, ferroptosis has been gaining momentum as a promising target for yet-incurable diseases, including cancer and neurodegeneration. Given the current interest, in the present review, we provide newcomers in the field with an overview of the biology of GPX4 and cover some of its most recent discoveries.
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23
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Reactive Human Plasma Glutathione Peroxidase Mutant with Diselenide Bond Succeeds in Tetramer Formation. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11061083. [PMID: 35739980 PMCID: PMC9220127 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11061083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasma glutathione peroxidase (GPx3) belongs to the GPx superfamily, and it is the only known secreted selenocysteine (Sec)−containing GPx in humans. It exists as a glycosylated homotetramer and catalyzes the reduction of hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides, depending on the Sec in its active center. In this study, a previously reported chimeric tRNAUTuT6 was used for the incorporation of Sec at the UAG amber codon, and the mature form of human GPx3 (hGPx3) without the signal peptide was expressed in amber−less E. coli C321.ΔA.exp. Reactive Sec−hGPx3, able to reduce H2O2 and tert−butyl hydroperoxide (t−BuOOH), was produced with high purity and yield. Study of the quaternary structure suggested that the recombinant Sec−hGPx3 contained an intra−molecular disulfide bridge but failed to form tetramer. Mutational and structural analysis of the mutants with three Cys residues, individually or jointly replaced with Ser, indicated that the formation of intra−molecular disulfide bridges involved structure conformational changes. The secondary structure containing Cys77 and Cys132 was flexible and could form a disulfide bond, or form a sulfhydryl–selenyl bond with Sec49 in relative mutants. Mutation of Cys8 and Cys132 to Sec8 and Sec132 could fix the oligomerization loop through the formation of diselenide bond, which, in turn, facilitated tetramer formation and noticeably improved the GPx activity. This research provides an important foundation for the further catalysis and functional study of hGPx3.
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24
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Masuda R, Goto K. Modeling of selenocysteine-derived reactive intermediates utilizing a nano-sized molecular cavity as a protective cradle. Methods Enzymol 2022; 662:331-361. [PMID: 35101217 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2021.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
In the biological functions of selenoproteins, various highly reactive species formed by oxidative modification of selenocysteine residues have been postulated to play crucial roles. Representative examples of such species are selenocysteine selenenic acids (Sec-SeOHs) and selenocysteine selenenyl iodides (Sec-SeIs), which have been widely recognized as important intermediates in the catalytic cycle of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and iodothyronine deiodinase, respectively. However, examples of even spectroscopic observation of Sec-SeOHs and Sec-SeIs in either protein or small-molecule model systems remain elusive so far, most likely due to their notorious instability. For the synthesis of small-molecule model compounds of these reactive species, it is essential to suppress their very facile bimolecular decomposition such as self-condensation and disproportionation. Here we outline a novel method for the synthesis of stable small-molecule model compounds of the selenocysteine-derived reactive species, in which a nano-sized molecular cavity is used as a protective cradle to accommodate the reactive selenocysteine unit. Stabilization by the molecular cradle led to the successful synthesis of Sec-SeOHs, which are stable in solution at low temperatures, and a Sec-SeI, which can be isolated as crystals. The catalytic cycle of GPx was investigated using the NMR-observable Sec-SeOH models, and all the chemical processes proposed for the catalytic cycle of GPx, including the bypass process from Sec-SeOH to the corresponding cyclic selenenyl amide, were experimentally confirmed. Detailed protocols for the syntheses of selenopeptide derivatives bearing the molecular cradle and for the spectroscopic monitoring of their reactions are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Masuda
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kei Goto
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan.
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25
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Kumar M, Singh VP. Synthesis and antioxidant activities of N-thiophenyl ebselenamines: a 77Se{ 1H} NMR mechanistic study. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2nj01225a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Synthesis of N-thiophenyl ebselenamines and selenenyl sulphides as efficient radical-trapping and hydroperoxide-decomposing antioxidants, respectively has been described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Kumar
- Department of Chemistry & Centre of Advanced Studies in Chemistry, Panjab University, Sector-14, Chandigarh 160 014, India
| | - Vijay P. Singh
- Department of Chemistry & Centre of Advanced Studies in Chemistry, Panjab University, Sector-14, Chandigarh 160 014, India
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26
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Fuentes-Lemus E, Hägglund P, López-Alarcón C, Davies MJ. Oxidative Crosslinking of Peptides and Proteins: Mechanisms of Formation, Detection, Characterization and Quantification. Molecules 2021; 27:15. [PMID: 35011250 PMCID: PMC8746199 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Covalent crosslinks within or between proteins play a key role in determining the structure and function of proteins. Some of these are formed intentionally by either enzymatic or molecular reactions and are critical to normal physiological function. Others are generated as a consequence of exposure to oxidants (radicals, excited states or two-electron species) and other endogenous or external stimuli, or as a result of the actions of a number of enzymes (e.g., oxidases and peroxidases). Increasing evidence indicates that the accumulation of unwanted crosslinks, as is seen in ageing and multiple pathologies, has adverse effects on biological function. In this article, we review the spectrum of crosslinks, both reducible and non-reducible, currently known to be formed on proteins; the mechanisms of their formation; and experimental approaches to the detection, identification and characterization of these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Fuentes-Lemus
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; (E.F.-L.); (P.H.)
| | - Per Hägglund
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; (E.F.-L.); (P.H.)
| | - Camilo López-Alarcón
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Química y de Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Santiago 7820436, Chile;
| | - Michael J. Davies
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; (E.F.-L.); (P.H.)
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27
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Orian L, Flohé L. Selenium-Catalyzed Reduction of Hydroperoxides in Chemistry and Biology. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:1560. [PMID: 34679695 PMCID: PMC8533274 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10101560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the chalcogens, selenium is the key element for catalyzed H2O2 reduction. In organic synthesis, catalytic amounts of organo mono- and di-selenides are largely used in different classes of oxidations, in which H2O2 alone is poorly efficient. Biological hydroperoxide metabolism is dominated by peroxidases and thioredoxin reductases, which balance hydroperoxide challenge and contribute to redox regulation. When their selenocysteine is replaced by cysteine, the cellular antioxidant defense system is impaired. Finally, classes of organoselenides have been synthesized with the aim of mimicking the biological strategy of glutathione peroxidases, but their therapeutic application has so far been limited. Moreover, their therapeutic use may be doubted, because H2O2 is not only toxic but also serves as an important messenger. Therefore, over-optimization of H2O2 reduction may lead to unexpected disturbances of metabolic regulation. Common to all these systems is the nucleophilic attack of selenium to one oxygen of the peroxide bond promoting its disruption. In this contribution, we revisit selected examples from chemistry and biology, and, by using results from accurate quantum mechanical modelling, we provide an accurate unified picture of selenium's capacity of reducing hydroperoxides. There is clear evidence that the selenoenzymes remain superior in terms of catalytic efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Leopold Flohé
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35121 Padova, Italy
- Departamento de Bioquimica, Universidad de la Republica, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
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28
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Dalla Tiezza M, Hamlin TA, Bickelhaupt FM, Orian L. Radical Scavenging Potential of the Phenothiazine Scaffold: A Computational Analysis. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:3763-3771. [PMID: 34536069 PMCID: PMC9292796 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The reactivity of phenothiazine (PS), phenoselenazine (PSE), and phenotellurazine (PTE) with different reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been studied using density functional theory (DFT) in combination with the QM‐ORSA (Quantum Mechanics‐based Test for Overall Free Radical Scavenging Activity) protocol for an accurate kinetic rate calculation. Four radical scavenging mechanisms have been screened, namely hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), radical adduct formation (RAF), single electron transfer (SET), and the direct oxidation of the chalcogen atom. The chosen ROS are HO., HOO., and CH3OO.. PS, PSE, and PTE exhibit an excellent antioxidant activity in water regardless of the ROS due to their characteristic diffusion‐controlled regime processes. For the HO. radical, the primary active reaction mechanism is, for all antioxidants, RAF. But, for HOO. and CH3OO., the dominant mechanism strongly depends on the antioxidant: HAT for PS and PSE, and SET for PTE. The scavenging efficiency decreases dramatically in lipid environment and remains only significant (via RAF) for the most reactive radical (HO.). Therefore, PS, PSE, and PTE are excellent antioxidant molecules, especially in aqueous, physiological environments where they are active against a broad spectrum of harmful radicals. There is no advantage or significant difference in the scavenging efficiency when changing the chalcogen since the reactivity mainly derives from the amino hydrogen and the aromatic sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Dalla Tiezza
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Trevor A Hamlin
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Amsterdam Center for Multiscale Modeling (ACMM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - F Matthias Bickelhaupt
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Amsterdam Center for Multiscale Modeling (ACMM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Institute for Molecules and Materials (IMM), Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy
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29
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Ahmed AY, Aowda SA, Hadwan MH. A validated method to assess glutathione peroxidase enzyme activity. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-021-01826-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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30
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Cheng Q, Roveri A, Cozza G, Bordin L, Rohn I, Schwerdtle T, Kipp A, Ursini F, Maiorino M, Miotto G, Arnér ESJ. Production and purification of homogenous recombinant human selenoproteins reveals a unique codon skipping event in E. coli and GPX4-specific affinity to bromosulfophthalein. Redox Biol 2021; 46:102070. [PMID: 34304108 PMCID: PMC8326192 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2021.102070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Selenoproteins are translated via animal domain-specific elongation machineries that redefine dedicated UGA opal codons from termination of translation to selenocysteine (Sec) insertion, utilizing specific tRNA species and Sec-specific elongation factors. This has made recombinant production of mammalian selenoproteins in E. coli technically challenging but recently we developed a methodology that enables such production, using recoding of UAG for Sec in an RF1-deficient host strain. Here we used that approach for production of the human glutathione peroxidases 1, 2 and 4 (GPX1, GPX2 and GPX4), with all these three enzymes being important antioxidant selenoproteins. Among these, GPX4 is the sole embryonically essential enzyme, and is also known to be essential for spermatogenesis as well as protection from cell death through ferroptosis. Enzyme kinetics, ICP-MS and mass spectrometry analyses of the purified recombinant proteins were used to characterize selenoprotein characteristics and their Sec contents. This revealed a unique phenomenon of one-codon skipping, resulting in a lack of a single amino acid at the position corresponding to the selenocysteine (Sec) residue, in about 30% of the recombinant GPX isoenzyme products. We furthermore confirmed the previously described UAG suppression with Lys or Gln as well as a minor suppression with Tyr, together resulting in about 20% Sec contents in the full-length proteins. No additional frameshifts or translational errors were detected. We subsequently found that Sec-containing GPX4 could be further purified over a bromosulfophthalein-column, yielding purified recombinant GPX4 with close to complete Sec contents. This production method for homogenously purified GPX4 should help to further advance the studies of this important selenoprotein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Cheng
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Antonella Roveri
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Giorgio Cozza
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Luciana Bordin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Isabelle Rohn
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Nutritional Science, Department of Food Chemistry, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Tanja Schwerdtle
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Nutritional Science, Department of Food Chemistry, Nuthetal, Germany; German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna Kipp
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Institute of Nutritional Sciences, Molecular Nutritional Physiology, Jena, Germany
| | - Fulvio Ursini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Matilde Maiorino
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Giovanni Miotto
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; CRIBI Biotechnology Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Elias S J Arnér
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Selenoprotein Research, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary.
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31
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Nogara PA, Madabeni A, Bortoli M, Teixeira Rocha JB, Orian L. Methylmercury Can Facilitate the Formation of Dehydroalanine in Selenoenzymes: Insight from DFT Molecular Modeling. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:1655-1663. [PMID: 34077192 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Experimental studies have indicated that electrophilic mercury forms (e.g., methylmercury, MeHg+) can accelerate the breakage of selenocysteine in vitro. Particularly, in 2009, Khan et al. (Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2009, 28, 1567-1577) proposed a mechanism for the degradation of a free methylmercury selenocysteinate complex that was theoretically supported by Asaduzzaman et al. (Inorg. Chem. 2010, 50, 2366-2372). However, little is known about the fate of methylmercury selenocysteinate complexes embedded in an enzyme, especially in conditions of oxidative stress in which methylmercury target enzymes operate. Here, an accurate computational study on molecular models (level of theory: COSMO-ZORA-BLYP-D3(BJ)/TZ2P) was carried out to investigate the formation of dehydroalanine (Dha) in selenoenzymes, which irreversibly impairs their function. Methylselenocysteine as well as methylcysteine and methyltellurocysteine were included to gain insight on the peculiar behavior of selenium. Dha forms in a two-step process, i.e., the oxidation of the chalcogen nucleus followed by a syn-elimination leading to the alkene and the chalcogenic acid. The effect of an excess of hydrogen peroxide, which may lead to the formation of chalcogenones before the elimination, and of MeHg+, a severe toxicant targeting selenoproteins, which leads to the formation of methylmercury selenocysteinate, are also studied with the aim of assessing whether these pathological conditions facilitate the formation of Dha. Indeed, elimination occurs after chalcogen oxidation and MeHg+ facilitates the process. These results indicate a possible mechanism of toxicity of MeHg+ in selenoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Andrei Nogara
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil.,Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Andrea Madabeni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Marco Bortoli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - João Batista Teixeira Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
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32
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Masuda R, Kimura R, Karasaki T, Sase S, Goto K. Modeling the Catalytic Cycle of Glutathione Peroxidase by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Analysis of Selenocysteine Selenenic Acids. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:6345-6350. [PMID: 33887135 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c02383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Although selenocysteine selenenic acids (Sec-SeOHs) have been recognized as key intermediates in the catalytic cycle of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), examples of the direct observation of Sec-SeOH in either protein or small-molecule systems have remained elusive so far, mostly due to their instability. Here, we report the first direct spectroscopic (1H and 77Se NMR) evidence for the formation of Sec-SeOH in small-molecule selenocysteine and selenopeptide model systems with a cradle-type protective group. The catalytic cycle of GPx was investigated using NMR-observable Sec-SeOH models. All the hitherto proposed chemical processes, i.e., not only those of the canonical catalytic cycle but also those involved in the bypass mechanism, including the intramolecular cyclization of Sec-SeOH to the corresponding five-membered ring selenenyl amide, were examined in a stepwise manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Masuda
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Ryutaro Kimura
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Takafumi Karasaki
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Shohei Sase
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
| | - Kei Goto
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
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33
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Madabeni A, Nogara PA, Bortoli M, Rocha JB, Orian L. Effect of Methylmercury Binding on the Peroxide-Reducing Potential of Cysteine and Selenocysteine. Inorg Chem 2021; 60:4646-4656. [PMID: 33587617 PMCID: PMC8763373 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.0c03619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Methylmercury (CH3Hg+) binding to catalytically fundamental cysteine and selenocysteine of peroxide-reducing enzymes has long been postulated as the origin of its toxicological activity. Only very recently, CH3Hg+ binding to the selenocysteine of thioredoxin reductase has been directly observed [Pickering, I. J. Inorg. Chem., 2020, 59, 2711-2718], but the precise influence of the toxicant on the peroxide-reducing potential of such a residue has never been investigated. In this work, we employ state-of-the-art density functional theory calculations to study the reactivity of molecular models of the free and toxified enzymes. Trends in activation energies are discussed with attention to the biological consequences and are rationalized within the chemically intuitive framework provided by the activation strain model. With respect to the free, protonated amino acids, CH3Hg+ binding promotes oxidation of the S or Se nucleus, suggesting that chalcogenoxide formation might occur in the toxified enzyme, even if the actual rate of peroxide reduction is almost certainly lowered as suggested by comparison with fully deprotonated amino acids models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Madabeni
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli
Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Pablo A. Nogara
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli
Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
- Departamento
de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), 97105-900 Santa
Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Marco Bortoli
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli
Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - João B.
T. Rocha
- Departamento
de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), 97105-900 Santa
Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli
Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
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34
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Jiang X, Stockwell BR, Conrad M. Ferroptosis: mechanisms, biology and role in disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2021; 22:266-282. [PMID: 33495651 PMCID: PMC8142022 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-020-00324-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2426] [Impact Index Per Article: 808.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The research field of ferroptosis has seen exponential growth over the past few years, since the term was coined in 2012. This unique modality of cell death, driven by iron-dependent phospholipid peroxidation, is regulated by multiple cellular metabolic pathways, including redox homeostasis, iron handling, mitochondrial activity and metabolism of amino acids, lipids and sugars, in addition to various signalling pathways relevant to disease. Numerous organ injuries and degenerative pathologies are driven by ferroptosis. Intriguingly, therapy-resistant cancer cells, particularly those in the mesenchymal state and prone to metastasis, are exquisitely vulnerable to ferroptosis. As such, pharmacological modulation of ferroptosis, via both its induction and its inhibition, holds great potential for the treatment of drug-resistant cancers, ischaemic organ injuries and other degenerative diseases linked to extensive lipid peroxidation. In this Review, we provide a critical analysis of the current molecular mechanisms and regulatory networks of ferroptosis, the potential physiological functions of ferroptosis in tumour suppression and immune surveillance, and its pathological roles, together with a potential for therapeutic targeting. Importantly, as in all rapidly evolving research areas, challenges exist due to misconceptions and inappropriate experimental methods. This Review also aims to address these issues and to provide practical guidelines for enhancing reproducibility and reliability in studies of ferroptosis. Finally, we discuss important concepts and pressing questions that should be the focus of future ferroptosis research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejun Jiang
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Brent R Stockwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Marcus Conrad
- Institute of Metabolism and Cell Death, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany.
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia.
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35
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Abstract
Chalcogen-nitrogen chemistry deals with systems in which sulfur, selenium, or tellurium is linked to a nitrogen nucleus. This chemical motif is a key component of different functional structures, ranging from inorganic materials and polymers, to rationally designed catalysts, to bioinspired molecules and enzymes. The formation of a selenium–nitrogen bond, typically occurring upon condensation of an amine and the unstable selenenic acid, often leading to intramolecular cyclizations, and its disruption, mainly promoted by thiols, are rather common events in organic Se-catalyzed processes. In this work, focusing on examples taken from selenium organic chemistry and biochemistry, the selenium–nitrogen bond is described, and its strength and reactivity are quantified using accurate computational methods applied to model molecular systems. The intermediate strength of the Se–N bond, which can be tuned to necessity, gives rise to significant trends when comparing it to the stronger S– and weaker Te–N bonds, reaffirming also in this context the peculiar and valuable role of selenium in chemistry and life.
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36
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Flohé L. Looking Back at the Early Stages of Redox Biology. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:E1254. [PMID: 33317108 PMCID: PMC7763103 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9121254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The beginnings of redox biology are recalled with special emphasis on formation, metabolism and function of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in mammalian systems. The review covers the early history of heme peroxidases and the metabolism of hydrogen peroxide, the discovery of selenium as integral part of glutathione peroxidases, which expanded the scope of the field to other hydroperoxides including lipid hydroperoxides, the discovery of superoxide dismutases and superoxide radicals in biological systems and their role in host defense, tissue damage, metabolic regulation and signaling, the identification of the endothelial-derived relaxing factor as the nitrogen monoxide radical (more commonly named nitric oxide) and its physiological and pathological implications. The article highlights the perception of hydrogen peroxide and other hydroperoxides as signaling molecules, which marks the beginning of the flourishing fields of redox regulation and redox signaling. Final comments describe the development of the redox language. In the 18th and 19th century, it was highly individualized and hard to translate into modern terminology. In the 20th century, the redox language co-developed with the chemical terminology and became clearer. More recently, the introduction and inflationary use of poorly defined terms has unfortunately impaired the understanding of redox events in biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leopold Flohé
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare, Università degli Studi di Padova, v.le G. Colombo 3, 35121 Padova, Italy;
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad de la República, Avda. General Flores 2125, 11800 Montevideo, Uruguay
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37
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Common modifications of selenocysteine in selenoproteins. Essays Biochem 2020; 64:45-53. [PMID: 31867620 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20190051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Selenocysteine (Sec), the sulfur-to-selenium substituted variant of cysteine (Cys), is the defining entity of selenoproteins. These are naturally expressed in many diverse organisms and constitute a unique class of proteins. As a result of the physicochemical characteristics of selenium when compared with sulfur, Sec is typically more reactive than Cys while participating in similar reactions, and there are also some qualitative differences in the reactivities between the two amino acids. This minireview discusses the types of modifications of Sec in selenoproteins that have thus far been experimentally validated. These modifications include direct covalent binding through the Se atom of Sec to other chalcogen atoms (S, O and Se) as present in redox active molecular motifs, derivatization of Sec via the direct covalent binding to non-chalcogen elements (Ni, Mb, N, Au and C), and the loss of Se from Sec resulting in formation of dehydroalanine. To understand the nature of these Sec modifications is crucial for an understanding of selenoprotein reactivities in biological, physiological and pathophysiological contexts.
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Podkowa A, Kryczyk-Poprawa A, Opoka W, Muszyńska B. Culinary–medicinal mushrooms: a review of organic compounds and bioelements with antioxidant activity. Eur Food Res Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-020-03646-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThere are about 3000 species of mushrooms, which have a high amount of substances that are beneficial to human health, such as antioxidants. It is well known that oxidative stress plays an important role in the etiopathogenesis of many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and diseases of the central nervous system. One way to prevent homeostasis disorders that occur as a result of excessive production of pro-oxidative substances is to include the ingredients having antioxidant properties in the diet. Several compounds, such as those with phenolic and indole derivatives as well as carotenoids and some vitamins, exhibit antioxidant activity. These substances are present in many foods, including mushrooms. In addition, they have certain unique compounds that are not found in other sources (e.g., norbadione A). The present work discusses selected ingredients exhibiting antioxidant activity, which are found in various species of mushrooms as wells as describes the content of these compounds in the extracts obtained from mushrooms using artificial digestive juice.
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Dalla Tiezza M, Bickelhaupt FM, Flohé L, Orian L. Proton Transfer and S N 2 Reactions as Steps of Fast Selenol and Thiol Oxidation in Proteins: A Model Molecular Study Based on GPx. Chempluschem 2020; 86:525-532. [PMID: 33215863 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202000660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The so-called peroxidatic cysteines and selenocysteines in proteins reduce hydroperoxides through a dual attack to the peroxide bond in a two-step mechanism. First, a proton dislocation from the thiol/selenol to a close residue of the enzymatic pocket occurs. Then, a nucleophilic attack of the anionic cysteine/selenocysteine to one O atom takes place, while the proton is shuttled back to the second O atom, promoting the formation of a water molecule. In this computational study, we use a molecular model of GPx to demonstrate that the enzymatic environment significantly lowers the barrier of the latter SN 2 step. Particularly, in our Se-based model the energy barriers for the two steps are 29.82 and 2.83 kcal mol-1 , both higher than the corresponding barriers computed in the enzymatic cluster, i. e., 21.60 and null, respectively. Our results, obtained at SMD-B3LYP-D3(BJ)/6-311+G(d,p), cc-pVTZ//B3LYP-D3(BJ)/6-311G(d,p), cc-pVTZ level of theory, show that the mechanistic details can be well reproduced using an oversimplified model, but the energetics is definitively more favorable in the GPx active site. In addition, we pinpoint the role of the chalcogen in the peroxide reduction process, rooting the advantages of the presence of selenium in its acidic and nucleophilic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Dalla Tiezza
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - F Matthias Bickelhaupt
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry and Amsterdam Center for Multiscale Modeling (ACMM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV, Amsterdam (The, Netherlands.,Institute for Molecules and Materials (IMM), Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ, Nijmegen (The, Netherlands
| | - Leopold Flohé
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare, Università degli Studi di Padova, v.le G. Colombo 3, 35121, Padova, Italy.,Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad de la República, Avda. General Flores 2125, 11800, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy
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Buday K, Conrad M. Emerging roles for non-selenium containing ER-resident glutathione peroxidases in cell signaling and disease. Biol Chem 2020; 402:271-287. [PMID: 33055310 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2020-0286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Maintenance of cellular redox control is pivotal for normal cellular functions and cell fate decisions including cell death. Among the key cellular redox systems in mammals, the glutathione peroxidase (GPX) family of proteins is the largest conferring multifaceted functions and affecting virtually all cellular processes. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident GPXs, designated as GPX7 and GPX8, are the most recently added members of this family of enzymes. Recent studies have provided exciting insights how both enzymes support critical processes of the ER including oxidative protein folding, maintenance of ER redox control by eliminating H2O2, and preventing palmitic acid-induced lipotoxicity. Consequently, numerous pathological conditions, such as neurodegeneration, cancer and metabolic diseases have been linked with altered GPX7 and GPX8 expression. Studies in mice have demonstrated that loss of GPX7 leads to increased differentiation of preadipocytes, increased tumorigenesis and shortened lifespan. By contrast, GPX8 deficiency in mice results in enhanced caspase-4/11 activation and increased endotoxic shock in colitis model. With the increasing recognition that both types of enzymes are dysregulated in various tumor entities in man, we deem a review of the emerging roles played by GPX7 and GPX8 in health and disease development timely and appropriate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katalin Buday
- Institute of Metabolism and Cell Death, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, D-85764Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Marcus Conrad
- Institute of Metabolism and Cell Death, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, D-85764Neuherberg, Germany.,National Research Medical University, Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, Ostrovityanova 1, 117997Moscow, Russia
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41
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Taylor EW, Radding W. Understanding Selenium and Glutathione as Antiviral Factors in COVID-19: Does the Viral M pro Protease Target Host Selenoproteins and Glutathione Synthesis? Front Nutr 2020; 7:143. [PMID: 32984400 PMCID: PMC7492384 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2020.00143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione peroxidases (GPX), a family of antioxidant selenoenzymes, functionally link selenium and glutathione, which both show correlations with clinical outcomes in COVID-19. Thus, it is highly significant that cytosolic GPX1 has been shown to interact with an inactive C145A mutant of Mpro, the main cysteine protease of SARS-CoV-2, but not with catalytically active wild-type Mpro. This seemingly anomalous result is what might be expected if GPX1 is a substrate for the active protease, leading to its fragmentation. We show that the GPX1 active site sequence is substantially similar to a known Mpro cleavage site, and is identified as a potential cysteine protease site by the Procleave algorithm. Proteolytic knockdown of GPX1 is highly consistent with previously documented effects of recombinant SARS-CoV Mpro in transfected cells, including increased reactive oxygen species and NF-κB activation. Because NF-κB in turn activates many pro-inflammatory cytokines, this mechanism could contribute to increased inflammation and cytokine storms observed in COVID-19. Using web-based protease cleavage site prediction tools, we show that Mpro may be targeting not only GPX1, but several other selenoproteins including SELENOF and thioredoxin reductase 1, as well as glutamate-cysteine ligase, the rate-limiting enzyme for glutathione synthesis. This hypothesized proteolytic knockdown of components of both the thioredoxin and glutaredoxin systems is consistent with a viral strategy to inhibit DNA synthesis, to increase the pool of ribonucleotides for RNA synthesis, thereby enhancing virion production. The resulting "collateral damage" of increased oxidative stress and inflammation would be exacerbated by dietary deficiencies of selenium and glutathione precursors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Will Taylor
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
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42
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Abstract
Significance: The selenium-containing Glutathione peroxidases (GPxs)1-4 protect against oxidative challenge, inhibit inflammation and oxidant-induced regulated cell death. Recent Advances: GPx1 and GPx4 dampen phosphorylation cascades predominantly via prevention of inactivation of phosphatases by H2O2 or lipid hydroperoxides. GPx2 regulates the balance between regeneration and apoptotic cell shedding in the intestine. It inhibits inflammation-induced carcinogenesis in the gut but promotes growth of established cancers. GPx3 deficiency facilitates platelet aggregation likely via disinhibition of thromboxane biosynthesis. It is also considered a tumor suppressor. GPx4 is expressed in three different forms. The cytosolic form proved to inhibit interleukin-1-driven nuclear factor κB activation and leukotriene biosynthesis. Moreover, it is a key regulator of ferroptosis, because it reduces hydroperoxy groups of complex lipids and silences lipoxygenases. By alternate substrate use, the nuclear form contributes to chromatin compaction. Mitochondrial GPx4 forms the mitochondrial sheath of spermatozoa and, thus, guarantees male fertility. Out of the less characterized GPxs, the cysteine-containing GPx7 and GPx8 are unique in contributing to oxidative protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum by reacting with protein isomerase as an alternate substrate. A yeast 2-Cysteine glutathione peroxidase equipped with CP and CR was reported to sense H2O2 for inducing an adaptive response. Critical Issues: Most of the findings compiled are derived from tissue culture and/or animal studies only. Their impact on human physiology is sometimes questionable. Future Directions: The expression of individual GPxs and GPx-dependent regulatory phenomena are to be further investigated, in particular in respect to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Brigelius-Flohé
- Department of Biochemistry of Micronutrients, German Institute of Human Nutrition-Potsdam-Rehbrücke (DIfE), Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Leopold Flohé
- Depatamento de Biochímica, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay.,Dipartimento di Medicina Moleculare, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy
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43
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Ribaudo G, Bortoli M, Pavan C, Zagotto G, Orian L. Antioxidant Potential of Psychotropic Drugs: From Clinical Evidence to In Vitro and In Vivo Assessment and toward a New Challenge for in Silico Molecular Design. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:E714. [PMID: 32781750 PMCID: PMC7465375 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9080714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to high oxygen consumption, the brain is particularly vulnerable to oxidative stress, which is considered an important element in the etiopathogenesis of several mental disorders, including schizophrenia, depression and dependencies. Despite the fact that it is not established yet whether oxidative stress is a cause or a consequence of clinic manifestations, the intake of antioxidant supplements in combination with the psychotropic therapy constitutes a valuable solution in patients' treatment. Anyway, some drugs possess antioxidant capacity themselves and this aspect is discussed in this review, focusing on antipsychotics and antidepressants. In the context of a collection of clinical observations, in vitro and in vivo results are critically reported, often highlighting controversial aspects. Finally, a new challenge is discussed, i.e., the possibility of assessing in silico the antioxidant potential of these drugs, exploiting computational chemistry methodologies and machine learning. Despite the physiological environment being incredibly complex and the detection of meaningful oxidative stress biomarkers being all but an easy task, a rigorous and systematic analysis of the structural and reactivity properties of antioxidant drugs seems to be a promising route to better interpret therapeutic outcomes and provide elements for the rational design of novel drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Ribaudo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Traslazionale, Università degli Studi di Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Marco Bortoli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Chiara Pavan
- Dipartimento di Medicina, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padova, Italy;
| | - Giuseppe Zagotto
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy;
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44
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Madabeni A, Dalla Tiezza M, Omage FB, Nogara PA, Bortoli M, Rocha JBT, Orian L. Chalcogen–mercury bond formation and disruption in model Rabenstein's reactions: A computational analysis. J Comput Chem 2020; 41:2045-2054. [DOI: 10.1002/jcc.26371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Madabeni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Università Degli Studi di Padova Padova Italy
| | - Marco Dalla Tiezza
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Università Degli Studi di Padova Padova Italy
| | - Folorunsho Bright Omage
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular Universidade Federal de Santa Maria Santa Maria Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
| | - Pablo Andrei Nogara
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Università Degli Studi di Padova Padova Italy
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular Universidade Federal de Santa Maria Santa Maria Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
| | - Marco Bortoli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Università Degli Studi di Padova Padova Italy
| | - João Batista Teixeira Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular Universidade Federal de Santa Maria Santa Maria Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Università Degli Studi di Padova Padova Italy
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45
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Nogara PA, Orian L, Rocha JBT. The Se …S/N interactions as a possible mechanism of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase enzyme inhibition by organoselenium compounds: A computational study. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 15:100127. [PMID: 32572387 PMCID: PMC7280828 DOI: 10.1016/j.comtox.2020.100127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
DPDS and PSA interacts with cysteine residues from AlaD active site. The Se…S interactions could be involved in the δ-AlaD inhibition. δ-AlaD from Cucumis sativus does not present cysteine residues in the active site. Se…N interactions could be involved in the organoselenium action.
Organoselenium compounds present many pharmacological properties and are promising drugs. However, toxicological effects associated with inhibition of thiol-containing enzymes, such as the δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-AlaD), have been described. The molecular mechanism(s) by which they inhibit thiol-containing enzymes at the atomic level, is still not well known. The use of computational methods to understand the physical–chemical properties and biological activity of chemicals is essential to the rational design of new drugs. In this work, we propose an in silico study to understand the δ-AlaD inhibition mechanism by diphenyl diselenide (DPDS) and its putative metabolite, phenylseleninic acid (PSA), using δ-AlaD enzymes from Homo sapiens (Hsδ-AlaD), Drosophila melanogaster (Dmδ-AlaD) and Cucumis sativus (Csδ-AlaD). Protein modeling homology, molecular docking, and DFT calculations are combined in this study. According to the molecular docking, DPDS and PSA might bind in the Hsδ-AlaD and Dmδ-AlaD active sites interacting with the cysteine residues by Se…S interactions. On the other hand, the DPDS does not access the active site of the Csδ-AlaD (a non-thiol protein), while the PSA interacts with the amino acids residues from the active site, such as the Lys291. These interactions might lead to the formation of a covalent bond, and consequently, to the enzyme inhibition. In fact, DFT calculations (mPW1PW91/def2TZVP) demonstrated that the selenylamide bond formation is energetically favored. The in silico data showed here are in accordance with previous experimental studies, and help us to understand the reactivity and biological activity of organoselenium compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Andrei Nogara
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil
| | - Laura Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - João Batista Teixeira Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil
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46
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Ursini F, Maiorino M. Lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis: The role of GSH and GPx4. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 152:175-185. [PMID: 32165281 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 763] [Impact Index Per Article: 190.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Ferroptosis (FPT) is a form of cell death due to missed control of membrane lipid peroxidation (LPO). According to the axiomatic definition of non-accidental cell death, LPO takes place in a scenario of altered homeostasis. FPT, differently from apoptosis, occurs in the absence of any known specific genetically encoded death pathway or specific agonist, and thus must be rated as a regulated, although not "programmed", death pathway. It follows that LPO is under a homeostatic metabolic control and is only permitted when indispensable constraints are satisfied and the antiperoxidant machinery collapses. The activity of the selenoperoxidase Glutathione Peroxidase 4 (GPx4) is the cornerstone of the antiperoxidant defence. Converging evidence on both mechanism of LPO and GPx4 enzymology indicates that LPO is initiated by alkoxyl radicals produced by ferrous iron from the hydroperoxide derivatives of lipids (LOOH), traces of which are the unavoidable drawback of aerobic metabolism. FPT takes place when a threshold has been exceeded. This occurs when the major conditions are satisfied: i) oxygen metabolism leading to the continuous formation of traces of LOOH from phospholipid-containing polyunsaturated fatty acids; ii) missed enzymatic reduction of LOOH; iii) availability of ferrous iron from the labile iron pool. Although the effectors impacting on homeostasis and leading to FPT in physiological conditions are not known, from the available knowledge on LPO and GPx4 enzymology we propose that it is aerobic life itself that, while supporting bioenergetics, is also a critical requisite of FPT. Yet, when the homeostatic control of the steady state between LOOH formation and reduction is lost, LPO is activated and FPT is executed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulvio Ursini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Viale G. Colombo, 3, I-35131, Padova, Italy.
| | - Matilde Maiorino
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Viale G. Colombo, 3, I-35131, Padova, Italy.
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47
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Oliveira CS, Segatto ALA, Nogara PA, Piccoli BC, Loreto ÉLS, Aschner M, Rocha JBT. Transcriptomic and Proteomic Tools in the Study of Hg Toxicity: What Is Missing? Front Genet 2020; 11:425. [PMID: 32431728 PMCID: PMC7215068 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.00425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mercury is a hazardous substance that has unique neurodevelopmental toxic effects in humans. However, the precise sequence of molecular events that culminate in Hg-induced neuropathology is still unknown. Though the omics studies have been generating an enormous amount of new data about Hg toxicity, our ability to interpret such a large quantity of information is still limited. In this opinion article, we will reinforce the necessity of new high throughput and accurate analytical proteomic methodologies, especially, thiol and selenol-proteome. Overall, we posit that improvements in thiol- and selenol-proteomic analyses will be pivotal in identifying the primary cellular targets of Hg. However, a better understanding of the complex cascades and molecular pathways involved in its toxicity will require extensive complementary studies in more complex systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia S. Oliveira
- Programa Pós-Graduação Stricto Sensu em Biotecnologia Aplicada a Saúde da Criança e do Adolescente, Instituto de Pesquisa Pelé Pequeno Príncipe, Curitiba, Brazil
- Faculdades Pequeno Príncipe, Curitiba, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Ana L. A. Segatto
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Pablo A. Nogara
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Bruna C. Piccoli
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Élgion L. S. Loreto
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - João B. T. Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
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Stolwijk JM, Falls-Hubert KC, Searby CC, Wagner BA, Buettner GR. Simultaneous detection of the enzyme activities of GPx1 and GPx4 guide optimization of selenium in cell biological experiments. Redox Biol 2020; 32:101518. [PMID: 32278283 PMCID: PMC7150527 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Selenium is a metalloid trace element essential for maintaining the optimal redox environment in cells and tissues. It is structurally incorporated into over 25 selenoproteins and enzymes. The glutathione peroxidase (GPx) family of enzymes has a critical role in human health because of its antioxidant function. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) for selenium intake in humans was established to maximize the activity of GPx in plasma. Suboptimal availability of selenium can limit the expression and activities of GPxs leading to a compromised redox environment. This can cause detrimental oxidative distress that could be prevented by increasing the availability of selenium. In cell culture studies, the medium is typically deficient in selenium; supplementation with selenium can increase selenoenzyme activities. However, the optimal level of supplementation in cell culture media has not been well characterized. We performed dose-response experiments for the activities of GPx1 and GPx4 vs. the level of selenium supplementation in cell culture medium. For this, we advanced an assay to determine the activities of both GPx1 and GPx4 efficiently in a single run. During the optimization process, we found that the observed activities of GPx1 and GPx4 depend greatly on the pH of the assay buffer; the observed activities increase with increasing pH, with pH 8 being optimal. Using the combination assay, we also found that the expression and activities for both GPx1 and GPx4 can be maximized in exponentially growing cells by supplementing cell culture media with ≈ 200 nM seleno-l-methionine, without concerns for toxicity. Optimizing the availability of selenium in cell culture to maximize the expression and activities GPx1 and GPx4 may allow for better translation of information from cell culture work to in vivo settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Stolwijk
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Human Toxicology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Kelly C Falls-Hubert
- Free Radical and Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Charles C Searby
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Brett A Wagner
- Free Radical and Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Garry R Buettner
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Human Toxicology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA; Free Radical and Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
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49
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Dalla Tiezza M, Bickelhaupt FM, Flohé L, Maiorino M, Ursini F, Orian L. A dual attack on the peroxide bond. The common principle of peroxidatic cysteine or selenocysteine residues. Redox Biol 2020; 34:101540. [PMID: 32428845 PMCID: PMC7231847 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The (seleno)cysteine residues in some protein families react with hydroperoxides with rate constants far beyond those of fully dissociated low molecular weight thiol or selenol compounds. In case of the glutathione peroxidases, we could demonstrate that high rate constants are achieved by a proton transfer from the chalcogenol to a residue of the active site [Orian et al. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 87 (2015)]. We extended this study to three more protein families (OxyR, GAPDH and Prx). According to DFT calculations, a proton transfer from the active site chalcogenol to a residue within the active site is a prerequisite for both, creating a chalcogenolate that attacks one oxygen of the hydroperoxide substrate and combining the delocalized proton with the remaining OH or OR, respectively, to create an ideal leaving group. The “parking postions” of the delocalized proton differ between the protein families. It is the ring nitrogen of tryptophan in GPx, a histidine in GAPDH and OxyR and a threonine in Prx. The basic principle, however, is common to all four families of proteins. We, thus, conclude that the principle outlined in this investigation offers a convincing explanation for how a cysteine residue can become peroxidatic. In some protein families, (seleno)cysteine residues react with hydroperoxides with very high rate constants. In GPx, DFT models of the oxidation of the catalytic site support a two-step mechanism for the H2O2 reduction. This mechanism is here found to operate in other thiol-based enzymes, i.e. OxyR, GAPDH and Prx.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Dalla Tiezza
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - F M Bickelhaupt
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry and Amsterdam Center for Multiscale Modeling (ACMM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Institute for Molecules and Materials (IMM), Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - L Flohé
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare, Università degli Studi di Padova, V.le G. Colombo 3, 35121, Padova, Italy; Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad de la República, Avda. General Flores 2125, 11800, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - M Maiorino
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare, Università degli Studi di Padova, V.le G. Colombo 3, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - F Ursini
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare, Università degli Studi di Padova, V.le G. Colombo 3, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - L Orian
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131, Padova, Italy.
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Conrad M, Proneth B. Selenium: Tracing Another Essential Element of Ferroptotic Cell Death. Cell Chem Biol 2020; 27:409-419. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2020.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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