Lipoxin A4 attenuates LPS-induced mouse acute lung injury via Nrf2-mediated E-cadherin expression in airway epithelial cells

Evidence that a Novel Chalcone Derivative, Compound 27, Acts on the Epithelium Via the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2-Keap1 Signaling Pathway, to Mitigate LPS-Induced Acute Lung Injury in Mice

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a highly heterogeneous clinical syndrome and an important cause of mortality in critically ill patients, with limited treatment options currently available. Chalcone, an essential secondary metabolite found in edible or medicinal plants, exhibits good antioxidant activity and simple structure for easy synthesis. In our study, we synthesized a novel chalcone derivative, compound 27 (C27). We hypothesized that C27 could be a potential treatment for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Therefore, the protective effects of C27 on lung epithelial cells during ALI and the underlying molecular mechanisms were investigated. In vivo, Intratracheal instillation of LPS (10 mg/kg) was used to induce acute lung injury in mice. In vitro, the bronchial epithelial cell line (Beas-2b) was treated with 30 μM tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP) to simulate oxidative stress. Our findings demonstrate that pretreatment with C27 reduces LPS-induced oxidative destruction and cellular apoptosis in lung tissues of mice. Furthermore, it significantly attenuates t-BHP-induced cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, mitochondrial damage, and apoptosis in vitro. Mechanistically, the signaling pathway involving Nrf2-Keap1 and the downstream antioxidative proteins were activated by C27 in vivo. Additionally, PI3K inhibitor LY294002 and Nrf2 inhibitor ML385 abolished the effect of C27 in vitro, indicating that the protective effect of C27 is mediated via the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2-Keap1 pathway. Our study provides evidence that C27 protects against LPS-induced ALI by mitigating oxidative stress via activation of the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathway. Therefore, we hypothesize that C27 represents a viable alternative for ALI therapy.

Ferroptosis mediates airway epithelial E-cadherin dysfunction in LPS-induced acute lung injury

BACKGROUND

Loss of E-cadherin in the airway epithelial cells is a critical contributor to the development of ALI/ARDS. Yet the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Increasing evidences have revealed the significance of ferroptosis in the pathophysiological process of ALI/ARDS. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of ferroptosis in dysregulation of airway epithelial E-cadherin in ALI/ARDS.

METHODS

BALB/c mice were subjected to intratracheal instillation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to establish an ALI model. Two inhibitors of ferroptosis, liproxstatin-1 (Lip-1, at the dose of 10 mg/kg and 30 mg/kg) and ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1, at the dose of 1 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg), were respectively given to the mice through intraperitoneal injection after LPS challenge. The expression of ferroptotic markers, full-length E-cadherin and soluble E-cadherin (sE-cadherin) were both detected.

RESULTS

LPS exposure dramatically down-regulated pulmonary expression of E-cadherin in mice, with profound loss of membrane E-cadherin in the airway epithelial cells and increased secretion of sE-cadherin in the airway lumen. At the same time, we found that the mitochondrial of airway epithelial cells in LPS-exposed mice exhibited significant morphological alterations that are hallmark features of ferroptosis, with smaller volume and increased membrane density. Other makers of ferroptosis were also detected, including increased cytoplasmic levels of iron and lipid peroxidates (MDA), as well as decreased GPX4 expression. 30 mg/kg of Lip-1 not only showed potent protective effects against the LPS-induced injury, inflammation, edema of the lung in those mice, but also rescued airway epithelial E-cadherin expression and decreased the release of sE-cadherin through inhibiting ferroptosis. While no noticeable changes induced by LPS were observed in mice treated with Lip-1 at 10 mg/kg nor Fer-1 at 1 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these data demonstrated that ferroptosis mediates airway epithelial E-cadherin dysfunction in LPS-induced ALI.

Shank3 ameliorates neuronal injury after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion via inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammation

Shank3, a key molecule related to the development and deterioration of autism, has recently been found to downregulate in the murine brain after ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Despite this discovery, however, its effects on neuronal injury and the mechanism underlying the effects remain to be clarified. To address this, in this study, based on genetically modified mice models, we revealed that the expression of Shank3 showed a time-dependent change in murine hippocampal neurons after I/R, and that conditional knockout (cko) of Shank3 in neurons resulted in aggravated neuronal injuries. The protective effects of Shank3 against oxidative stress and inflammation after I/R were achieved through direct binding STIM1 and subsequent proteasome-mediated degradation of STIM1. The STIM1 downregulation induced the phosphorylation of downstream Nrf2 Ser40, which subsequently translocated to the nucleus, and further increased the expression of antioxidant genes such as NQO1 and HO-1 in HT22 cells. In vivo, the study has further confirmed that double knockout of Shank3 and Stim1 alleviated oxidative stress and inflammation after I/R in Shank3cko mice. In conclusion, the present study has demonstrated that Shank3 interacts with STIM1 and inhibits post-I/R neuronal oxidative stress and inflammatory response via the Nrf2 pathway. This interaction can potentially contribute to the development of a promising method for I/R treatment.

VNS-mediated α7nAChR signaling promotes SPM synthesis via regulation of netrin-1 expression during LPS-induced ALI

The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) plays a crucial role in the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP) during sepsis-associated acute lung injury (ALI). Increasing evidence suggests that specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) are important in resolving α7nAChR-mediated ALI resolution. Our study aims to elucidate the pivotal role of α7nAChR in the CAP during LPS-associated acute lung injury (ALI). By employing vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), we identified α7nAChR as the key CAP subunit in ALI mice, effectively reducing lung permeability and the release of inflammatory cytokines. We further investigated the alterations in SPMs regulated by α7nAChR, revealing a predominant synthesis of lipoxin A4 (LXA4). The significance of α7nAChR-netrin-1 pathway in governing SPM synthesis was confirmed through the use of netrin-1 knockout mice and siRNA-transfected macrophages. Additionally, our evaluation identified a synchronous alteration of LXA4 synthesis in the α7nAChR-netrin-1 pathway accompanied by 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX), thereby confirming an ameliorative effect of LXA4 on lung injury and macrophage inflammatory response. Concurrently, inhibiting the function of LXA4 annulled the lung-protective effect of VNS. As a result, our findings reveal a novel anti-inflammatory pathway wherein VNS modulates netrin-1 expression via α7nAChR, ultimately leading to LXA4 synthesis and subsequent lung protection.

Airway epithelial cGAS inhibits LPS-induced acute lung injury through CREB signaling

Increased levels of cytosolic DNA in lung tissues play an important role in acute lung injury. However, the detailed mechanisms involved remain elusive. Here, we found that cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS, a cytosolic DNA sensor) expression was increased in airway epithelium in response to increased cytosolic DNA. Conditional deletion of airway epithelial cGAS exacerbated acute lung injury in mice, cGAS knockdown augmented LPS-induced production of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8. Mechanically, deletion of cGAS augmented expression of phosphorylated CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein), and cGAS directly interacted with CREB via its C-terminal domain. Furthermore, CREB knockdown rescued the LPS-induced excessive inflammatory response caused by cGAS deletion. Our study demonstrates that airway epithelial cGAS plays a protective role in acute lung injury and confirms a non-canonical cGAS-CREB pathway that regulates the inflammatory responses in airway epithelium to mediate LPS-induced acute lung injury.

Exosomal PGE2 from M2 macrophages inhibits neutrophil recruitment and NET formation through lipid mediator class switching in sepsis

BACKGROUND

Excess polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) recruitment or excessive neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation can lead to the development of multiple organ dysfunction during sepsis. M2 macrophage-derived exosomes (M2-Exos) have exhibited anti-inflammatory activities in some inflammatory diseases to mediate organ functional protection, but their role in treating sepsis-related acute lung injury (ALI) remains unclear. In this study, we sought to investigate whether M2-Exos could prevent potentially deleterious inflammatory effects during sepsis-related ALI by modulating abnormal PMN behaviours.

METHODS

C57BL/6 wild-type mice were subjected to a caecal ligation and puncture (CLP) mouse model to mimic sepsis in vivo, and M2-Exos were administered intraperitoneally 1 h after CLP. H&E staining, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry were conducted to investigate lung tissue injury, PMN infiltration and NET formation in the lung. We further demonstrated the role of M2-Exos on PMN function and explored the potential mechanisms through an in vitro coculture experiment using PMNs isolated from both healthy volunteers and septic patients.

RESULTS

Here, we report that M2-Exos inhibited PMN migration and NET formation, alleviated lung injury and reduced mortality in a sepsis mouse model. In vitro, M2-Exos significantly decreased PMN migration and NET formation capacity, leading to lipid mediator class switching from proinflammatory leukotriene B4 (LTB4) to anti-inflammatory lipoxin A4 (LXA4) by upregulating 15-lipoxygenase (15-LO) expression in PMNs. Treatment with LXA4 receptor antagonist attenuated the effect of M2-Exos on PMNs and lung injury. Mechanistically, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) enriched in M2-Exos was necessary to increase 15-LO expression in PMNs by functioning on the EP4 receptor, upregulate LXA4 production to downregulate chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 2 (CXCR2) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) expressions, and finally inhibit PMN function.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings reveal a previously unknown role of M2-Exos in regulating PMN migration and NET formation through lipid mediator class switching, thus highlighting the potential application of M2-Exos in controlling PMN-mediated tissue injury in patients with sepsis.

Icariin Alleviates Escherichia coli Lipopolysaccharide-Mediated Endometritis in Mice by Inhibiting Inflammation and Oxidative Stress

Icariin (ICA) is a naturally occurring phytochemical agent primarily extracted from Epimedium Brevicornum Maxim (Family Berberidaceae) with a broad spectrum of bioactivities. Endometritis is a uterine disease that causes enormous losses in the dairy industry worldwide. In this study, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of ICA were investigated against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endometritis in mice to investigate possible underlying molecular mechanisms. Sixty heathy female Kunming mice were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 15), namely control, LPS, LPS + ICA, and ICA groups. The endometritis was induced by intrauterine infusion of 50 µL of LPS (1 mg/mL). After 24 h of onset of LPS-induced endometritis, ICA groups were injected thrice by ICA intraperitoneally six hours apart. Histopathological examination, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), real time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), western blotting, and immunohistochemistry were used in this study. Histological alterations revealed that ICA markedly mitigated uterine tissue injury caused by LPS. The results showed that the ICA inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α) and boosted the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10). Additionally, ICA modulated the expression of malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase 1 (Gpx1) induced by LPS. The administration of ICA significantly (p < 0.05) improved the mRNA and protein expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4. The western blotting and ELISA finding revealed that the ICA repressed LPS-triggered NF-κB pathway activation. Moreover, ICA improved the antioxidant defense system via activation of the Nrf2 pathway. The results revealed that ICA up-regulated the mRNA and protein expression of Nuclear erythroid-2-related factor (Nrf2), NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) under LPS exposure. Conclusively, our findings strongly suggested that ICA protects endometritis caused by LPS by suppressing TLR4-associated NF-κB and Nrf2 pathways. Altogether, these innovative findings may pave the way for future studies into the therapeutic application of ICA to protect humans and animals against endometritis.

NGF/TrkA promotes the vitality, migration and adhesion of bone marrow stromal cells in hypoxia by regulating the Nrf2 pathway

BACKGROUND

Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) transplantation is a treatment strategy for ischemic stroke (IS) with great potential. However, the vitality, migration and adhesion of BMSCs are greatly impaired due to the harsh environment of the ischemic area, which affects the therapeutic effects. Herein, we aimed to investigate the roles of nerve growth factor (NGF) in regulating cell behaviors of BMSCs in IS.

METHODS

The mRNA and protein expressions were assessed using qRT-PCR and western blot, respectively. To simulate ischemic-like conditions in vitro, Brain microvascular (bEnd.3) cells were exposed to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). Cell viability and cell proliferation were evaluated by MTT assay and BrdU assay, respectively. Transwell migration and cell adhesion assays were carried out to determine cell migration and adhesion of BMSCs, respectively, coupled with flow cytometry to evaluate cell apoptosis of bEnd.3 cells. Finally, angiogenesis assay was performed to assess the angiogenesis ability of bEnd.3 cells.

RESULTS

NGF overexpression resulted in increased cell vitality, adhesion and migration of BMSCs, while NGF knockdown presented the opposite effects. We subsequently discovered that TrkA was a receptor for NGF, and TrkA knockdown significantly inhibited the cell viability, migration and adhesion of BMSCs. Besides, Nrf2 was confirmed as the downstream target of NGF/TrkA to promote the viability, adhesion and migration of BMSC cells. Finally, NGF-silenced BMSCs could not effectively restore the OGD-induced brain microvascular cell damage.

CONCLUSIONS

NGF/TrkA promoted the viability, migration and adhesion of BMSCs in IS via activating Nrf2 pathway.

Pro- and anti-inflammatory bioactive lipids imbalance contributes to the pathobiology of autoimmune diseases

Autoimmune diseases are driven by T_H17 cells that secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines, especially IL-17. Under normal physiological conditions, autoreactive T cells are suppressed by TGF-β and IL-10 secreted by microglia and dendritic cells. When this balance is upset due to injury, infection and other causes, leukocyte recruitment and macrophage activation occurs resulting in secretion of pro-inflammatory IL-6, TNF-α, IL-17 and PGE2, LTs (leukotrienes) accompanied by a deficiency of anti-inflammatory LXA4, resolvins, protecting, and maresins. PGE2 facilitates T_H1 cell differentiation and promotes immune-mediated inflammation through T_H17 expansion. There is evidence to suggest that autoimmune diseases can be suppressed by anti-inflammatory bioactive lipids LXA4, resolvins, protecting, and maresins. These results imply that systemic and/or local application of LXA4, resolvins, protecting, and maresins and administration of their precursors AA/EPA/DHA could form a potential therapeutic approach in the prevention and treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Bioactive phenolics fraction of Hedera helix L. (Common Ivy Leaf) standardized extract ameliorates LPS-induced acute lung injury in the mouse model through the inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress

Hedera helix L. (family Araliaceae) is classified as a conventional plant used as a medicinal product in the cure and prevention of upper respiratory tract inflammation and infection due to its secretolytic and broncholytic effects. Our research was conducted to authenticate the anti-inflammatory effect of ivy leaves extract in the prevention of acute lung injury (ALI) caused by intranasal administration of lipopolysaccharides (LPS). In-vitro antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant were evaluated, in addition to the in-vivo acute lung inflammation model induced by LPS in mice. The animals were divided into seven groups randomly (each group containing 10 mice): control negative (saline only), control positive (LPS group), standard (Dexamethasone 2 mg/kg), ethanolic ivy leaves extract (EIE, 100 mg/kg), ethanolic ivy leaves extract (EIE, 200 mg/kg), saponin rich fraction (SRF, 100 mg/kg) and phenolic rich fraction (PRF, 100 mg/kg). Right lungs were homogenized to determine the levels of SOD, MDA, catalase, IL-10, TNF-α, NO, IL-1β, IL-6, PGE2, and MPO. Left lungs were excised for histopathology and histomorphometry. Immunohistochemistry of Cox-2 and TNF-α levels were measured. Additionally, Western blotting was used to determine the levels of phosphorylated MAPK. Also, the ethanolic extract was also standardized through HPLC analysis for its content of rutin.The data showed that the oral supplementation with EIE, 200 mg/kg significantly (P < 0.05) decreased the pro-inflammatory mediators, and oxidative stress biomarkers induced by LPS. Interestingly, the phenolics showed promising activity, therefore they are responsible for the action. In conclusion, the standardized ivy leaf extract could be advised for acute lung injury for its antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities.

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Ivy leaf is a traditional perennial edible herb used as an anti-inflammatory agent for respiratory disorders.

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The plant significantly reduced the serum oxidative stress biomarkers and inflammatory cytokines in the in-vivo acute lung inflammation model induced by LPS.

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Also, it had antimicrobial activity.

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Phenolics not saponins are responsible for the activity of the plant.

Telocytes reduce oxidative stress by downregulating DUOX2 expression in inflamed lungs of mice

Telocytes (TCs), a novel type of interstitial cells, have been found to participate in tissue protection and repair. In this study, we investigated the antioxidative effects of TCs in inflamed lungs of mice. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) mice were used as models of inflamed lungs of mice. Gene sequencing was used to screen the differentially expressed miRNAs in TCs after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. AntagomiR-146a-5p-pretreated TCs were first injected into mice, and antioxidant activity of TCs was estimated. TCs, RAW264.7 cells, and MLE-12 cells were collected for the detection of expressions of NOX1-4, DUOX1-2, SOD1-3, GPX1-2, CAT, Nrf2, miR-146a-5p, and miR-21a-3p after LPS stimulation. Silencing miRNAs were delivered to examine the involved signaling pathways. Oxidative stress was examined by measuring malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. We found that microRNA-146a-5p and microRNA-21a-3p were upregulated in TCs after LPS stimulation. ARDS mice that were preinfused with TCs had lower lung tissue injury scores, lung wet-dry ratios, white blood cell counts in alveolar lavage fluid and lower MDA concentrations in lung tissue. However, in antagomiR-146a-5p-pretreated ARDS mice, the infusion of TCs caused no corresponding changes. After LPS stimulation, DUOX2 and MDA concentrations were downregulated in TCs, while DUOX2 was restored by antagomiR-146a-5p in TCs. Dual-luciferase reporter assay confirmed that CREB1 was downregulated by miR-146a-5p, while DUOX2 was downregulated by CREB1, which was confirmed by treating TCs with a specific CREB1 inhibitor. This study demonstrates that LPS stimulation upregulates miR-146a-5p in TCs, which downregulates the CREB1/DUOX2 pathway, resulting in a decrease in oxidative stress in cultured TCs. TCs reduce LPS-induced oxidative stress by decreasing DUOX2 in inflamed lungs of mice.

Maresin conjugates in tissue regeneration-1 suppresses ferroptosis in septic acute kidney injury

Background

Ferroptosis is unique among different types of regulated cell death and closely related to organ injury. Whether ferroptosis occurs in sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (SA-AKI) is not clear. Nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is crucial to the regulation of ferroptosis. We and others have shown that Maresin conjugates in tissue regeneration 1 (MCTR1) or other members of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) can actively regulate inflammation resolution and protect organs against injury in inflammatory diseases by activating the Nrf2 signaling. The aim of this study was to determine whether ferroptosis occurs in SA-AKI. Furthermore, we investigated the potential role and mechanism of MCTR1 in the regulation of ferroptosis in SA-AKI, which mainly focus on the Nrf2 signaling.

Results

We demonstrated for the first time that ferroptosis is present in SA-AKI. Moreover, MCTR1 effectively suppressed ferroptosis in SA-AKI. Meanwhile, MCTR1 upregulated the expression of Nrf2 in the kidney of septic mice. Nrf2 inhibitor ML-385 reversed MCTR1-regulated ferroptosis and AKI, implying that Nrf2 is involved in the inhibitory effects of MCTR1 on ferroptosis in SA-AKI. Further, MCTR1 inhibited ferroptosis and elevated the expression of Nrf2 in LPS-induced HK-2 cells. However, Nrf2 siRNA offset the effect of MCTR1 on ferroptosis. Finally, we observed that MCTR1 ameliorates multi-organ injury and improves survival in animal models of sepsis.

Conclusions

These data demonstrate that MCTR1 suppresses ferroptosis in SA-AKI through the Nrf2 signaling. Our study enriches the pathophysiological mechanism of SA-AKI and provides new therapeutic ideas and potential intervention targets for SA-AKI.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13578-021-00734-x.

Essential Fatty Acids and Their Metabolites in the Pathobiology of Inflammation and Its Resolution

Arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism is critical in the initiation and resolution of inflammation. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and leukotriene B4/D4/E4 (LTB4/LD4/LTE4), derived from AA, are involved in the initiation of inflammation and regulation of immune response, hematopoiesis, and M1 (pro-inflammatory) macrophage facilitation. Paradoxically, PGE2 suppresses interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production and triggers the production of lipoxin A4 (LXA4) from AA to initiate inflammation resolution process and augment regeneration of tissues. LXA4 suppresses PGE2 and LTs' synthesis and action and facilitates M2 macrophage generation to resolve inflammation. AA inactivates enveloped viruses including SARS-CoV-2. Macrophages, NK cells, T cells, and other immunocytes release AA and other bioactive lipids to produce their anti-microbial actions. AA, PGE2, and LXA4 have cytoprotective actions, regulate nitric oxide generation, and are critical to maintain cell shape and control cell motility and phagocytosis, and inflammation, immunity, and anti-microbial actions. Hence, it is proposed that AA plays a crucial role in the pathobiology of ischemia/reperfusion injury, sepsis, COVID-19, and other critical illnesses, implying that its (AA) administration may be of significant benefit in the prevention and amelioration of these diseases.

Peptide Blocking Self-Polymerization of Extracellular Calcium-Sensing Receptor Attenuates Hypoxia-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension

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Review of the potential of mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of infectious diseases

The therapeutic value of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for the treatment of infectious diseases and the repair of disease-induced tissue damage has been explored extensively. MSCs inhibit inflammation, reduce pathogen load and tissue damage encountered during infectious diseases through the secretion of antimicrobial factors for pathogen clearance and they phagocytose certain bacteria themselves. MSCs dampen tissue damage during infection by downregulating the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and inhibiting the excessive recruitment of neutrophils and proliferation of T cells at the site of injury. MSCs aid in the regeneration of damaged tissue by differentiating into the damaged cell types or by releasing paracrine factors that direct tissue regeneration, differentiation, and wound healing. In this review, we discuss in detail the various mechanisms by which MSCs help combat pathogens, tissue damage associated with infectious diseases, and challenges in utilizing MSCs for therapy.

Impaired airway epithelial barrier integrity was mediated by PI3Kδ in a mouse model of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury

Cell-cell junctions are critical for the maintenance of cellular as well as tissue polarity and integrity. Dysfunction of airway epithelial barrier has been shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury (ALI). Yet the role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase delta (PI3Kδ) in dysregulation of airway epithelial barrier integrity in ALI has not been addressed. Mice were subjected to intratracheal instillation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to generate a ALI model. Two pharmacological inhibitors of PI3Kδ, IC87114 and AMG319, were respectively given to the mice. Expression of p110δ and its downstream substrate phospho-AKT (Ser473) was increased in LPS-exposed lungs. These increases were inhibited by IC87114 or AMG319. LPS led to pronounced lung injury that was accompanied by significant airway neutrophil recruitment and bronchial epithelial morphological alterations 72 h after exposure. We also found compromised expression of adherens junction protein E-cadherin and tight junction protein claudin-2 in the airway epithelial cells. Treatment with either IC87114 or AMG319 not only attenuated LPS-induced edema, lung injury and neutrophilc inflammation, reduced total protein concentration and IL-6, TNF-α secretion in BALF, but also restored epithelial E-cadherin and claudin-2 expression. In summary, our results showed that LPS can induce a delayed effect on airway epithelial barrier integrity that is mediated by PI3Kδ in a mouse model of ALI.

Berberine attenuates the inflammatory response by activating the Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway in bovine endometrial epithelial cells

Endometritis is a common inflammatory disease that disturbs the rapid development of dairy farming. In the present study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of berberine on the LPS-induced inflammatory response in bovine endometrial epithelial cells (bEECs) and the participation of the Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway in this process. Berberine treatment significantly reduced the LPS-induced expression levels of CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in bEECs. The Nrf2 signaling pathway in these cells was also activated by berberine. We further evaluated the effects of Nrf2 activators and inhibitors on the downregulation of proinflammatory cytokines. The activator of Nrf2 significantly inhibited the production of these proinflammatory cytokines that was induced by LPS. However, an inhibitor of Nrf2 only partially inhibited the anti-inflammatory effects of berberine on the LPS-induced inflammatory response in bEECs. In conclusion, our findings suggest that berberine exerts anti-inflammatory effects partially by activating the Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway.

The protective effects of wine pomace products on the vascular endothelial barrier function

Endothelial dysfunction is associated with cardiovascular diseases and involves a chronic inflammatory process that together with oxidative stress increases the permeability of the vascular endothelium. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of red and white wine pomace products (rWPPs and wWPPs) in the maintenance of endothelial integrity in hyperglycemia of EA.hy926 endothelial cells. EA.hy926 endothelial cells exposed to hyperglycemia were treated with the in vitro digested fractions of rWPPs and wWPPs. A Real Time Cellular Analysis (RTCA) system was used to evaluate the endothelial monolayer integrity after INF-γ stimulation of pre-treated endothelial cells with the digested fractions. The changes in cell viability, NO, ROS and NOX4 were recorded and actin cytoskeleton and E-cadherin junctions were evaluated by immunofluorescence. All digested fractions prevent the hyperglycemic actions in the cell viability and NO/ROS balance. The inflammatory mediator INF-γ and hyperglycemia caused a decrease in RTCA adhesion of the EA.hy926 endothelial cell monolayer. Pre-treatment with all digested fractions enhanced the EA.hy926 endothelial monolayer integrity and maintained actin cytoskeleton and E-cadherin junctions. These in vitro studies elucidate that the anti-hyperglycemic and anti-inflammatory actions of wine pomace products involve a decrease in ROS production and the stabilization of junction proteins via modulation of VE-cadherin and actin cytoskeleton suggesting a potential prevention of endothelial damage by these natural products.

Cirsilineol attenuates LPS-induced inflammation in both in vivo and in vitro models via inhibiting TLR-4/NFkB/IKK signaling pathway

The anti-inflammatory activity of cirsilineol in in vivo condition was assessed by measuring the relative organ weight, lung dry/wet weight ratio, protein concentration, and infiltration of inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. We estimated the myeloperoxidase activity and levels of cytokines, chemokines, and inflammatory markers to analyze the efficacy of cirsilineol against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung inflammation. Furthermore, we quantified the gene expression of NFkB/IKK signaling molecules in cirsilineol-treated and untreated acute lung injury mice to confirm the anti-inflammatory property of cirsilineol. The lung histology was assessed with hematoxylin and eosin staining. Apart from in vivo experiments, in vitro tests with LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages were also performed. Cell viability assay was performed in the presence and absence of LPS in RAW 264.7 macrophages to determine the cytotoxic effect of cirsilineol against macrophages. Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis was done to analyze the gene expression of inflammatory markers in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages to prove that cirsilineol effectively inhibits inflammation in vitro. The results of our study prove that cirsilineol effectively inhibits inflammation in both in vivo and in vitro conditions. RT-PCR analysis results of NFkB/IKK signaling molecules clearly illustrate that cirsilineol inhibited the expression of NFkB/IKK signaling protein and thereby prevented inflammation in in vivo condition, and it is further confirmed with the results of inflammatory protein expression in vitro model. The lung histopathological studies authentically confirm that cirsilineol potentially prevented the mice from LPS-induced lung inflammation.

Isorhapontigenin alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury via modulating Nrf2 signaling

Nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) is involved in mitigating various oxidative stress- and inflammation-induced diseases, including acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ALI/ARDS). Isorhapontigenin (ISO), from the Chinese herb Gnetum cleistostachyum, exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we explored the protective effects of ISO in ALI and its underlying molecular mechanisms. ISO significantly mitigated ALI by reducing the lung wet/dry weight ratio, protein concentration in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and the levels of myeloperoxidase and malondialdehyde. ISO also improved the superoxide dismutase and glutathione activity in vivo. Moreover, ISO effectively ameliorated the changes in IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α concentrations in BALF, prevented IκB degradation, and inhibited the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 subunit in lung tissues; furthermore, it enhanced the nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and inhibited IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, iNOS, COX-2, and ROS production in lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW264.7 cells. The protective effects of ISO in ALI were significantly reversed in ML385-treated RAW264.7 cells and the mouse model, indicating its role in Nrf2-activation. In conclusion, ISO effectively ameliorated lipopolysaccharide-induced ALI by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress, primarily through activation of Nrf2 signaling.

Cyclophilin D-dependent mitochondrial permeability transition amplifies inflammatory reprogramming in endotoxemia

Microorganisms or LPS (lipopolysaccharide), an outer membrane component of Gram-negative bacteria, can induce a systemic inflammatory response that leads to sepsis, multiple organ dysfunction, and mortality. Here, we investigated the role of cyclophilin D (CypD)-dependent mitochondrial permeability transition (mPT) in the immunosuppressive phase of LPS-induced endotoxic shock. The liver plays an important role in immunity and organ dysfunction; therefore, we used liver RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data, Ingenuity® Pathway Analysis (IPA ® ) to investigate the complex role of mPT formation in inflammatory reprogramming and disease progression. LPS induced significant changes in the expression of 2844 genes, affecting 179 pathways related to mitochondrial dysfunction, defective oxidative phosphorylation, nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, nuclear factor, erythroid 2 like 2 (Nrf2), Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and tumor necrosis factor α receptor (TNFR)-mediated processes in wild-type mice. The disruption of CypD reduced LPS-induced alterations in gene expression and pathways involving TNFRs and TLRs, in addition to improving survival and attenuating oxidative liver damage and the related NO- and ROS-producing pathways. CypD deficiency diminished the suppressive effect of LPS on mitochondrial function, nuclear- and mitochondrial-encoded genes, and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) quantity, which could be critical in improving survival. Our data propose that CypD-dependent mPT is an amplifier in inflammatory reprogramming and promotes disease progression. The mortality in human sepsis and shock is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Prevention of mPT by CypD disruption reduces inflammatory reprogramming, mitochondrial dysfunction, and lethality; therefore, CypD can be a novel drug target in endotoxic shock and related inflammatory diseases.

"Cell Membrane Theory of Senescence" and the Role of Bioactive Lipids in Aging, and Aging Associated Diseases and Their Therapeutic Implications

Lipids are an essential constituent of the cell membrane of which polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are the most important component. Activation of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) induces the release of PUFAs from the cell membrane that form precursors to both pro- and ant-inflammatory bioactive lipids that participate in several cellular processes. PUFAs GLA (gamma-linolenic acid), DGLA (dihomo-GLA), AA (arachidonic acid), EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) are derived from dietary linoleic acid (LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) by the action of desaturases whose activity declines with age. Consequently, aged cells are deficient in GLA, DGLA, AA, AA, EPA and DHA and their metabolites. LA, ALA, AA, EPA and DHA can also be obtained direct from diet and their deficiency (fatty acids) may indicate malnutrition and deficiency of several minerals, trace elements and vitamins some of which are also much needed co-factors for the normal activity of desaturases. In many instances (patients) the plasma and tissue levels of GLA, DGLA, AA, EPA and DHA are low (as seen in patients with hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus) but they do not have deficiency of other nutrients. Hence, it is reasonable to consider that the deficiency of GLA, DGLA, AA, EPA and DHA noted in these conditions are due to the decreased activity of desaturases and elongases. PUFAs stimulate SIRT1 through protein kinase A-dependent activation of SIRT1-PGC1α complex and thus, increase rates of fatty acid oxidation and prevent lipid dysregulation associated with aging. SIRT1 activation prevents aging. Of all the SIRTs, SIRT6 is critical for intermediary metabolism and genomic stability. SIRT6-deficient mice show shortened lifespan, defects in DNA repair and have a high incidence of cancer due to oncogene activation. SIRT6 overexpression lowers LDL and triglyceride level, improves glucose tolerance, and increases lifespan of mice in addition to its anti-inflammatory effects at the transcriptional level. PUFAs and their anti-inflammatory metabolites influence the activity of SIRT6 and other SIRTs and thus, bring about their actions on metabolism, inflammation, and genome maintenance. GLA, DGLA, AA, EPA and DHA and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), lipoxin A4 (LXA4) (pro- and anti-inflammatory metabolites of AA respectively) activate/suppress various SIRTs (SIRt1 SIRT2, SIRT3, SIRT4, SIRT5, SIRT6), PPAR-γ, PARP, p53, SREBP1, intracellular cAMP content, PKA activity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α (PGC1-α). This implies that changes in the metabolism of bioactive lipids as a result of altered activities of desaturases, COX-2 and 5-, 12-, 15-LOX (cyclo-oxygenase and lipoxygenases respectively) may have a critical role in determining cell age and development of several aging associated diseases and genomic stability and gene and oncogene activation. Thus, methods designed to maintain homeostasis of bioactive lipids (GLA, DGLA, AA, EPA, DHA, PGE2, LXA4) may arrest aging process and associated metabolic abnormalities.

Epithelial Cells and Inflammation in Pulmonary Wound Repair

Respiratory diseases are frequently characterised by epithelial injury, airway inflammation, defective tissue repair, and airway remodelling. This may occur in a subacute or chronic context, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or occur acutely as in pathogen challenge and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Despite the frequent challenge of lung homeostasis, not all pulmonary insults lead to disease. Traditionally thought of as a quiescent organ, emerging evidence highlights that the lung has significant capacity to respond to injury by repairing and replacing damaged cells. This occurs with the appropriate and timely resolution of inflammation and concurrent initiation of tissue repair programmes. Airway epithelial cells are key effectors in lung homeostasis and host defence; continual exposure to pathogens, toxins, and particulate matter challenge homeostasis, requiring robust defence and repair mechanisms. As such, the epithelium is critically involved in the return to homeostasis, orchestrating the resolution of inflammation and initiating tissue repair. This review examines the pivotal role of pulmonary airway epithelial cells in initiating and moderating tissue repair and restitution. We discuss emerging evidence of the interactions between airway epithelial cells and candidate stem or progenitor cells to initiate tissue repair as well as with cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems in driving successful tissue regeneration. Understanding the mechanisms of intercellular communication is rapidly increasing, and a major focus of this review includes the various mediators involved, including growth factors, extracellular vesicles, soluble lipid mediators, cytokines, and chemokines. Understanding these areas will ultimately identify potential cells, mediators, and interactions for therapeutic targeting.

The LipoxinA4 receptor agonist BML-111 ameliorates intestinal disruption following acute pancreatitis through the Nrf2-regulated antioxidant pathway

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is characterized by excessive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and provokes multiorgan dysfunction. Disruption of the intestinal epithelium often occurs during and following acute pancreatitis and may aggravate systemic organ injuries. Although it has been widely investigated, to date, there is no satisfactory clinical therapy to restore the inflammatory damage. BML-111 is an endogenous lipid mediator that is analogous to LipoxinA4. It has been shown that BML-111 has a stable and potent anti-inflammatory ability. However, it is unclear whether BML-111 is involved in the process of relieving acute pancreatitis and its induced intestinal barrier damage, and the underlying mechanism of this effect. Here, we demonstrated that BML-111 could enhance the expression of E-cadherin, alleviate apoptosis, and mitigate the accumulation of reactive oxygen species in intestinal epithelial cells, thereby contributing to the anti-inflammatory efficacy in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, BML-111 upregulates the expression of Nrf2, which is a key regulator of the antioxidant response, and activates its downstream HO-1/NQO-1 pathway to protect against oxidative stress-induced cell death and tissue injury, consequently ameliorating pancreatitis and intestinal epithelium injury. In Nrf2-deficient cell and Nrf2-knockout mouse models, the depletion of Nrf2 blocked BML-111-induced antioxidant effects and thus was unable to exert protective effects in tissue. Taken together, BML-111 attenuated AP-related intestinal injury via an Nrf2-dependent antioxidant mechanism. Targeting this pathway is a potential therapeutic approach for AP-related intestinal injury.

Orientin relieves lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice: The involvement of its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties

Oxidative stress and inflammatory responses are nearly involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including acute lung injury (ALI). Orientin (Ori), a flavonoid component extracted from natural plants, displayed anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties in our previous studies. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the amelioration effect of Ori on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI, and we further explored the potential molecular mechanisms. The present results indicated that Ori effectively alleviated LPS-induced ALI by improving the histological changes of lung; decreasing the lung W/D ratio and protein levels, the release of inflammatory cells and cytokines into the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF); inhibiting nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein expression; reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) formation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation; and increasing the content of glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) contents. Moreover, Ori treatment not only significantly suppressed the LPS-induced nucleotide-binding domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway activation, but also obviously restored the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), NAD (P) H: quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1), glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic (GCLC), and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) expression in the lung; all of which are reduced by LPS. Taken together, these data suggested that Ori plays an important role in the protection against ALI by suppressing inflammation and oxidative stress which may be strongly related to the suppression of NLRP3 inflammasome and NF-κB activation, as well as the upregulation of the Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Therapeutic Effects of Specialized Pro-Resolving Lipids Mediators on Cardiac Fibrosis via NRF2 Activation

Heart disease is the number one mortality disease in the world. In particular, cardiac fibrosis is considered as a major factor causing myocardial infarction and heart failure. In particular, oxidative stress is a major cause of heart fibrosis. In order to control such oxidative stress, the importance of nuclear factor erythropoietin 2 related factor 2 (NRF2) has recently been highlighted. In this review, we will discuss the activation of NRF2 by docosahexanoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and the specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators (SPMs) derived from polyunsaturated lipids, including DHA and EPA. Additionally, we will discuss their effects on cardiac fibrosis via NRF2 activation.

The Role of Specialized Pro-Resolving Mediators in Cystic Fibrosis Airways Disease

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a recessive genetic disease due to mutations of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene encoding the CFTR chloride channel. The ion transport abnormalities related to CFTR mutation generate a dehydrated airway surface liquid (ASL) layer, which is responsible for an altered mucociliary clearance, favors infections and persistent inflammation that lead to progressive lung destruction and respiratory failure. The inflammatory response is normally followed by an active resolution phase to return to tissue homeostasis, which involves specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs). SPMs promote resolution of inflammation, clearance of microbes, tissue regeneration and reduce pain, but do not evoke unwanted immunosuppression. The airways of CF patients showed a decreased production of SPMs even in the absence of pathogens. SPMs levels in the airway correlated with CF patients' lung function. The prognosis for CF has greatly improved but there remains a critical need for more effective treatments that prevent excessive inflammation, lung damage, and declining pulmonary function for all CF patients. This review aims to highlight the recent understanding of CF airway inflammation and the possible impact of SPMs on functions that are altered in CF airways.

Relevance of Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 in articular diseases

Joint conditions pose an important public health problem as they are a leading cause of pain, functional limitation and physical disability. Oxidative stress is related to the pathogenesis of many chronic diseases affecting the joints such as rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Cells have developed adaptive protection mechanisms to maintain homeostasis such as nuclear factor erythroid 2 (NF-E2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2) which regulates the transcription of many genes involved in redox balance, detoxification, metabolism and inflammation. Activation of Nrf2 results in the synthesis of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) leading to the formation of a number of bioactive metabolites, mainly CO, biliverdin and bilirubin. Ample evidence supports the notion that Nrf2 and HO-1 can confer protection against oxidative stress and inflammatory and immune responses in joint tissues. As a consequence, this pathway may control the activation and metabolism of articular cells to play a regulatory role in joint destruction thus offering new opportunities for better treatments. Further studies are necessary to identify improved strategies to regulate Nrf2 and HO-1 activation in order to enable the development of drugs with therapeutic applications in joint diseases.

BML-111 treatment prevents cardiac apoptosis and oxidative stress in a mouse model of autoimmune myocarditis

Myocarditis is an inflammation of the myocardium that can progress to a more severe phenotype of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). Three main harmful factors determine this progression: inflammation, cell death, and oxidative stress. Lipoxins and their derivatives are endogenous proresolving mediators that induce the resolution of the inflammatory process. This study aims to determine whether these mediators play a protective role in a murine model of experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM) by treating with the lipoxin A₄ analog BML-111. We observed that EAM mice presented extensive infiltration areas that correlated with higher levels of inflammatory and cardiac damage markers. Both parameters were significantly reduced in BML-treated EAM mice. Consistently, cardiac dysfunction, hypertrophy, and emerging fibrosis detected in EAM mice was prevented by BML-111 treatment. At the molecular level, we demonstrated that treatment with BML-111 hampered apoptosis and oxidative stress induction by EAM. Moreover, both in vivo and in vitro studies revealed that these beneficial effects were mediated by activation of Nrf2 pathway through CaMKK2-AMPKα kinase pathway. Altogether, our data indicate that treatment with the lipoxin derivative BML-111 effectively alleviates EAM outcome and prevents cardiac dysfunction, thus, underscoring the therapeutic potential of lipoxins and their derivatives to treat myocarditis and other inflammatory cardiovascular diseases.

Bioactive Lipids as Mediators of the Beneficial Action(s) of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in COVID-19

It is proposed that the beneficial action of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in COVID-19 and other inflammatory diseases could be attributed to their ability to secrete bioactive lipids (BALs) such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and other similar BALs. This implies that MSCs that have limited or low capacity to secrete BALs may be unable to bring about their beneficial actions. This proposal implies that pretreatment of MSCs with BALs enhance their physiological action or improve their (MSCs) anti-inflammatory and disease resolution capacity to a significant degree. Thus, the beneficial action of MSCs reported in the management of COVID-19 could be attributed to their ability to secrete BALs, especially PGE2 and LXA4. Since PGE2, LXA4 and their precursors AA (arachidonic acid), dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory IL-6 and TNF-α, they could be employed to treat cytokine storm seen in COVID-19, immune check point inhibitory (ICI) therapy, sepsis and ARDS (acute respiratory disease). This is further supported by the observation that GLA, DGLA and AA inactivate enveloped viruses including COVID-19. Thus, infusions of appropriate amounts of GLA, DGLA, AA, PGE2 and LXA4 are of significant therapeutic benefit in COVID-19, ICI therapy and other inflammatory conditions including but not limited to sepsis. AA is the precursor of both PGE2 and LXA4 suggesting that AA is most suited for such preventive and therapeutic approach.

A small molecule NRF2 activator BC-1901S ameliorates inflammation through DCAF1/NRF2 axis

NRF2 is a master regulator of cellular anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory responses, and strategies to augment NRF2-dependent responses may beneficial in many diseases. Basal NRF2 protein level is constrained by constitutive KEAP1-mediated degradation, but in the presence of electrophiles, NRF2 ubiquitination is inhibited. Impeded NRF2 degradation increases NRF2 protein, resulting in up-regulation of anti-oxidant gene transcription, and decreased inflammation. KEAP1-independent mechanisms regulating NRF2 stability have also been reported. Here we employed an HTS approach and identified a small molecule, BC-1901S, that stabilized NRF2 and increased its activity. BC-1901S activated NRF2 by inhibiting NRF2 ubiquitination in a KEAP1-independent manner. It further increased NRF2-dependent anti-oxidant gene transcription, and exhibited anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and in vivo. Further, we identified a new NRF2-interacting partner, DDB1 and CUL4 Associated Factor 1 (DCAF1), an E3 ligase that targeted NRF2 for proteasomal degradation. Mechanistically, BC-1901S directly bound to DCAF1 and disrupted NRF2/DCAF1 interaction, thus activating NRF2. These findings provide new insights in NRF2 biology and NRF2 based anti-inflammatory therapy.

Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Adipose Mesenchymal Stem Cells Alleviate PM2.5-Induced Lung Injury and Pulmonary Fibrosis

Background

Exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulate matter ≤2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter) in air increases the risk of lung injury and pulmonary fibrosis (PF). Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from adipose mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) have been identified as a potential treatment based on the proteins or RNAs delivery and immunomodulatory properties. Here, we assessed the protective effects and mechanisms of ADSCs-EVs on PM2.5-induced lung injury or PF.

Material/Methods

Rats (male, 6 weeks old) were exposed to PBS or PM2.5 (1.5 mg/kg/day) for 3 days a week for 4 weeks. ADSCs-EVs were extracted by ultracentrifugation. PBS and ADSCs-EVs were administrated through intratracheal instillation. After the end of exposure, the rats were anesthetized and killed. Lung tissues with different treatments were collected for Western blot analysis and HE, IHC, and IF staining analysis. Cells exposed to PM2.5 or “PM2.5+ADSCs-EVs” in vitro were also collected for further Western blotting, qRT-PCR, and IF staining evaluation.

Results

The results indicated that the initial response of lungs exposed to PM2.5 was lung injury with oxidative stress and inflammation. Long-term PM2.5 exposure resulted in obvious PF in rats. Treatment with ADSCs-EVs decreased PM2.5-induced apoptosis and necrosis in type II alveolar epithelial cells and alleviated lung injury and PF in rats. ADSCs-EVs suppressed reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and inflammation induced by PM2.5. Furthermore, ADSCs-EVs inhibited TGF-βRI by transferring let-7d-5p and further mitigated PF.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that EVs derived from ADSCs can alleviate PM2.5-induced lung injury and PF.

Lipoxin A4 Ameliorates Acute Pancreatitis-Associated Acute Lung Injury through the Antioxidative and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of the Nrf2 Pathway

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a critical event involved in the pathophysiological process of acute pancreatitis (AP). Many methods have been widely used for the treatment of AP-ALI, but few are useful during early inflammation. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4), a potent available anti-inflammatory and novel antioxidant mediator, has been extensively studied in AP-ALI, but its underlying mechanism as a protective mediator is not clear. This research was conducted to identify the possible targets and mechanisms involved in the anti-AP-ALI effect of LXA4. First, we confirmed that LXA4 strongly inhibited AP-ALI in mice. Next, using ELISA, PCR, and fluorescence detection to evaluate different parameters, LXA4 was shown to reduce the inflammatory cytokine production induced by AP and block reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in vivo and in vitro. In addition, TNF-α treatment activated the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway and its downstream gene heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (HPMECs), and LXA4 further promoted their expression. This study also provided evidence that LXA4 phosphorylates Ser40 and triggers its nuclear translocation to activate Nrf2. Moreover, when Nrf2-knockout (Nrf2^−/−) mice and cells were used to further assess the effect of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, we found that Nrf2 expression knockdown partially eliminated the effect of LXA4 on the reductions in inflammatory factor levels while abrogating the inhibitory effect of LXA4 on the ROS generation stimulated by AP-ALI. Overall, LXA4 attenuated the resolution of AP-induced inflammation and ROS generation to mitigate ALI, perhaps by modulating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. These findings have laid a foundation for the treatment of AP-ALI.

Lipoxin A4 ameliorates alveolar fluid clearance disturbance in lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury via aquaporin 5 and MAPK signaling pathway

Background

A characteristic of acute lung injury (ALI) is the inflammatory damage of alveolar fluid transport. Lipoxins are endogenous lipids involving in the resolution of inflammation. It is found that lipoxin A4 (LXA4) has the distinct properties to improve the anti-edema and pro-resolution function in inflammation. Since aquaporins (AQPs) have essential roles in the integrity of barrier function during fluid transport, especially AQP5 in the maintaining of the epithelium permeability, the current study is aimed to evaluate the potential role of LXA4 in regulating alveolar fluid clearance (AFC) during fluid transport and the corresponding change of AQP5 in the lung.

Methods

ALI was induced by the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) intraperitoneal injection, and LXA4 treatment was given 8 hours after LPS administration. We investigated changes in the capacity of AFC, pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and the severity of ALI. Then AQP5 expression in lung tissue and potential regulatory pathways in LPS-induced ALI was explored.

Results

LXA4 treatment was found to inhibit AFC capacity, inflammatory cytokine release, partially, alleviate ALI severity, and restored AQP5 expression partially. Additionally, we found that LXA4 played a protective role by the inhibition of the phosphorylation of p38 and JNK.

Conclusions

In summary, our results suggest that LXA4 plays a protective role in lipopolysaccharide-induced ALI by restoring AFC capacity and upregulating AQP5 expression and inhibiting the phosphorylation of p38 and JNK. These findings suggest potential new mechanism of LXA4 as anti-inflammation therapy for the impairment of alveolar fluid transport in ALI.

Arachidonic Acid Metabolism and Kidney Inflammation

As a major component of cell membrane lipids, Arachidonic acid (AA), being a major component of the cell membrane lipid content, is mainly metabolized by three kinds of enzymes: cyclooxygenase (COX), lipoxygenase (LOX), and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes. Based on these three metabolic pathways, AA could be converted into various metabolites that trigger different inflammatory responses. In the kidney, prostaglandins (PG), thromboxane (Tx), leukotrienes (LTs) and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are the major metabolites generated from AA. An increased level of prostaglandins (PGs), TxA₂ and leukotriene B4 (LTB₄) results in inflammatory damage to the kidney. Moreover, the LTB₄-leukotriene B4 receptor 1 (BLT1) axis participates in the acute kidney injury via mediating the recruitment of renal neutrophils. In addition, AA can regulate renal ion transport through 19-hydroxystilbenetetraenoic acid (19-HETE) and 20-HETE, both of which are produced by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase. Epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) generated by the CYP450 enzyme also plays a paramount role in the kidney damage during the inflammation process. For example, 14 and 15-EET mitigated ischemia/reperfusion-caused renal tubular epithelial cell damage. Many drug candidates that target the AA metabolism pathways are being developed to treat kidney inflammation. These observations support an extraordinary interest in a wide range of studies on drug interventions aiming to control AA metabolism and kidney inflammation.

2'O-galloylhyperin attenuates LPS-induced acute lung injury via up-regulation antioxidation and inhibition of inflammatory responses in vivo

2'O-galloylhyperin, an active flavonol glycoside compound with remarkable anti-immune activity, was isolated from Pyrola [P. incarnata Fisch.]. However, the evidence of anti-inflammatory activity in pulmonary diseases was still not convincing. The aim of the present study was (1) to investigate the effect of 2'O-galloylhyperin on LPS-induced acute lung injury in mice, and (2) to identify the mechanisms of attenuation of inflammatory responses. The results demonstrated that 2'O-galloylhyperin significantly reduced LPS-induced inflammation damage in a dose-dependent manner. After LPS challenge, treatment with 2'O-galloylhyperin reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and also improved LPS-induced lung histopathology changes. 2'O-galloylhyperin also increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes, including SOD and GSH-Px to maintain cellular redox homeostasis. Furthermore, 2'O-galloylhyperin inhibited translocation of nuclear factor (NF-κB) activation and suppressed phosphorylation of MAPK signaling pathway consisting of p38, ERK, JNK. In addition, 2'O-galloylhyperin enhanced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression to block LPS-induced inflammation via activating nuclear factor-crythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2). Moreover, 2'O-galloylhyperin induced adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation. 2'O-galloylhyperin attenuated LPS-induced acute lung injury by inhibiting the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways, presumably related to up-regulation of the AMPK and Nrf2 signaling pathways. Furthermore, 2'O-galloylhyperin is a potential protective antioxidant to protect lung tissues from the acute injury.

Specialized Proresolving Mediators in Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses in Airway Diseases

Airborne pathogens and environmental stimuli evoke immune responses in the lung. It is critical to health that these responses be controlled to prevent tissue damage and the compromise of organ function. Resolution of inflammation is a dynamic process that is coordinated by biochemical and cellular mechanisms. Recently, specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs) have been identified in resolution exudates. These molecules orchestrate anti-inflammatory and proresolving actions that are cell type specific. In this review, we highlight SPM biosynthesis, the influence of SPMs on the innate and adaptive immune responses in the lung, as well as recent insights from SPMs on inflammatory disease pathophysiology. Uncovering these mediators and cellular mechanisms for resolution is providing new windows into physiology and disease pathogenesis.

Lipoxin A4 receptor agonist BML-111 induces autophagy in alveolar macrophages and protects from acute lung injury by activating MAPK signaling

Background

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening lung disease where alveolar macrophages (AMs) play a central role both in the early phase to initiate inflammatory responses and in the late phase to promote tissue repair. In this study, we examined whether BML-111, a lipoxin A4 receptor agonist, could alter the phenotypes of AM and thus present prophylactic benefits for ALI.

Methods

In vitro, isolated AMs were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce ALI. In response to BML-111 pre-treatment, apoptosis and autophagy of AMs were examined by flow cytometry, and by measuring biomarkers for each process. The potential involvement of MAPK1 and mTOR signaling pathway was analyzed. In vivo, an LPS-induced septic ALI model was established in rats and the preventative significance of BML-111 was assessed. On the cellular and molecular levels, the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 from bronchoalveolar lavage were measured by ELISA, and the autophagy in AMs examined using Western blot.

Results

BML-111 inhibited apoptosis and induced autophagy of AMs in response to ALI inducer, LPS. The enhancement of autophagy was mediated through the suppression of MAPK1 and MAPK8 signaling, but independent of mTOR signaling. In vivo, BML-111 pre-treatment significantly alleviated LPS-induced ALI, which was associated with the reduction of apoptosis, the dampened production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the lung tissue, as well as the increase of autophagy of AMs.

Conclusions

This study reveals the prophylactic significance of BML-111 in ALI and the underlying mechanism: by targeting the MAPK signaling but not mTOR pathway, BML-111 stimulates autophagy in AMs, attenuates the LPS-induced cell apoptosis, and promotes the resolution of ALI.

The protective effect of the flavonoid fraction of Abutilon theophrasti Medic. leaves on LPS-induced acute lung injury in mice via the NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways

Accompanied by the damages of epithelial and capillary endothelial cell, acute lung injury is diagnosed with the typical pathological symptoms in clinic, including diffusing of pulmonary interstitial, alveolar oedema and hypoxic respiratory insufficiency. Current study focused on the investigation the anti-inflammatory action and mechanisms of total flavonoids extract (TFE) from Abutilon theophrasti Medic. leaves on ALI mice induced by LPSs. Mice were administrated intragastrically with TFE at the concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, or 1.0 g/kg for 5 days, and on last day, nasal administration of LPSs for 6 h after 30 min for intragastric administration of TFE. Pretreatment with TFE not only reduced oxidative damage but also alleviated lung edema in ALI mice. Increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, caused by LPSs was reversed by TFE; on the contrary, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was upregulated. The proteins expressions of pro-inflammatory mediators iNOS and COX-2 induced by LPSs, were down-regulated by TFE. Moreover, the activation of NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways was inhibited by TFE in LPSs induced ALI mice. The results revealed that the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of TFE were via inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK activation. Combined, the results suggested that TFE might exert in vivo antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions in LPSs stimulated mice, and will be potential in adjuvant treatment in oxidative stress and inflammation diseases.

Lipoxin A4 Ameliorates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced A549 Cell Injury through Upregulation of N-myc Downstream-Regulated Gene-1

Background:

Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) can alleviate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome through promoting epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) expression in lung epithelial cells. However, how LXA4 promote ENaC expression is still largely elusive. The present study aimed to explore genes and signaling pathway involved in regulating ENaC expression induced by LXA4.

Methods:

A549 cells were incubated with LPS and LXA4, or in combination, and analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) of ENaC-α/γ. Candidate genes affected by LXA4 were explored by transcriptome sequencing of A549 cells. The critical candidate gene was validated by qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis of A549 cells treated with LPS and LXA4 at different concentrations and time intervals. LXA4 receptor (ALX) inhibitor BOC-2 was used to test induction of candidate gene by LXA4. Candidate gene siRNA was adopted to analyze its influence on A549 viability and ENaC-α expression. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002 was utilized to probe whether the PI3K signaling pathway was involved in LXA4 induction of candidate gene expression.

Results:

The A549 cell models of ALI were constructed and subjected to transcriptome sequencing. Among candidate genes, N-myc downstream-regulated gene-1 (NDRG1) was validated by real-time-PCR and Western blot. NDRG1 mRNA was elevated in a dose-dependent manner of LXA4, whereas BOC-2 antagonized NDRG1 expression induced by LXA4. NDRG1 siRNA suppressed viability of LPS-treated A549 cells (treatment vs. control, 0.605 ± 0.063 vs. 0.878 ± 0.083, P = 0.040) and ENaC-α expression (treatment vs. control, 0.458 ± 0.038 vs. 0.711 ± 0.035, P = 0.008). LY294002 inhibited NDRG1 (treatment vs. control, 0.459 ± 0.023 vs. 0.726 ± 0.020, P = 0.001) and ENaC-α (treatment vs. control, 0.236 ± 0.021 vs. 0.814 ± 0.025, P < 0.001) expressions and serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 phosphorylation (treatment vs. control, 0.442 ± 0.024 vs. 1.046 ± 0.082, P = 0.002), indicating the PI3K signaling pathway was involved in regulating NDRG1 expression induced by LXA4.

Conclusion:

Our research uncovered a critical role of NDRG1 in LXA4 alleviation of LPS-induced A549 cell injury through mediating PI3K signaling to restore ENaC expression.

LipoxinA4 attenuates acute pancreatitis-associated acute lung injury by regulating AQP-5 and MMP-9 expression, anti-apoptosis and PKC/SSeCKS-mediated F-actin activation

An essential component of acute pancreatitis(AP)-induced acute lung injury(ALI) is the inflammation that is part of the body's systemic inflammatory response to a variety of systemic stimuli. Lipoxins(LXs) are considered important endogenous lipids that mediate the resolution of inflammation. In previous studies, we found that Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) reduced AP-induced pulmonary oedema and TNF-α production in lung. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Due to the above studies, we investigated the aquaporin, matrix metalloprotein, apoptosis and PKC/SSeCKS signal pathway in cellular and animal models of AP-associated lung injury following LXA4 intervention. In this study, we first proved LXA4 could effectively promote F-actin reconstruction and regulate its expression in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells both in vivo and vitro via suppressing PKC/SSeCKS signalling pathway. Next, we found that LXA4 attenuated cell growth inhibition and apoptosis in lung tissues of AP-ALI mice and HPMECs. Additionally, we demonstrated that LXA4 could regulate the expression of AQP-5 and MMP-9 to stabilize the permeability of pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell. In summary, our results suggest that the anti-inflammatory eff ;ects of LXA4 may be due to the inhibition of both the PKC/SSeCKS pathway and apoptosis to reduce alveolar fluid exudation and to the regulation of AQP-5 and MMP-9 expression to maintain the clearance of alveolar fluid. Thus, LXA4 is capable of exerting protective eff ;ects on AP-induced ALI.

3,4,5-Trihydroxycinnamic acid attenuates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury via downregulating inflammatory molecules and upregulating HO-1/AMPK activation

The increase in inflammatory cytokines and chemokines is a common denominator in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury (ALI) which are involved in the influx of inflammatory cells and lung damage. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of 3,4,5-trihydroxycinnamic acid (THC) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI. THC efficiently decreased the mRNA expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8) in LPS-stimulated A549 airway epithelial cells. THC induced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression in A549 cells. THC also increased the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in A549 cells and RAW264.7 macrophages. In LPS-induced ALI in mice, THC significantly suppressed neutrophil influx and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) production in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). THC also attenuated the levels of neutrophil elastase (NE), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the BALF and serum. In addition, THC inhibited the expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in the lung. These protective effects of THC were accompanied with HO-1 induction and AMPK activation. Taken together, the present study clearly demonstrates that THC significantly attenuates the LPS-induced ALI, suggesting that THC might be a valuable therapeutic adjuvant in airway inflammatory disorders.

Lipoxin A4 attenuates LPS-induced acute lung injury via activation of the ACE2-Ang-(1-7)-Mas axis

Previous studies have reported that lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and the angiotensin I-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), angiotensin-(1-7) [Ang-(1-7)], and its receptor Mas [ACE2-Ang-(1-7)-Mas] axis play important protective roles in acute lung injury (ALI). However, there is still no direct evidence of LXA4-mediated protection via the ACE2-Ang-(1-7)-Mas axis during ALI. This work was performed using an LPS-induced ALI mouse model and the data indicated the following. First, the animal model was established successfully and LXA4 ameliorated LPS-induced ALI. Second, LXA4 could increase the concentration and activity of ACE2 and the levels of Ang-(1-7) and Mas markedly. Third, LXA4 decreased the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and reactive oxygen species while increasing IL-10 levels. Fourth, LXA4 inhibited the activation of the NF-κB signal pathway and repressed the degradation of inhibitor of NF-κB, the phosphorylation of NF-κB, and the translocation of NF-κB. Finally, and more importantly, BOC-2 (LXA4 receptor inhibitor), MLN-4760 (ACE2 inhibitor), and A779 (Mas receptor antagonist) were found to reverse all of the effects of LXA4. Our data provide evidence that LXA4 protects the lung from ALI through regulation of the ACE2-Ang-(1-7)-Mas axis.

Paradigm shift - Metabolic transformation of docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids to bioactives exemplify the promise of fatty acid drug discovery

Fatty acid drug discovery (FADD) is defined as the identification of novel, specialized bioactive mediators that are derived from fatty acids and have precise pharmacological/therapeutic potential. A number of reports indicate that dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids and limited intake of omega-6 promotes overall health benefits. In 1929, Burr and Burr indicated the significant role of essential fatty acids for survival and functional health of many organs. In reference to specific dietary benefits of differential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids (DHA and EPA) are transformed to monohydroxy, dihydroxy, trihydroxy, and other complex mediators during infection, injury, and exercise to resolve inflammation. The presented FADD approach describes the metabolic transformation of DHA and EPA in response to injury, infection, and exercise to govern uncontrolled inflammation. Metabolic transformation of DHA and EPA into a number of pro-resolving molecules exemplifies a novel, inexpensive approach compared to traditional, expensive drug discovery. DHA and EPA have been recommended for prevention of cardiovascular disease since 1970. Therefore, the FADD approach is relevant to cardiovascular disease and resolution of inflammation in many injury models. Future research demands identification of novel action targets, receptors for biomolecules, mechanism(s), and drug-interactions with resolvins in order to maintain homeostasis.