The phagosome and redox control of antigen processing

Covalent conjugation and non-covalent complexation strategies for intracellular delivery of proteins using cell-penetrating peptides

Therapeutic proteins provided new opportunities for patients and high sales volumes. However, they are formulated for extracellular targets. The lipophilic barrier of the plasma membrane renders the vast array of intracellular targets out of reach. Peptide-based delivery systems, namely cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), have few safety concerns, and low immunogenicity, with control over administered doses. This study investigates CPP-based protein delivery systems by classifying them into CPP-protein "covalent conjugation" and CPP: protein "non-covalent complexation" categories. Covalent conjugates ensure the proximity of the CPP to the cargo, which can improve cellular uptake and endosomal escape. We will discuss various aspects of covalent conjugates through non-cleavable (stable) or cleavable bonds. Non-cleavable CPP-protein conjugates are produced by recombinant DNA technology to express the complete fusion protein in a host cell or by chemical ligation of CPP and protein, which ensures stability during the delivery process. CPP-protein cleavable bonds are classified into pH-sensitive and redox-sensitive bonds, enzyme-cleavable bonds, and physical stimuli cleavable linkers (light radiation, ultrasonic waves, and thermo-responsive). We have highlighted the key characteristics of non-covalent complexes through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions to preserve the conformational integrity of the CPP and cargo. CPP-mediated protein delivery by non-covalent complexation, such as zippers, CPP adaptor methods, and avidin-biotin technology, are featured. Conclusively, non-covalent complexation methods are appropriate when a high number of CPP or protein samples are to be screened. In contrast, when the high biological activity of the protein is critical in the intracellular compartment, conjugation protocols are preferred.

NCF4 regulates antigen presentation of cysteine peptides by intracellular oxidative response and restricts activation of autoreactive and arthritogenic T cells

Autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematous, are regulated by polymorphisms in genes contributing to the NOX2 complex. Mutations in both Ncf1 and Ncf4 affect development of arthritis in experimental models of RA, but the different regulatory pathways mediated by NOX2-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) have not yet been clarified. Here we address the possibility that intracellular ROS, regulated by the NCF4 protein (earlier often denoted p40phox) which interacts with endosomal membranes, could play an important role in the oxidation of cysteine peptides in mononuclear phagocytic cells, thereby regulating antigen presentation and activation of arthritogenic T cells. To study the role of NCF4 we used mice with an amino acid replacing mutation (NCF4R58A), which is known to affect interaction with endosomal membranes, leading to decreased intracellular ROS production. To study the impact of NCF4 on T cell activation, we used the glucose phosphate isomerase peptide GPI325-339, which contains two cysteine residues (325-339c-c). Macrophages from mice with the NCF458A mutation efficiently presented the peptide when the two cysteines were intact and not crosslinked, leading to a strong arthritogenic T cell response. T cell priming occurred in the draining lymph nodes (LNs) within 8 days after immunization. Clodronate treatment, which depletes antigen-presenting mononuclear phagocytes, ameliorated arthritis severity, whereas treatment with FYT720, which traps activated T cells in LNs, prohibited arthritis. We conclude that NCF4-dependent intracellular ROS maintains cysteine peptides in an oxidized crosslinked state, which prevents presentation of peptides recognized by non-tolerized T cells and thereby protects against autoimmune arthritis.

Immunisation with Neospora caninum subunits rsNcSAG4 and rsNcGRA1 (NcSAG4 and NcGRA1 epitopes construct) in BALB/c mice: the profile of the immune response and controlling the vertical transmission

Neospora caninum is an apicomplexan protozoan that causes neosporosis, which has a high economic impact on cattle herds with no available vaccine. During infection, the secretion of dense granules and the expression of surface antigens play an important role in hosting immunomodulation. However, some epitopes of those antigens are immunogenic, and using these fractions could improve the subunit antigens in vaccine design. This study evaluates the recombinant peptides rsNcGRA1 and rsNcSAG4 derived from NcGRA1 and NcSAG4 native antigens as vaccine candidates produced by a fermentative process in the yeast culture system of Komagataella phaffii strain Km71, confirmed by colony PCR, SDS-PAGE, and western blotting. The assay was conducted in BALB/c mice using the peptides at low (25 μg) and standard (50 μg) dosages in monovalent and combined administrations at three time points with saponin as an adjuvant assessing the immunogenicity by antibodies response and cytokine production. We challenge the females after pregnancy confirmation using 2 × 105 NC-1 tachyzoites previously propagated in Vero cells. We assessed the chronic infection in dams and vertical transmission in the offspring by PCR and histopathology. Mice, especially those immunised with combined peptides and monovalent rsNcGRA1 at a standard dose, controlling the chronic infection in dams with the absence of clinical manifestations, showed an immune response with induction of IgG1, a proper balance between Th1/Th2 cytokines and reduced vertical transmission in the pups. In contrast, dams inoculated with a placebo vaccine showed clinical signs, low-scored brain lesions, augmented chronic infection with 80% positivity, 31% mortality in pups, and 81% vertical transmission. These findings indicate that rsNcGRA1 peptides in monovalent and combined with rsNCSAG4 at standard dose are potential vaccine candidates and improve the protective immune response against neosporosis in mice.

Antigen cross-presentation in dendric cells: From bench to bedside

Cross-presentation (XPT) is an adaptation of the cellular process in which dendritic cells (DCs) present exogenous antigens on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules for recognition of the cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and natural killer (NK) cells, resulting in immunity or tolerance. Recent advances in DCs have broadened our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of XPT and strengthened their application in tumor immunotherapy. In this review, we summarized the known mechanisms of XPT, including the receptor-mediated internalization of exogenous antigens, endosome escape, engagement of the other XPT-related proteins, and adjuvants, which significantly enhance the XPT capacity of DCs. Consequently, various strategies to enhance XPT can be adopted and optimized to improve outcomes of DC-based therapy.

Dendritic cell-based vaccine prepared with recombinant Lactococcus lactis enhances antigen cross-presentation and antitumor efficacy through ROS production

Introduction

Lactococcus lactis (L.L) is safe and can be used as vehicle. In this study, the immunoregulatory effect of L.L on dendritic cell (DC) activation and mechanism were investigated. The immune responses and antigen cross-presentation mechanism of DC-based vaccine prepared with OVA recombinant L.L were explored.

Methods

Confocal microscopy and flow cytometry were used to analyze the mechanism of L.L promoting DC maturation, phagosome membrane rupture and antigen presentation. The antitumor effect of DC vaccine prepared with L.L-OVA was assessed in the B16-OVA tumor mouse model.

Results

L.L significantly promoted DC maturation, which was partially dependent on TLR2 and downstream MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. L.L was internalized into DCs by endocytosis and did not co-localized with lysosome. OVA recombinant L.L enhanced antigen cross-presentation of DCs through the phagosome-to-cytosol pathway in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)- and proteasome-dependent manner. In mouse experiments, L.L increased the migration of DCs to draining lymph node and DC vaccine prepared with OVA recombinant L.L induced strong antigen-specific Th1 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses, which significantly inhibited B16-OVA tumor growth.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that recombinant L.L as an antigen delivery system prepared DC vaccine can enhance the antigen cross-presentation and antitumor efficacy.

Unlocking the power of NOX2: A comprehensive review on its role in immune regulation

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a family of highly reactive molecules with numerous, often pleiotropic functions within the cell and the organism. Due to their potential to destroy biological structures such as membranes, enzymes and organelles, ROS have long been recognized as harmful yet unavoidable by-products of cellular metabolism leading to "oxidative stress" unless counterbalanced by cellular anti-oxidative defense mechanisms. Phagocytes utilize this destructive potential of ROS released in high amounts to defend against invading pathogens. In contrast, a regulated and fine-tuned release of "signaling ROS" (sROS) provides essential intracellular second messengers to modulate central aspects of immunity, including antigen presentation, activation of antigen presenting cells (APC) as well as the APC:T cell interaction during T cell activation. This regulated release of sROS is foremost attributed to the specialized enzyme NADPH-oxidase (NOX) 2 expressed mainly in myeloid cells such as neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). NOX-2-derived sROS are primarily involved in immune regulation and mediate protection against autoimmunity as well as maintenance of self-tolerance. Consequently, deficiencies in NOX2 not only result in primary immune-deficiencies such as Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD) but also lead to auto-inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. A comprehensive understanding of NOX2 activation and regulation will be key for successful pharmaceutical interventions of such ROS-related diseases in the future. In this review, we summarize recent progress regarding immune regulation by NOX2-derived ROS and the consequences of its deregulation on the development of immune disorders.

The Protective Action of Metformin against Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine-Induced Human Islet Cell Damage and the Mechanisms Involved

Metformin, a drug widely used in type 2 diabetes (T2D), has been shown to protect human β-cells exposed to gluco- and/or lipotoxic conditions and those in islets from T2D donors. We assessed whether metformin could relieve the human β-cell stress induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines (which mediate β-cells damage in type 1 diabetes, T1D) and investigated the underlying mechanisms using shotgun proteomics. Human islets were exposed to 50 U/mL interleukin-1β plus 1000 U/mL interferon-γ for 48 h, with or without 2.4 µg/mL metformin. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and caspase 3/7 activity were studied, and a shotgun label free proteomics analysis was performed. Metformin prevented the reduction of GSIS and the activation of caspase 3/7 induced by cytokines. Proteomics analysis identified more than 3000 proteins in human islets. Cytokines alone altered the expression of 244 proteins (145 up- and 99 down-regulated), while, in the presence of metformin, cytokine-exposure modified the expression of 231 proteins (128 up- and 103 downregulated). Among the proteins inversely regulated in the two conditions, we found proteins involved in vesicle motility, defense against oxidative stress (including peroxiredoxins), metabolism, protein synthesis, glycolysis and its regulation, and cytoskeletal proteins. Metformin inhibited pathways linked to inflammation, immune reactions, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, and cell senescence. Some of the changes were confirmed by Western blot. Therefore, metformin prevented part of the deleterious actions of pro-inflammatory cytokines in human β-cells, which was accompanied by islet proteome modifications. This suggests that metformin, besides use in T2D, might be considered for β-cell protection in other types of diabetes, possibly including early T1D.

Physiological and transcriptomic analyses reveal the toxicological mechanism and risk assessment of environmentally-relevant waterborne tetracycline exposure on the gills of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

With the increasing application of tetracycline (TC) in medical treatment, animal husbandry and aquaculture in recent decades, high quantities of TC have been frequently detected in the aquatic environment, and accordingly TC-related toxicity and environmental pollution have become a global concern. The present study was performed to explore the toxicological influences of TC exposure at its environmentally relevant concentrations on the gills of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, based on the alteration in histopathology, oxidative stress, inflammatory response, cell cycle, mitochondrial function, apoptosis, and transcriptomic analysis. Our findings revealed that TC exposure damaged the structure and function, induced oxidative stress, affected inflammatory responses, and reduced Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (NKA) activity in the gills. TC also caused the inhibition in cell cycle, resulted in mitochondrial dysfunction and activated apoptosis. Further transcriptomic analysis indicated the extensive influences of TC exposure on the gill function, and immune system was the main target to waterborne TC exposure. These results elucidated that environmental TC had more complex toxicological effects on gills of fish than previously assessed, and provided novel insight into molecular toxicology of TC on fish and good basis for assessing the environmental risk of TC.

Antivirus activity, but not thiolreductase activity, is conserved in interferon-gamma-inducible GILT protein in arthropod

We have previously reported that gamma-interferon inducible lysosomal thiolreductase (GILT) functions as a host defense factor against retroviruses by digesting disulfide bonds on viral envelope proteins. GILT is widely conserved even in plants and fungi as well as animals. The thiolreductase active site of mammalian GILT is composed of a CXXC amino acid motif, whereas the C-terminal cysteine residue is changed to serine in arthropods including shrimps, crabs, and flies. GILT from Penaeus monodon (PmGILT) also has the CXXS motif instead of the CXXC active site. We demonstrate here that a human GILT mutant (GILT C75S) with the CXXS motif and PmGILT significantly inhibit amphotropic murine leukemia virus vector infection in human cells without alterning its expression level and lysosomal localization, showing that the C-terminal cysteine residue of the active site is not required for the antiviral activity. We have reported that human GILT suppresses HIV-1 particle production by digestion of disulfide bonds on CD63. However, GILT C75S mutant and PmGILT did not digest CD63 disulfide bonds, and had no effect on HIV-1 virion production, suggesting that they do not have thiolreductase activity. Taken together, this study found that antiviral activity, but not thiolreductase activity, is conserved in arthropod GILT proteins. This finding provides a new insight that the common function of GILT is antiviral activity in many animals.

The role of NADPH oxidases in infectious and inflammatory diseases

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases (NOX) are enzymes that generate superoxide or hydrogen peroxide from molecular oxygen utilizing NADPH as an electron donor. There are seven enzymes in the NOX family: NOX1-5 and dual oxidase (DUOX) 1-2. NOX enzymes in humans play important roles in diverse biological functions and vary in expression from tissue to tissue. Importantly, NOX2 is involved in regulating many aspects of innate and adaptive immunity, including regulation of type I interferons, the inflammasome, phagocytosis, antigen processing and presentation, and cell signaling. DUOX1 and DUOX2 play important roles in innate immune defenses at epithelial barriers. This review discusses the role of NOX enzymes in normal physiological processes as well as in disease. NOX enzymes are important in autoimmune diseases like type 1 diabetes and have also been implicated in acute lung injury caused by infection with SARS-CoV-2. Targeting NOX enzymes directly or through scavenging free radicals may be useful therapies for autoimmunity and acute lung injury where oxidative stress contributes to pathology.

Listeria exploits IFITM3 to suppress antibacterial activity in phagocytes

The type I interferon (IFN) signaling pathway has important functions in resistance to viral infection, with the downstream induction of interferon stimulated genes (ISG) protecting the host from virus entry, replication and spread. Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), a facultative intracellular foodborne pathogen, can exploit the type I IFN response as part of their pathogenic strategy, but the molecular mechanisms involved remain unclear. Here we show that type I IFN suppresses the antibacterial activity of phagocytes to promote systemic Lm infection. Mechanistically, type I IFN suppresses phagosome maturation and proteolysis of Lm virulence factors ActA and LLO, thereby promoting phagosome escape and cell-to-cell spread; the antiviral protein, IFN-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3), is required for this type I IFN-mediated alteration. Ifitm3^-/- mice are resistant to systemic infection by Lm, displaying decreased bacterial spread in tissues, and increased immune cell recruitment and pro-inflammatory cytokine signaling. Together, our findings show how an antiviral mechanism in phagocytes can be exploited by bacterial pathogens, and implicate IFITM3 as a potential antimicrobial therapeutic target.

A non-immunological role for γ-interferon-inducible lysosomal thiol reductase (GILT) in osteoclastic bone resorption

The extracellular bone resorbing lacuna of the osteoclast shares many characteristics with the degradative lysosome of antigen-presenting cells. γ-Interferon-inducible lysosomal thiol reductase (GILT) enhances antigen processing within lysosomes through direct reduction of antigen disulfides and maintenance of cysteine protease activity. In this study, we found the osteoclastogenic cytokine RANKL drove expression of GILT in osteoclast precursors in a STAT1-dependent manner, resulting in high levels of GILT in mature osteoclasts, which could be further augmented by γ-interferon. GILT colocalized with the collagen-degrading cysteine protease, cathepsin K, suggesting a role for GILT inside the osteoclastic resorption lacuna. GILT-deficient osteoclasts had reduced bone-resorbing capacity, resulting in impaired bone turnover and an osteopetrotic phenotype in GILT-deficient mice. We demonstrated that GILT could directly reduce the noncollagenous bone matrix protein SPARC, and additionally, enhance collagen degradation by cathepsin K. Together, this work describes a previously unidentified, non-immunological role for GILT in osteoclast-mediated bone resorption.

Oxidative damage of lysosomes in regulated cell death systems: Pathophysiology and pharmacologic interventions

Lysosomes are small specialized organelles containing a variety of different hydrolase enzymes that are responsible for degradation of all macromolecules, entering the cells through the endosomal system or originated from the internal sources. This allows for transport and recycling of nutrients and internalization of surface proteins for antigen presentation as well as maintaining cellular homeostasis. Lysosomes are also important storage compartments for metal ions and nutrients. The integrity of lysosomal membrane is central to maintaining their normal function, but like other cellular membranes, lysosomal membrane is subject to damage mediated by reactive oxygen species. This results in spillage of lysosomal enzymes into the cytoplasm, leading to proteolytic damage to cellular systems and organelles. Several forms of lysosomal dependent cell death have been identified in diseases. Examination of these events are important for finding treatment strategies relevant to cancer or neurodegenerative diseases as well as autoimmune deficiencies. In this review, we have examined the current literature on involvement of lysosomes in induction of programed cell death and have provided an extensive list of therapeutic approaches that can modulate cell death. Exploitation of these mechanisms can lead to novel therapies for cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

Does Dysregulation of Redox State Underpin the Decline of Innate Immunity with Aging?

Significance: Antibacterial defense invokes the innate immune system as a first responder, with neutrophils phagocytozing and forming neutrophil extracellular traps around pathogens in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent manner. Increased NOX2 activity and mitochondrial ROS production in phagocytic, antigen-presenting cells (APCs) affect local cytokine secretion and proteolysis of antigens for presentation to T cells at the immune synapse. Uncontrolled oxidative post-translational modifications to surface and cytoplasmic proteins in APCs during aging can impair innate immunity. Recent Advances: NOX2 plays a role in the maturation of dendritic cells, but paradoxically NOX2 activity has also been shown to promote viral pathogenicity. Accumulating evidence suggests that a reducing environment is essential to inhibit pathogen proliferation, facilitate antigenic processing in the endosomal lumen, and enable an effective immune synapse between APCs and T cells. This suggests that the kinetics and location of ROS production and reducing potential are important for effective innate immunity. Critical Issues: During aging, innate immune cells are less well able to phagocytoze, kill bacteria/viruses, and process proteins into antigenic peptides-three key steps that are necessary for developing a specific targeted response to protect against future exposure. Aberrant control of ROS production and impaired Nrf2-dependent reducing potential may contribute to age-associated immune decline. Future Directions: Local changes in redox potential may be achieved through adjuvant formulations to improve innate immunity. Further work is needed to understand the timing of delivery for redox modulators to facilitate innate immune cell recruitment, survival, antigen processing and presentation activity without disrupting essential ROS-dependent bacterial killing.

Regulation of the Proteolytic Activity of Cysteine Cathepsins by Oxidants

Besides their primary involvement in the recycling and degradation of proteins in endo-lysosomal compartments and also in specialized biological functions, cysteine cathepsins are pivotal proteolytic contributors of various deleterious diseases. While the molecular mechanisms of regulation via their natural inhibitors have been exhaustively studied, less is currently known about how their enzymatic activity is modulated during the redox imbalance associated with oxidative stress and their exposure resistance to oxidants. More specifically, there is only patchy information on the regulation of lung cysteine cathepsins, while the respiratory system is directly exposed to countless exogenous oxidants contained in dust, tobacco, combustion fumes, and industrial or domestic particles. Papain-like enzymes (clan CA, family C1, subfamily C1A) encompass a conserved catalytic thiolate-imidazolium pair (Cys25-His159) in their active site. Although the sulfhydryl group (with a low acidic pKa) is a potent nucleophile highly susceptible to chemical modifications, some cysteine cathepsins reveal an unanticipated resistance to oxidative stress. Besides an introductory chapter and peculiar attention to lung cysteine cathepsins, the purpose of this review is to afford a concise update of the current knowledge on molecular mechanisms associated with the regulation of cysteine cathepsins by redox balance and by oxidants (e.g., Michael acceptors, reactive oxygen, and nitrogen species).

Antigen processing and presentation

Dendritic cells are at the center of immune responses. They are defined by their ability to sense the environment, take up and process antigen, migrate to secondary lymphoid organs, where they present antigens to the adaptive immune system. In particular, they present lipids and proteins from pathogens, which they encountered in peripheral tissues, to T cells in order to induce a specific effector immune response. These complex antigens need to be broken down into peptides of a certain length in association with Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecules. Presentation of MHC/antigen complexes alongside costimulatory molecules and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines will induce an appropriate immune response. This interaction between dendritic cells and T cells takes place at defined locations within secondary lymphoid organs. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge and recent advances on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie antigen processing and the subsequent presentation to T lymphocytes.

Biguanide is a modifiable pharmacophore for recruitment of endogenous Zn2+ to inhibit cysteinyl cathepsins: review and implications

Excessive activities of cysteinyl cathepsins (CysCts) contribute to the progress of many diseases; however, therapeutic inhibition has been problematic. Zn²⁺ is a natural inhibitor of proteases with CysHis dyads or CysHis(Xaa) triads. Biguanide forms bidentate metal complexes through the two imino nitrogens. Here, it is discussed that phenformin (phenylethyl biguanide) is a model for recruitment of endogenous Zn²⁺ to inhibit CysHis/CysHis(X) peptidolysis. Phenformin is a Zn²⁺-interactive, anti-proteolytic agent in bioassay of living tissue. Benzoyl-L-arginine amide (BAA) is a classical substrate of papain-like proteases; the amide bond is scissile. In this review, the structures of BAA and the phenformin-Zn²⁺ complex were compared in silico. Their chemistry and dimensions are discussed in light of the active sites of papain-like proteases. The phenyl moieties of both structures bind to the "S2" substrate-binding site that is typical of many proteases. When the phenyl moiety of BAA binds to S2, then the scissile amide bond is directed to the position of the thiolate-imidazolium ion pair, and is then hydrolyzed. However, when the phenyl moiety of phenformin binds to S2, then the coordinated Zn²⁺ is directed to the identical position; and catalysis is inhibited. Phenformin stabilizes a "Zn²⁺ sandwich" between the drug and protease active site. Hundreds of biguanide derivatives have been synthesized at the 1 and 5 nitrogen positions; many more are conceivable. Various substituent moieties can register with various arrays of substrate-binding sites so as to align coordinated Zn²⁺ with catalytic partners of diverse proteases. Biguanide is identified here as a modifiable pharmacophore for synthesis of therapeutic CysCt inhibitors with a wide range of potencies and specificities. Phenformin-Zn²⁺ Complex.

The Phosphoinositide Kinase PIKfyve Promotes Cathepsin-S-Mediated Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II Antigen Presentation

Antigen presentation to T cells in major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC class II) requires the conversion of early endo/phagosomes into lysosomes by a process called maturation. Maturation is driven by the phosphoinositide kinase PIKfyve. Blocking PIKfyve activity by small molecule inhibitors caused a delay in the conversion of phagosomes into lysosomes and in phagosomal acidification, whereas production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased. Elevated ROS resulted in reduced activity of cathepsin S and B, but not X, causing a proteolytic defect of MHC class II chaperone invariant chain Ii processing. We developed a novel universal MHC class II presentation assay based on a bio-orthogonal "clickable" antigen and showed that MHC class II presentation was disrupted by the inhibition of PIKfyve, which in turn resulted in reduced activation of CD4⁺ T cells. Our results demonstrate a key role of PIKfyve in the processing and presentation of antigens, which should be taken into consideration when targeting PIKfyve in autoimmune disease and cancer.