Acute development of gastroesophageal reflux after radiofrequency catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation

The Impact of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease and Proton Pump Inhibitor Use on the Risk of Repeat Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation

INTRODUCTION

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) has been associated with increased incidence/recurrence of atrial fibrillation (AF). However, the impact of GERD and proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy on outcomes of AF catheter ablation remains unclear. We aimed to assess the association between the presence of GERD and risk of repeat AF ablation, stratified by PPI therapy.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted on patients with paroxysmal/persistent AF undergoing initial ablation in January 2011-September 2015. GERD was defined by endoscopic findings, objective reflux testing, or clinical symptoms. The association between GERD/PPI use and time to repeat ablation was evaluated by time-to-event analysis with censoring at the last clinic follow-up within 1 year.

RESULTS

Three hundred eighty-one subjects were included. Patients with GERD (n = 80) had a higher 1-year repeat ablation rate compared with those with no GERD (25% vs 11.3%, P = 0.0034). Stratifying by PPI use, patients with untreated GERD (37.5%) more likely needed repeat ablation compared with reflux-free (11.3%, P = 0.0003) and treated GERD (16.7%, P = 0.035) subjects. On multivariable Cox regression analyses, GERD was an independent risk factor of repeat ablation (hazard ratio [HR] 3.30, confidence interval [CI] 1.79-6.08, P = 0.0001). Specifically, untreated GERD was associated with earlier repeat ablation compared with no GERD (HR 4.02, CI 1.62-12.05, P = 0.0013). However, no significant difference in repeat ablation risk was noted between reflux-free and PPI-treated GERD groups.

DISCUSSION

GERD was an independent predictor for risk of repeat AF ablation within 1 year, even after controlling for major cardiovascular comorbidities and confounders. PPI therapy modulated this risk, as repeat ablation-free survival for PPI-treated GERD was noninferior to reflux-free patients.

Esophageal luminal temperature monitoring using a multi-sensor probe lowers the risk of esophageal injury in cryo and radiofrequency catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation

BACKGROUND

Esophageal luminal temperature monitoring is a commonly used strategy to reduce esophageal thermal injury in catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation (AFib).

OBJECTIVES

We sought to compare the incidence of endoscopically detected esophageal lesions (EDEL) between two commonly used esophageal luminal temperature probes.

METHODS

Consecutive patients undergoing ablation with esophageal luminal temperature monitoring and upper endoscopy within 24 h after ablation were included.

RESULTS

Four hundred forty-five patients (64 ± 10 years, 44% female) were included. Esophageal temperature monitoring was done with a single-sensor probe in 213 (48%) and multi-sensor probe in 232 (52%). Cryoballoon (CB) ablation was performed in 118 (27%) and radiofrequency (RF) ablation in 327 (73%) of patients. EDEL was present in 94 (22.9%) of which 85 were mild, 8 were moderate, and 1 was severe, and none progressed to atrial-esophageal fistula. The use of the multi-sensor probe during CB ablation was associated with a reduction in EDEL compared to single sensor (6.8% vs 24.3%; P = 0.016). Similarly, in the RF ablation group, EDEL was present in 19.5% of the multi-sensor group vs 32.8% in the single-sensor group (P = 0.001). Logistic regression showed that multi-sensor probe use was associated with reduction in EDEL with an odds ratio of 0.23 in CB ablation (P = 0.024) and 0.44 for RF ablation (P = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Esophageal luminal temperature monitoring during AFib ablation using a multi-sensor probe was associated with a significant reduction in EDEL compared to a single-sensor probe.

Gastro-Esophageal Reflux Disease and Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation Ablation

Patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation may be at increased risk of developing gastroesophageal reflux disease. We prospectively studied the presence of symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux disease in naïve patients who underwent atrial fibrillation ablation.

METHODS

The presence of typical symptoms suggestive of gastroesophageal reflux disease was clinically assessed by the gastroenterologist at baseline and at 3 months after ablation. In addition to that, all patients underwent upper gastrointestinal endoscopy.

RESULTS

Seventy-five patients were included in two groups: 46 patients who underwent atrial fibrillation ablation (study group) and 29 patients without ablation (control group). Patients with atrial fibrillation ablation were younger (57.76 ± 7.66 years versus 67.81 ± 8.52 years; p = 0.001), predominantly male (62.2% versus 33.3%; p = 0.030) and with higher body mass index (28.96 ± 3.12 kg/m² versus 26.81 ± 5.19 kg/m²; p = 0.046). At three months after the ablation, in the study and control groups, there were 88.9% and 57.1% patients in sinus rhythm, respectively, (p = 0.009). Symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux disease was not more frequent in the study group (42.2% versus 61.9%; p = 0.220). There was no difference in terms of sinus rhythm prevalence in patients with versus without symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux disease (89.5% versus 88.5%; p = 0.709).

CONCLUSION

In this small prospective study, typical symptoms suggestive of gastroesophageal reflux disease were not more frequent three months following atrial fibrillation ablation.

Incidence and clinical relevance of upper gastrointestinal pathology during preprocedural endoscopy in patients undergoing pulmonary vein isolation

BACKGROUND

Reflux-induced esophagitis might facilitate ablation-induced esophageal lesions (ELs) following pulmonary vein isolation (PVI), and these may progress to atrio-esophageal fistula (AEF). In contrast, preexisting ELs are not prone to progression but may affect procedure planning.

OBJECTIVE

To study the incidence of preexisting esophageal and upper gastrointestinal (UGI) pathology in patients undergoing PVI, and the relation to ablation-induced ELs.

METHODS

From 08/2018 to 09/2021, consecutive patients undergoing (radiofrequency [RF] or cryoballoon [CB]) PVI were examined by esophagogastroscopy (EGD) before and following ablation. Postprocedural endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) was added in 2021.

RESULTS

412 patients (median age 67.5 [IQR 61.3-75.0] years, 56.1% male) were studied. Preprocedural EGD showed abnormalities in 226/399 patients, 15% in the lower third of the esophagus. Half (99/226) were relevant for PVI, 13 procedures were postponed, 6 due to pathological EGD results. A third of the patients with new esophageal injury following ablation had preexisting esophagitis which was associated with a trend for a higher incidence of ELs after RF ablation (12.5 vs. 6.9%, p = 0.232), and a six- and two-fold higher rate of food retention after CB-PVI (28.6 vs. 4.5%, p = 0.008) and RF ablation (8.3 vs. 4.4%, p = 0.279), respectively.

CONCLUSION

(1) EGD before PVI showed UGI abnormalities in > 50% of patients, one-fourth of these relevant for PVI. (2) Esophageal inflammation was associated with a higher incidence of post-ablation (peri)-esophageal injury. Whether having this information before ablation is able to reduce ELs or AEF remains to be shown.

The frequency of gastroesophageal reflux when radiofrequency catheter ablation procedures for atrial fibrillation under general anesthesia with a supraglottic device: Observational pilot study

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) in radiofrequency catheter ablation (RFCA) occurs due to vagal plexus damage during pulmonary vein isolation. We hypothesized that the frequency of GER in the oropharynx will be less compared to other areas (low-esophagus, mid-esophagus). We confirmed the frequency of GER before and after RFCA in 3 areas.We studied 30 patients who were scheduled for RFCA under general anesthesia. Anesthesia was performed using supraglottic devices (SGD) with a suction port. Two esophageal temperature probes capable of suction and measuring temperature were inserted through the suction port. The pH of the 3 areas was measured before and after the RFCA at 3 areas (mid-esophagus, low-esophagus, and oropharynx).GER was observed in 13 of 30 patients (43%). In one patient, it was observed in the oropharynx, in 4 patients it was observed in the mid-esophagus, and in 13 patients, it was observed in the low-esophagus. For patients with GER at the oropharynx and mid-esophagus, it was also observed at the low-esophagus. The difference in the pH before and after the RFCA was not significant at the oropharynx and mid-esophagus (P = .726 and P = .424, respectively), but it was significantly different at the low-esophagus (P < .001). The total ablation time was longer in the GER group compared to the non-GER group (P = .021).GER after RFCA occurred in 43% of patients, only 1 patient in the oropharynx. And aspiration pneumonia after SGD extubation did not occur. Therefore, the use of SGDs in RFCA does not completely eliminate the possibility of aspiration, so care should be taken.

Temperature monitoring and temperature-driven irrigated radiofrequency energy titration do not prevent thermally induced esophageal lesions in pulmonary vein isolation: A randomized study controlled by esophagoscopy before and after catheter ablation

BACKGROUND

Endoscopically detected esophageal lesions (EDELs) are common following pulmonary vein isolation (PVI) and may progress to atrioesophageal fistula (AEF).

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to study (1) the benefit of luminal esophageal temperature (LET) monitoring and (2) the impact of esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) in detecting EDEL and defining pre-existing lesions. The primary endpoint was the number of ablation-induced lesions.

METHODS

Patients with atrial fibrillation were randomized to PVI with LET monitoring (LET[+]) or without LET monitoring (LET[-]). All patients underwent EGD before and after PVI. Ablation power at the left atrial (LA) posterior wall was limited to 25 W in all patients and was titrated to a minimum of 10 W guided by esophageal temperature in the LET[+] group.

RESULTS

Eighty-six patients (age 67 ± 10 years; 57% male) were included (44 LET[+], 42 LET[-]). PVI was achieved in all, and additional linear LA lesions were done in 50%. Eight patients developed EDEL (6 LET[+], 2 LET[-]; P = NS). Whereas LET <41°C did not differentiate with regard to EDEL formation, temperature overshooting ≥42°C was associated with a higher risk for new EDEL. Two-thirds of patients showed incidental findings (esophagitis, gastric ulcer) on preprocedural EGD; 8 esophageal lesions were pre-existing. Four patients in the LET[+] group developed epistaxis following insertion of the probe.

CONCLUSION

Monitoring of LET does not prevent ablation-induced esophageal lesions. Patients without temperature surveillance were not at higher risk, but temperatures ≥42°C were associated with increased likelihood of mucosal lesions.

Hypercontractile esophagus resolved after radiofrequency catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation: About a case

The pathophysiology of jackhammer esophagus is complex and remains unclear. Radiofrequency catheter ablation is indicated for highly symptomatic and drug-refractory atrial fibrillation. This technique can induce esophageal and nerve lesions, due to thermal injury. In this report, we describe a case of hypercontractile esophagus diagnosed by HRM (high-resolution manometry). Esophageal symptoms and HRM normalized immediately after RFCA, and we discuss the pathophysiology of hypercontractile esophagus.

Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation: How to Manage and Prevent Collateral Damage?

Radiofrequency catheter ablation has become the standard of care for the management of various arrhythmias and, in fact, the first-line therapy for many tachyarrhythmias. It entails creating scar tissue in the heart in regions where abnormal impulses form or propagate to restore normal cardiac conduction. As the heart is a complex organ and is surrounded by and related to many other anatomical structures, it is important to avoid the collateral damage that can happen from radiofrequency (RF) ablation on the endocardium as well as on the epicardium. This review explores methods for mitigating or limiting collateral damage during catheter ablation.

Prevention of left atrium esophagus fistula: Appraisal of existing technologies and strategies

Catheter ablation has emerged as an effective treatment for atrial fibrillation (AF). Atrial esophageal fistula (AEF) is a rare, but feared complication. With increasing utilization of ablation therapy for AF, the understanding of the relationship between AEF and ablation has been improved in recent years. Efforts to reduce the risk of AEF have focused on decreasing the risk of severe esophageal injury (EI) and the presumed subsequent progression from EI to AEF, including esophageal temperature monitoring, esophageal cooling systems, esophageal deviation devices, and decreasing and/or curtailing ablation energy delivery. Periprocedural assessment may help identify higher risk patients and detect early esophageal lesions. This review systematically summarizes and evaluates the current strategies and techniques utilized to reduce the risk of AEF in the clinical workflow for AF ablation. We expect that this review will help clinicians to better understand the principles, advantages, and disadvantages of these methods, and to find suitable strategies using current available tools.

Esophageal injury associated with catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation: Determinants of risk and protective strategies

Catheter ablation has become an important element in the management of atrial fibrillation. Several technical advances allowed for better safety profiles and lower recurrence rates, leading to an increasing number of ablations worldwide. Despite that, major complications are still reported, and esophageal thermal injury remains a significant concern as atrioesophageal fistula (AEF) is often fatal. Recognition of the mechanisms involved in the process of esophageal lesion formation and the identification of the main determinants of risk have set the grounds for the development and improvement of different esophageal protective strategies. More sensitive esophageal temperature monitoring, safer ablation parameters and catheters, and different energy sources appear to collectively reduce the risk of esophageal thermal injury. Adjunctive measures such as the prophylactic use of proton-pump inhibitors, as well as esophageal cooling or deviation devices, have emerged as complementary methods with variable but promising results. Nevertheless, as a multifactorial problem, no single esophageal protective measure has proven to be sufficiently effective to eliminate the risk, and further investigation is still warranted. Early screening in the patients at risk and prompt intervention in the cases of AEF are important risk modifiers and yield better outcomes.

Characteristics of Atrial Fibrillation Patients Suffering Esophageal Injury Caused by Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation

The close proximity of esophagus to the left atrial posterior wall predisposes esophagus to thermal injury during catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation (AF). In this retrospective study, we aimed to investigate risk factors of esophageal injury (EI) caused by catheter ablation for AF. Patients who underwent first-time AF ablation from July 2013 to June 2018 were included. The esophagus was visualized by oral soluble contrast during ablation for all patients and a subset of patients were selected to undergo endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) to estimate EI post ablation. Degree of EI was categorized as Kansas City classification: type 1: erythema; type 2: ulcers (2a: superficial ulcers; 2b: deep ulcers); type 3: perforation (3a: perforation without communication with the atria; 3b: atrioesophageal fistula [AEF]). Of 3,852 patients, 236 patients (61.5 ± 9.7 years; male, 69%) received EUS (EUS group) and 3616 (63.2 ± 10.9 years; male, 61.1%) without EUS (No-EUS group). In EUS group, EI occurred in 63 patients (type 1 EI in 35 and type 2 EI in 28), and no type 3 EI was observed during follow up. In a multivariable logistic regression analysis, an overlap between the ablation lesion and esophagus was an independent predictor of EI (odds ratio, 21.2; 95% CI: 6.23–72.0; P < 0.001). In No-EUS group, esophagopericardial fistula (EPF; n = 3,0.08%) or AEF (n = 2,0.06%) was diagnosed 4–37 days after ablation. In 3 EPF patients, 2 completely recovered with conservative management and 1 died. Two AEF patients died. Ablation at the vicinity of the esophagus predicts risk of EI. EUS post ablation may prevent the progression of EI and should be considered in management of EI. It remains challenging to identify patients with high risk of EI.

Association of atrial fibrillation and gastroesophageal reflux disease: Natural and therapeutic linkage of the two common diseases

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a common arrhythmia and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is popular in Japan. The two common diseases share several predisposing factors such as lifestyle and senescence, and inflammation and oxidative stress play an important role in their development and progression. Incidental cases of AF treated successfully by proton pump inhibitor (PPI) applied for coexisting GERD have been sporadically reported. An increasing evidence indicates that GERD induces the initiation and the perpetuation of AF. This is caused by the autonomic nerve influence, mechanical compression, and propagation of local inflammation due to proximity of left atrium (LA) and lower esophagus. Meanwhile, AF also develops GERD by mechanical and inflammatory actions of LA characterized by remodeling and inflammation. The robust association of AF with GERD is not limited to their natural interaction, i.e., pharmacological or nonpharmacological treatment of AF is reported to aggravate GERD. Many cardiac drugs (anticoagulants, calcium antagonists, and nitrates) induce esophageal mucosal damage and lower esophageal sphincter relaxation promoting acid reflux. These drugs are frequently prescribed in patients with AF for stroke prevention, rate control, and for coexisting coronary heart disease. Catheter ablation also yields both GERD and esophageal thermal injury, which is a precursor lesion of atrioesophageal fistula. The notion that AF and GERD are mutually interdependent is widely and empirically recognized. However, mechanistic link of the two common diseases and objective evaluation of PPI as an adjunctive AF treatment warrant future large-scale prospective trials.

Oesophageal Injury During AF Ablation: Techniques for Prevention

Atrial fibrillation remains the most common arrhythmia worldwide, with pulmonary vein isolation (PVI) being an essential component in the treatment of this arrhythmia. In view of the close proximity of the oesophagus with the posterior wall of the left atrium, oesophageal injury prevention has become a major concern during PVI procedures. Oesophageal changes varying from erythema to fistulas have been reported, with atrio-oesophageal fistulas being the most feared as they are associated with major morbidity and mortality. This review article provides a detailed description of the risk factors associated with oesophageal injury during ablation, along with an overview of the currently available techniques to prevent oesophageal injury. We expect that this state of the art review will deliver the tools to help electrophysiologists prevent potential oesophageal injuries, as well as increase the focus on research areas in which evidence is lacking.

Atrial-oesophageal fistula following percutaneous radiofrequency catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: the risk still persists

Aims

Atrial-oesophageal fistula is a serious complication related to ablation of atrial fibrillation. As its occurrence is rare, there is a great lack of information about their mechanisms, incidence, presentations, and treatment. The objective of this manuscript is to present a series of cases of atrial-oesophageal fistula in Brazil, focusing on incidence, clinical presentation, and follow-up.

Methods and results

This is a retrospective multicentre registry of atrial-oesophageal fistula cases that occurred in eight Brazilian centres from 2003 to 2015. Ten cases (0.113%) of atrial-oesophageal fistula were reported in 8863 ablation procedures in the period. Most of the subjects were male (70%) with age 59.6 ± 9.3 years. Eight centres were reference units in atrial fibrillation ablation with an experience over than 200 procedures at the time of fistula occurrence. Oesophageal temperature monitoring was performed in eight cases using coated sensors in six. The first atrial-oesophageal fistula clinical manifestation was typically fever (in six patients), with a median onset time of 16.5 (12–43) days after ablation. There was a delay of 7.8 ± 3.3 days between the first manifestation and the diagnosis in five patients. The treatment was surgical in six cases, clinical in three and stenting in one. Seven patients died (70%) and two developed permanent neurological sequelae.

Conclusion

Atrial-oesophageal fistula remains a serious complication following AF ablation despite the incorporation of protective measures and increased technical experience of the groups. The high morbidity and mortality despite the treatment indicates the need to develop adequate preventive strategies.

Acute and Long-Term Effects of Full-Power Electroporation Ablation Directly on the Porcine Esophagus

Background—

Esophageal ulceration and fistula are complications of pulmonary vein isolation using thermal energy sources. Irreversible electroporation is a novel, nonthermal ablation modality for pulmonary vein isolation. A single 200 J application can create deep myocardial lesions. Acute and chronic effects of this new energy source on the esophagus are unknown.

Methods and Results—

In 8 pigs (±70 kg), the suprasternal esophagus was surgically exposed. A linear suction device with a single 35-mm long and 6-mm wide protruding linear electrode inside a plastic suction cup was used for ablation. Single, nonarcing, nonbarotraumatic, cathodal 100 and 200 J applications were delivered at 2 different sites on the anterior esophageal adventitia. No proton-pump inhibitors were administered during follow-up. Esophagoscopy was performed at days 2 and 7. After euthanasia at day 60, the esophagus was evaluated visually and histologically. All ablations were uneventful. Esophagoscopy at day 2 showed small white densities in the ablated areas, which appeared to be small intraepithelial vesicles. No epithelial erythema, erosions, or ulcerations were seen. At day 7, all densities had disappeared, and all esophaguses appeared completely normalized. After euthanasia, there were no macroscopically visible lesions on the adventitia or epithelium. Histologically, a small scar was observed at the outer part of the muscular layer, whereas the mucosa and submucosa were normal.

Conclusions—

Esophageal architecture remains unaffected 2 months after irreversible electroporation, purposely targeting the adventitia. Irreversible electroporation seems to be a safe modality for catheter ablation near the esophagus.

Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation Elicited "Jackhammer Esophagus": A New Complication Due to Vagal Nerve Stimulation?

Radiofrequency catheter ablation (RFCA) is a potentially curative method for treatment of highly symptomatic and drug-refractory atrial fibrillation (AF). However, this technique can provoke esophageal and nerve lesion, due to thermal injury. To our knowledge, there have been no reported cases of a newly described motor disorder, the Jackhammer esophagus (JE) after RFCA, independently of GERD. We report a case of JE diagnosed by high-resolution manometry (HRM), in whom esophageal symptoms developed 2 weeks after RFCA, in absence of objective evidence of GERD. A 65-year-old male with highly symptomatic, drug-refractory paroxysmal AF was candidate to complete electrical pulmonary vein isolation with RFCA. Prior the procedure, the patient underwent HRM and impedance-pH to rule out GERD or hiatal hernia presence. All HRM parameters, according to Chicago classification, were within normal limits. No significant gastroesophageal reflux was documented at impedance pH monitoring. Patient underwent RFCA with electrical disconnection of pulmonary vein. After two weeks, patient started to complain of dysphagia for solids, with acute chest-pain. The patient repeated HRM and impedance-pH monitoring 8 weeks after RFCA. HRM showed in all liquid swallows the typical spastic hypercontractile contractions consistent with the diagnosis of JE, whereas impedance-pH monitoring resulted again negative for GERD. Esophageal dysmotility can represent a possible complication of RFCA for AF, probably due to a vagal nerve injury, and dysphagia appearance after this procedure must be timely investigated by HRM.

Acute fever and seizure in a patient with recent atrial fibrillation ablation

Patients undergoing radiofrequency ablation for treatment of atrial fibrillation may present critically ill with complications of atrial esophageal fistula, commonly manifesting as neurologic deficits and septicemia difficult to distinguish from other acute etiologies without a high index of suspicion. The temporal variability in fistula formation and symptom presentation, along with their nonspecific features, makes diagnosis often a late finding with historically high morbidity and mortality. We present a patient admitted to a medical intensive care unit with status epilepticus and recurrent positive blood cultures for organisms commonly associated with the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Chest computed tomography (CT) without contrast, transthoracic echocardiography, and initial neurologic imaging were unhelpful. A diagnosis was ultimately made by upper endoscopy of the esophagus after hematemesis with suspicion for GI bleed, at which point surgical intervention was attempted but without success. This case reviews the clinical features of atrial esophageal fistula formation and its initial diagnosis and management.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease and non-digestive tract diseases

Over the past decade, incidence of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) showed an increasing trend resulting from factors, including lifestyle and dietary habits; however, both etiology and pathological mechanisms remain controversial. GERD occurs as a result of a variety of mechanisms and there is no single factor. Symptoms of GERD are often non-typical, with a likelihood of being overlooked by non-gastroenterology professionals. Therefore, improving GERD awareness in non-gastroenterology practitioners, along with early diagnosis and treatment, provide potential benefit to clinicians and patients alike. Increasing evidence suggests GERD has specific connections with a variety of non-digestive tract conditions, may contribute an aggravating compounding effect on other diseases, prolong hospitalization, and increase subsequent medical costs. This review considers and emphasizes the association between GERD and non-digestive tract conditions, including atrial fibrillation, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, primary pulmonary fibrosis and energy metabolism related to diet.

[Complications associated with catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation]

The past years catheter ablation has gained significant importance in the treatment of atrial fibrillation (AF), hence procedure numbers have risen worldwide. Initially, data concerning complications were only available through surveys and single center reports but international classification of diseases (ICD) code-based data have recently been published representing real world conditions. The rate of overall acute complications is 6.3 % and has risen slightly in the past 10 years whereby cardiac complications occurred most frequently, followed by vascular, respiratory and neurological complications. Risk factors for a higher complication rate are advanced age (> 80 years), female gender and less experienced investigators and hospitals.

Atrio-Esophageal Fistula After AF Ablation: Pathophysiology, Prevention &Treatment

Atrioesophageal fistula is an extremely rare but often fatal late complication of atrial fibrillation ablation procedures resulting from massive thermal injury to the esophagus and surrounding structures. Causes of death include cerebral air embolism, massive gastrointestinal bleeding, and septic shock. Because of its exceptionally low rate of occurrence, no predictors of lesion development have been found and there has not been an uniform approach to either early diagnosis or corrective therapy. Currently, preventive strategies include empirically reducing power titration during PVI and/or while ablating the posterior left atrial wall, limiting energy delivery time and number, avoiding overlapping ablation lines as well as monitoring intraluminal esophageal temperature. In addition, it has been suggested to use conscious sedation rather than general anesthesia for better pain perception, monitoring intraprocedural esophageal position in relation to the posterior left atrium and extensive patient education regarding signs and symptoms of esophageal injury. Early diagnosis is essential to enable an aggressive treatment including stenting and/or surgical intervention to minimize the excessive morbidity and mortality associated with this condition. Unfortunately, despite application of such preventive measures, cases of complete atrial-esophageal fistula have still been reported.

Relationship between atrial fibrillation and gastroesophageal reflux disease: a multicenter questionnaire survey

OBJECTIVES

The relationship between atrial fibrillation (AF) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) remains controversial, and investigations into this relationship have been based on small series. This multicenter survey evaluated the relationship between these diseases.

METHODS

The study enrolled 188 consecutive subjects (110 males and 78 females, mean age 60.4 ± 0.9 years) treated as outpatients. Patients were classified by the frequency scale for symptoms of GERD (F-scale) after obtaining informed consent for screening for GERD. Scores on this questionnaire were correlated to baseline characteristics obtained from medical records. The cutoff value for a diagnosis of GERD was set at 8.0 points.

RESULTS

Total scores on the F-scale were significantly greater in female subjects (p = 0.004) and in patients with AF (p = 0.019) compared to the other subjects. Univariate and multivariate analysis of the prevalence of GERD demonstrated that GERD was not related to gender, hypertension, dyslipidemia or coronary artery disease and that AF alone showed a significant (p < 0.001) correlation with GERD.

CONCLUSIONS

This multicenter questionnaire survey demonstrated that among traditional cardiovascular risk factors, AF was an independent risk factor for GERD. A large cohort study to assess the potential relationship between GERD and AF is warranted.

Complications of Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation

Radiofrequency catheter ablation (RFA) has evolved as an effective treatment modality in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF). However, complication rates associated with RFA of AF have been cited in the range of 3.5 - 5% with the majority consisting of cardiac tamponade, vascular complications, and thromboembolic phenomena. In this review, the complications of AF ablation will be discussed along with associated clinical management strategies.

Complications of atrial fibrillation ablation: when prevention is better than cure

As atrial fibrillation ablation is becoming increasingly popular in many cardiac electrophysiological laboratories around the world, preventing, avoiding, or treating procedure-related complications is of utmost importance. In our review of the literature regarding this issue, we addressed in detail all the potential collateral and undesired effects associated to this intervention.