Structural characterization and antioxidant activities of one neutral polysaccharide and three acid polysaccharides from the roots of Arctium lappa L.: A comparison

Structural analysis and blood-enriching effects comparison based on biological potency of Angelica sinensis polysaccharides

Angelica sinensis is a long-standing medicine used by Chinese medical practitioners and well-known for its blood-tonic and blood-activating effects. Ferulic acid, ligustilide, and eugenol in Angelica sinensis activate the blood circulation; however, the material basis of their blood-tonic effects needs to be further investigated. In this study, five homogeneous Angelica sinensis polysaccharides were isolated, and their sugar content, molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, and infrared characteristics determined. Acetylphenylhydrazine (APH) and cyclophosphamide (CTX) were used as inducers to establish a blood deficiency model in mice, and organ indices, haematological and biochemical parameters were measured in mice. Results of in vivo hematopoietic activity showed that Angelica sinensis polysaccharide (APS) could elevate erythropoietin (EPO), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), and interleukin-3 (IL-3) serum levels, reduce tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) level in mice, and promote hematopoiesis in the body by regulating cytokine levels. Biological potency test results of the in vitro blood supplementation indicated strongest tonic activity for APS-H2O, and APS-0.4 has the weakest haemopoietic activity. The structures of APS-H2O and APS-0.4 were characterized, and the results showed that APS-H2O is an arabinogalactan glycan with a main chain consisting of α-1,3,5-Ara(f), α-1,5- Ara(f), β-1,4-Gal(p), and β-1,4-Gal(p)A, and two branched chains of β-t-Gal(p) and α-t-Glc(p) connected to each other in a (1→3) linkage to α-1,3,5-Ara(f) on the main chain. APS-0.4 is an acidic polysaccharide with galacturonic acid as the main chain, consisting of α-1,4-GalA, α-1,2-GalA, α-1,4-Gal, and β-1,4-Rha. In conclusion, APS-H2O can be used as a potential drug for blood replenishment in patients with blood deficiency, providing a basis for APS application in clinical treatment and health foods, as well as research and development of new polysaccharide-based drugs.

Arctium Lappa L

Arctium lappa L. is widely consumed for its various biological effects, and polysaccharides are its main functional components. The present study aimed to evaluate the immunoregulatory effects of the main polysaccharides from burdock (ALP-1) and reveal the underlying mechanisms. ALP-1 consisted of fructose and glucose (14.57:1) and had a molecular weight of 2757 Da, with typical characteristics of (1 → 2)-linked linear fructans. Oral intake of ALP-1 significantly increased the number of colonic goblet cells, serum immunoglobulin A and immunoglobulin G levels, and fecal secretory immunoglobulin A content as well as up-regulated antioxidant enzymes and increased short chain fatty acid production. In addition, ALP-1 administration regulated pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and IL-10), intestinal microbiota structure, and the spatial information on key metabolites. Some gut-microbiota-mediated metabolic processes were also significantly altered. These results indicated that ALP-1 could exert beneficial effects on immune responses and intestinal health in healthy mice.

Preparation of Rehmanniae Radix Praeparata Polysaccharide Iron(III) Complex and Evaluation of Its Biological Activity

This study extracted and purified a polysaccharide from Rehmanniae radix praeparata (RGP) with an average molecular weight. The structural characteristics of RGP and its iron (III) complex, RGP-Fe(III), were examined for their antioxidant properties and potential in treating iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Analysis revealed that RGP comprised Man, Rha, Gal, and Xyl, with a sugar residue skeleton featuring 1→3; 1→2, 3; and 1→2, 3, 4 linkages, among others. RGP-Fe(III) had a molecular weight of 4.39×104 Da. Notably, RGP-Fe(III) exhibited superior antioxidant activity compared to RGP alone. In IDA rat models, treatment with RGP-Fe(III) led to increased weight gain, restoration of key blood parameters including hemoglobin, red blood cells, and mean hemoglobin content, elevated serum iron levels, and decreased total iron-binding capacity. Histological examination revealed no observable toxic effects of RGP-Fe(III) on the liver and spleen. These findings suggest the potential of RGP-Fe(III) as a therapeutic agent for managing IDA and highlight its promising antioxidant properties.

Physicochemical Characterization, Antioxidant and Anticancer Activity Evaluation of an Acidic Polysaccharide from Alpinia officinarum Hance

AHP-3a, a triple-helix acidic polysaccharide isolated from Alpinia officinarum Hance, was evaluated for its anticancer and antioxidant activities. The physicochemical properties and structure of AHP-3a were investigated through gel permeation chromatography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The weight-average molecular weight of AHP-3a was 484 kDa, with the molar percentages of GalA, Gal, Ara, Xyl, Rha, Glc, GlcA, and Fuc being 35.4%, 21.4%, 16.9%, 11.8%, 8.9%, 3.1%, 2.0%, and 0.5%, respectively. Based on the results of the monosaccharide composition analysis, methylation analysis, and NMR spectroscopy, the main chain of AHP-3a was presumed to consist of (1→4)-α-D-GalpA and (1→2)-α-L-Rhap residues, which is a pectic polysaccharide with homogalacturonan (HG) and rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) structural domains containing side chains. In addition, the results of the antioxidant activity assay revealed that the ability of AHP-3a to scavenge DPPH, ABTS, and OH free radicals increased with an increase in its concentration. Moreover, according to the results from the EdU, wound healing, and Transwell assays, AHP-3a can control the proliferation, migration, and invasion of HepG2 and Huh7 hepatocellular carcinoma cells without causing any damage to healthy cells. Thus, AHP-3a may be a natural antioxidant and anticancer component.

Physicochemical, Structural, and Functional Properties of Fructans from Single-Clove Garlic and Multiclove Garlic: A Comparison

This study aimed to compare the structural features and functional properties of polysaccharides from single-clove garlic (SGPs) and multiclove garlic (MGPs) and to establish their structure-function relationships. Both SGPs and MGPs were identified as fructans consisting mainly of →1)-β-d-Fruf (2→ and →6)-β-d-Fruf (2→ residues but differed in average molecular weights (6.76 and 5.40 kDa, respectively). They shared similar thermodynamic properties, X-ray diffraction patterns, and high gastrointestinal digestive stability. These two purified fructans could dose-dependently scavenge free radicals, reduce oxidized metals, and effectively alleviate metronidazole-induced oxidative stress and CuSO4-induced inflammation in zebrafish via inhibiting the overexpression of inflammation-related proteins and cytokines. SGPs showed lower free radical scavenging activity in vitro than MGPs but higher antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in vivo. Taken together, the molecular weight was the main structural difference between the two garlic fructans of different varieties, which is a potential reason for their differences in biological activities.

Extraction, purification, structural features, modifications, bioactivities, structure-activity relationships, and applications of polysaccharides from garlic: A review

Garlic is a common vegetable and spice in people's daily diets, in which garlic polysaccharide (GP) is one of the most important active components with a variety of benefits, such as antioxidant, immune-enhancing, anti-inflammatory, liver-protective and bowel-regulating properties. >20 types of GPs, mainly crude polysaccharides, have been identified. However, the exact chemical composition of GPs or the mechanism underlying their pharmacological activity is still not fully understood. The extraction and purification methods of GPs are compared in this review while providing detailed information on their structural features, identification methods, major biological activities, mechanisms of actions, structural modifications, structure-activity relationships as well as potential applications. Finally, the limitations of GP research and future issues that need to be addressed are discussed in this review. GPs are widely recognized as substances with great potential in the pharmaceutical and food industries. Therefore, this review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the latest research progresses in the field of GPs, together with scientific insights and a theoretical support for the development of GPs in research and industrialization.

Extraction, structure and bioactivities of polysaccharide from root of Arctium lappa L.: A review

Arctium lappa L. root is a well-known Chinese medicine with high medicinal and food values. Arctium lappa L. root polysaccharide (ALP), as the main component and bioactive substance, has a variety of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antithrombotic, immunomodulatory activity and improvement of intestinal flora. The biological activities of polysaccharides are closely related to their structures, and different extraction and purification methods will yield different polysaccharide structures. As a kind of natural polysaccharide, ALP has a broad application prospect in drug carrier. In this paper, we reviewed the research progress on the extraction, purification, structural characterization, biological activities, structure-activity relationship and drug carrier application of ALP, in order to provide basic reference for the development and application of medical and health care value. At the same time, the shortcomings of ALP research are discussed in depth, and the potential development prospect and future research direction are prospected.

Developing garlic polysaccharide-Fe (III) complexes using garlic pomace to provide enhanced iron-supplementing activity in vivo

This study investigated the potential of garlic polysaccharides (GPs) from garlic pomace as iron carriers. The obtained GP-Fe (III) complexes had a higher molecular weight (5646 Da) and more fructose (90.46 %) than the GPs did and contained 9.7 % Fe (III). GPs were mainly composed of → 2)-β-d-Fruf (1 → and → 2)-β-d-Fruf (6 → residues, and their interactions with Fe (III) reduced the crystallinity, increased the thermal stability, and altered the morphological features through targeting the OH stretching vibrations of the hydroxyl groups and affecting the COC and OCO structures. The GP-Fe (III) complexes had high stability under simulated gastrointestinal digestion system and showed better therapeutic effects on iron deficiency anemia in mice than FeSO4 did, evidenced by improved hematological parameters, restored iron levels, and attenuated oxidative damage. Thus, GP-Fe (III) complexes are promising as novel Fe (III) supplements for Fe-deficient individuals, and promote the high-value utilization of garlic pomace.

Antifatigue effects and antioxidant activity in polysaccharide fractions from Chinese yam bulbils

Polysaccharides are the principal component in Chinese yam (Dioscorea opposita Thunb.) bulbils. The properties and antifatigue of polysaccharides from yam bulbils (PYB) were identified and compared. Their molecular weights (PYB-1 and PYB-2) were approximately 145 and 11 kDa, respectively, with active β-configurations. Meanwhile, the antifatigue activities of PYBs were tested in mice via exhaustive swimming tests (EST). The EST results indicated that PYB-1 and PYB-2 significantly prolonged swimming time in mice (p < .05). Associated with this increase was a rise in hepatic glycogen content and antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px)) activity, along with a decline in blood urea nitrogen, lactic acid, and malondialdehyde levels. The results showed that molecular weight might contribute to the antifatigue effects of PYBs. Additionally, antioxidant tests showed that PYB-1 had stronger free-radical scavenging activity than PYB-2. Taken together, the findings indicated that PYBs exhibited effective antifatigue and antioxidant activities providing additional evidence supporting the use of PYBs as functional food ingredients for relieving fatigue.

Effect of extraction methods on the chemical, structural, and rheological attributes of fructan derived from Arctium lappa L. roots

The focus of this study was the evaluation of how extraction techniques impact the chemical, structural, and rheological attributes of fructans extracted from Arctium lappa L. roots. Three distinct extraction procedures were used, utilizing water as solvent, infusion extraction conducted at ambient temperature (25 °C for 5 min), thermal extraction employing reflux (100 °C for 2 h), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (50 °C for 1.38 h with a 158 W output). Chemical characterization by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and colorimetric analyses revealed the obtaining of inulin-type fructans (yield 83 %). The degree of polymerization (DP) was found to be the lowest for ultrasound-assisted extraction (14.38), followed by the room-temperature (20.41) and thermal (21.14) extraction techniques. None of the extraction techniques appeared to modify the molecular structure of the isolated compounds. In X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses, distinct crystallization patterns were observed for the room-temperature and thermal extraction techniques, though all fractions consistently exhibited characteristic bands of inulin-type fructan. Rheological assessments indicated a viscoelastic nature of the fractions, with those extracted thermally demonstrating a greater viscosity. This study shows that the choice of extraction method can influence the structural characteristics of inulin-type fructans derived from the burdock root.

Preparation, Structural Analysis, and Intestinal Probiotic Properties of a Novel Oligosaccharide from Enzymatic Degradation of Huangshui Polysaccharide

Huangshui polysaccharide (HSP) has attracted more and more interest due to its potential health benefits. Despite being an excellent source for the preparation of oligosaccharides, there are currently no relevant research reports on HSP. In the present study, a novel oligosaccharide (HSO) with a molecular weight of 1791 Da and a degree of polymerization of 11 was prepared through enzymatic degradation of crude HSP (cHSP). Methylation and NMR analyses revealed that the main chain of HSO was (1 → 4)-α-d-glucose with two O-6-linked branched chains. Morphological observations indicated that HSO exhibited smooth surface with lamellar and filamentary structure, and the glycan size ranged from 0.03 to 0.20 μm. Notably, HSO significantly promoted the proliferation of Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, and Phascolarctobacterium, thereby making positive alterations in intestinal microbiota composition. Moreover, HSO markedly increased the content of short-chain fatty acids during in vitro fermentation. Metabolomics analysis illustrated the important metabolic pathways primarily involving glucose metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and fatty acid metabolism.

Structural Characterization and Immunomodulatory Activity of a Mannose-Rich Polysaccharide Isolated from Bifidobacterium breve H4-2

In this study, a novel homogeneous mannose-rich polysaccharide named EPS-1 from the fermentation broth of Bifidobacterium breve H4-2 was isolated and purified by anion exchange column chromatography and gel column chromatography. The primary structure of EPS-1 was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance. The results indicated that EPS-1 had typical functional groups of polysaccharides. EPS-1 with an average molecular weight of 3.99 × 104 Da was mainly composed of mannose (89.65%) and glucose (5.84%). The backbone of EPS-1 was →2,6)-α-d-Manp-(1→2)-α-d-Manp-(1→2,6)-α-d-Manp-(1→2)-α-d-Manp-(1→2,6)-α-d-Manp-(1→6)-α-d-Glcp-(1→ simultaneously containing two kinds of branched chains (α-d-Manp-(1→3)-α-d-Manp-(1→ and α-d-Manp-(1→). Besides, EPS-1 had a triple-helical conformation and exhibited excellent thermal stability. Moreover, the immunomodulatory activity of EPS-1 was evaluated by RAW 264.7 cells. Results indicated that EPS-1 significantly enhanced the viability of RAW 264.7 cells. EPS-1 could also be recognized by toll-like receptor 4, thereby activating the nuclear factors-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway, promoting phosphorylation of related nuclear transcription factors, improving cell phagocytic activity, and promoting the secretion of NO, IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α. Thus, EPS-1 could activate the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway to emerge immunomodulatory activity on macrophages. The above results indicate that EPS-1 can serve as a potential immune-stimulating polysaccharide.

Preventive Effect of Arctium lappa Polysaccharides on Acute Lung Injury through Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Activities

The objective of this study was to investigate the preventive effects of polysaccharides extracted from the roots of Arctium lappa (ALP) against acute lung injury (ALI) models induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The polysaccharides were extracted and characterized, and their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacities were assessed. The findings demonstrated that ALP could mitigate the infiltration of inflammatory cells and reduce alveolar collapse in LPS-induced ALI in mice. The expression levels of the pro-inflammatory factor TNF-α decreased, while the anti-inflammatory factor IL-10 increased. Furthermore, the administration of ALP improved the activities of lung antioxidant enzymes, including SOD, GSH, and CAT, and lowered MDA levels. These results suggest that ALP exhibits a preventive effect on ALI and has potential as an alternative treatment for lung injury.

Impact of Six Extraction Methods on Molecular Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides from Young Hulless Barley Leaves

Young hulless barley leaves are gaining recognition for potential health benefits, and the method of extracting polysaccharides from them is critical for potential food industry applications. This study delves into a comparative analysis of six distinct fiber extraction techniques: hot water extraction; high-pressure steam extraction; alkaline extraction; xylanase extraction; cellulase extraction; and combined xylanase and cellulase extraction. This analysis included a thorough comparison of polysaccharide-monosaccharide composition, structural properties, antioxidant activities (DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP), and rheological properties among fibers extracted using these methods. The results underscore that the combined enzymatic extraction method yielded the highest extraction yield (22.63%), while the rest of the methods yielded reasonable yields (~20%), except for hot water extraction (4.11%). Monosaccharide composition exhibited divergence across methods; alkaline extraction yielded a high abundance of xylose residues, whereas the three enzymatic methods demonstrated elevated galactose components. The extracted crude polysaccharides exhibited relatively low molecular weights, ranging from 5.919 × 104 Da to 3.773 × 105 Da across different extraction methods. Regarding antioxidant activities, alkaline extraction yielded the highest value in the ABTS assay, whereas enzymatically extracted polysaccharides, despite higher yield, demonstrated lower antioxidant capacity. In addition, enzymatically extracted polysaccharides exerted stronger shear thinning behavior and higher initial viscosity.

A systematic review on botany, ethnopharmacology, quality control, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of Arctium lappa L. fruit

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Arctium lappa L., is a biennial plant that grows around the Eurasia. Many parts of Arctium lappa L. (roots, leaves and fruits, etc.) are medically used in different countries. Arctium lappa L. fruit, also called Arctii Fructus, is traditionally applied to dispel wind-heat, ventilate lung to promote eruption, remove toxicity substance and relieve sore throat.

THE AIM OF THE REVIEW

The review aims to integrate the botany, ethnopharmacology, quality control, phytochemistry, pharmacology, derivatives and toxicity information of Arctii Fructus, so as to facilitate future research and explore the potential of Arctii Fructus as an agent for treating diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Related knowledge about Arctii Fructus were acquired from Science Direct, GeenMedical, PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Web of Science, Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, Doctoral and Master's thesis, ancient books, etc. RESULTS: Arctii Fructus as an herb used for medicine and food was pervasively distributed and applicated around the world. It was traditionally used to treat anemopyretic cold, dyspnea and cough, sore throat, etc. To date, more than 200 compounds have been isolated and identified from Arctii Fructus. It contained lignans, phenolic acids and fatty acids, terpenoids, volatile oils and others. Lignans, especially arctigenin and arctiin, had the extensive pharmacological effects such as anti-cancer, antiviral, anti-inflammatory activities. The ester derivatives of arctigenin had the anti-cancer, anti-Alzheimer's disease and immunity enhancing effects. Although Arctii Fructus extract had no toxicity, arctigenin was toxic at a certain dose. The alleviating effects of Arctii Fructus on chronic inflammation and ageing have been demonstrated by clinical studies.

CONCLUSION

Arctii Fructus is regarded as a worthy herb with many chemical components and various pharmacological effects. Several traditional applications have been supported by modern pharmacological research. However, their action mechanisms need to be further studied. Although many chemical components were isolated from Arctii Fructus, the current research mainly focused on lignans, especially arctiin and arctigenin. Therefore, it is very important to deeply clarify the pharmacological activities and action mechanism of the compounds and make full medicinal use of the resources of Arctii Fructus.

Structure and potential anti-fatigue mechanism of polysaccharides from Bupleurum chinense DC

Two polysaccharides, BCP-1 and BCP-2, were obtained from Bupleurum chinense DC. by water extraction and ultrafiltration. BCP-1 (1.04 × 10⁵ Da) and BCP-2 (2.14 × 10⁴ Da) were composed of Mannose, Rhamnose, Glucose, Galactose, Arabinose, and Galacturonic acid in different proportions. They both contained oligogalacturonides in their main chain. Besides, the backbone of BCP-1 was composed of 4-β-Galp and 4,6-β-Glcp, and branched at C4 of 4,6-β-Glcp. While BCP-2 contained a backbone of 3,5-α-Araf residues with branches at C3. BCP-2 effectively extended the forced swimming time, improved the glycogen reserves and antioxidant system, decreased the levels of blood urea nitrogen, lactic acid, lactate dehydrogenase and creatinine kinase expression. It alleviated physical fatigue through regulating 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and Nuclear Factor erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 (Nrf2) signalling pathway in skeletal muscles. This study demonstrated that BCP-2 exhibited more effective anti-fatigue activity than BCP-1 potentially associated with its primary and higher structures.

Review on the genus Polygonatum polysaccharides: Extraction, purification, structural characteristics and bioactivities

The genus Polygonatum is gaining increasing attention from nutrition experts as well as health-conscious consumers because of its excellent performance in providing nutrients. Among these plants, Polygonatum sibiricum and Polygonatum odoratum have been selected for inclusion in China's Medicinal Food Directory due to their high safety profile. Polysaccharides are considered the main functional component and one of the main active ingredients of the plant. In addition, polysaccharides from genus Polygonatum have a variety of nutritional, biological and health-promoting properties, such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular protective, neuroprotective, antitumor, antidiabetic, antiosteoporosis, and hepatoprotective properties. This paper reviews the origin, extraction, purification, structural characteristics, biological activity, safety, toxicological evaluation, and structure-activity relationship of polysaccharides from the genus Polygonatum. Ultimately, we hope that this work can provide a more useful reference for understanding the polysaccharide structure and developing of new functional foods from polysaccharides of the genus Polygonatum.

Preparation, Structural Characterisation, and Bioactivities of Fructans: A Review

Polysaccharides are important components of higher plants and have attracted increasing attention due to their many nutraceutical benefits in humans. Fructans, heterogeneous fructose polymers that serve as storage carbohydrates in various plants, represent one of the most important types of natural polysaccharides. Fructans have various physiological and therapeutic effects, which are beneficial to health, and have the ability to prevent or treat various diseases, allowing their wide use in the food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries. This article reviews the occurrence, metabolism, preparation, characterisation, analysis, and bioactivity of fructans. Further, their molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, linkages, and structural determination are described. Taken together, this review provides a theoretical foundation for further research into the structure-function relationships of fructans, as well as valuable new information and directions for further research and application of fructans in functional foods.

Physicochemical Properties and In Vivo Hepatoprotective Effect of Polysaccharides from Grape Pomace

Here, the polysaccharides from grape pomace, a by-product in the wine industry, were characterized and evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The polysaccharides were extracted and studied using spectroscopic and chemical methods. The results revealed that GPPs are rich in arabinose, galactose and glucuronic acid and are heteropolysaccharides without protein and nucleic acid, containing α-glycoside bonds with irregular clusters on the surface. In vitro antioxidant activity assays indicated that GPPs have concentration-dependent antioxidant activity. In vivo, GPPs markedly decreased the levels of TNF-a, IL-6, ALT, AST and MDA in serum and liver tissues and restored the levels of SOD, CAT and GSH. Additionally, further histopathological examination confirmed that GPPs could mitigate the injury of liver induced by CCl₄. Our results demonstrate that GPPs had antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects, and they are expected to be a potential ingredient for functional foods or hepatoprotective drugs.

Arctium lappa (Burdock): Insights from ethnopharmacology potential, chemical constituents, clinical studies, pharmacological utility and nanomedicine

Arctium lappa L. is a medicinal edible homologous plant, commonly known as burdock or bardana, which belongs to the Asteraceae family. It is widely distributed throughout Northern Asia, Europe, and North America and has been utilized for hundreds of years. The roots, fruits, seeds, and leaves of A. lappa have been extensively used in traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). A. lappa has attracted a great deal of attention due to its possession of highly recognized bioactive metabolites with significant therapeutic potential. Numerous pharmacological effects have been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo by A. lappa and its bioactive metabolites, including antimicrobial, anti-obesity, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-allergic, antiviral, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective activities. Additionally, A. lappa has demonstrated considerable clinical efficacies and valuable applications in nanomedicine. Collectively, this review covers the properties of A. lappa and its bioactive metabolites, ethnopharmacology aspects, pharmacological effects, clinical trials, and applications in the field of nanomedicine. Hence, a significant attention should be paid to clinical trials and industrial applications of this plant with particular emphasis, on drug discovery and nanotechnology.

Extraction, structural characterization, and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides derived from Arctium lappa L

Introduction

Arctium lappa L. root has high nutritional and medicinal values and has been identified as a healthy food raw material by the Ministry of Health of the People's Republic of China.

Methods

In the present study, an aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-(NH₄)₂SO₄ was used to extract Arctium lappa L. polysaccharides (ALPs) from the Arctium lappa L. roots, the optimal extraction conditions of crude ALPs were optimized by using the single-factor experiment and response surface methodology. The structure and composition of ALPs were determined by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). At the same time, the antioxidant activity of ALPs was investigated by in vitro antioxidant experiment.

Results

The optimized extraction parameters for extraction ALPs were as follows: the PEG relative molecular weight of 6,000, a quality fraction of PEG 25%, a quality fraction of (NH₄)₂SO₄ 18%, and an extraction temperature of 80°C. Under these conditions, the extraction rate of ALPs could reach 28.83%. FTIR, SEM and HPLC results showed that ALPs were typical acidic heteropolysaccharides and had uneven particle size distribution, an irregular shape, and a rough surface. The ALPs were chiefly composed of glucose, rhamnose, arabinose, and galactose with a molar ratio of 70.19:10.95:11.16:6.90. In addition, the ALPs had intense antioxidant activity in vitro with IC₅₀ values in the ·OH radical (1.732 mg/ml), DPPH radical (0.29 mg/ml), and superoxide anion (0.15 mg/ml) scavenging abilities.

Discussion

The results showed that ATPS was an efficient method to extract polysaccharides and could be used for the extraction of other polysaccharides. These results indicated that ALPs had great prospects as a functional food and could be exploited in multiple fields.

The lipid-lowering effects of fenugreek gum, hawthorn pectin, and burdock inulin

Objective

The present study aimed to investigate the lipid-lowering effects and mechanisms of fenugreek gum (FG), hawthorn pectin (HP), and burdock inulin (BI) on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced hyperlipidemic rats.

Methods

In this study, high-fat diet (HFD) together with fat emulsion administration were used to establish hyperlipidemia model. The biochemical indices were assayed after administration of FG, HP, and BI. Their effects were evaluated by factor analysis. Alterations of gut microbiota and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the cecal were assessed to illustrate the mechanism of lipid lowering.

Results

The supplementation of FG, HP, and BI on HFD-fed rats decreased the levels of serum lipid and reduced the HFD-related liver and testicle damage. In the scatter plot of factor analysis, HP and BI were closer to normal fat diet (NFD) group in restoring the severity of hyperlipidemia, while FG and HP enhanced the excretion of cholesterol and bile acids (BAs). The levels of total SCFAs, especially butyric acid reduced by HFD were increased by HP. The ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes increased by HFD was reduced by HP and BI. FG, HP, and BI enriched intestinal probiotics, which were related to bile acid excretion or lipid-lowering.

Conclusions

FG inhibited the absorption of cholesterol and enhanced the excretion of it, as well as increased the abundance of beneficial bacteria. While BI restored the imbalance of intestinal microbiota. HP enhanced the excretion of cholesterol and BAs, and restored the imbalance of intestinal microbiota. It was also utilized by intestinal microorganisms to yield SCFAs. This study suggested that FG, HP, and BI possessed the potential to be utilized as dietary supplements for obesity management.

Physicochemical characteristics and biological activities of grape polysaccharides collected from different cultivars

In this study, four wine grape polysaccharides were extracted and optimized by using an efficient ultrasound-assisted extraction. A three-level, three-factor Box Behnken Design (BBD) combining with response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to optimize the extraction conditions including ultrasonic power, ultrasonic time and liquid-to-solid ratio. Furthermore, their physicochemical structures, antioxidant and liver protective activity were investigated and compared. Results revealed that the functional groups and monosaccharide compositions of these grape polysaccharides collected from different varieties were similar. Nevertheless, their molecular weights, molar ratios of monosaccharide compositions and surface morphological features were different. And the antioxidant activities of these polysaccharides were screened by free radical scavenging test. 'Beichun' (BC) and 'Benni fuji' (BF) polysaccharides possessed better antioxidant function. Further, the in vivo evaluation indicated that the polysaccharides of BC and BF have a protective effect against myocardial I/R injury in mice by inhibiting myocardial necroptosis mediated by mitochondrial ROS generation. Therefore, BC and BF grapes have potential applications in the medical and food industries.

Visualizing the Spatial Distribution of Arctium lappa L. Root Components by MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry Imaging

This study is aimed at developing novel analytical methods to accurately visualize the spatial distribution of various endogenous components in Arctium lappa L. (A. lappa) roots, and to precisely guide the setting of pre-treatment operations during processing technologies and understand plant metabolism process. The matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) imaging technology was used for visual demonstration of the in situ spatial distribution in A. lappa roots. This work consisted of four steps: matrix selection, section preparation, matrix coating, and MALDI-TOF MS imaging analysis. Consequently, eight saccharides, four caffeoylquinic acids, four flavonoids, six amino acids, one choline, and one phospholipid were imaged and four unidentified components were found. Saccharides were distributed in the center, whereas caffeoylquinic acids and flavonoids were mainly present in the epidermis and cortex. Furthermore, amino acids were mainly detected in the phloem, and choline in the cambium, while phosphatidylserine was found in the secondary phloem and cambium. This study demonstrated that MALDI-TOF MS imaging technology could provide a technical support to understand the spatial distribution of components in A. lappa roots, which would promote the processing technologies for A. lappa roots and help us to understand the plant metabolism process.

Preparation and Characterization of Ginger Peel Polysaccharide-Zn (II) Complexes and Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory Activity

The present study aimed to explore the improvement of the bioactivity of ginger peel polysaccharides (GPs) by the modification of zinc after structural characterization. The obtained GP-Zn (II) complexes consisted dominantly of glucose and galactose in a mass proportion of 95.10:2.10, with a molecular weight of 4.90 × 10⁵ Da and a Zn content of 21.17 mg/g. The chelation of GPs and Zn (II) was mainly involved in the O-H of hydroxyl groups, and this interaction reduced the crystallinity and decreased the asymmetry of GPs, with a slight effect on the thermal stability. The administration of GPs and their Zn (II) complexes effectively alleviated CuSO₄-induced inflammatory response in zebrafish (Tg: zlyz-EGFP) via down-regulating the mRNA expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12 and TNF-α) and upregulating the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10). Furthermore, the modification of Zn (II) enhanced the inflammation-inhibiting effect of polysaccharides. Therefore, GP-Zn (II) complexes could be applied as a candidate anti-inflammatory agent for the treatment of chronic inflammation-related diseases.

Digestive properties and prebiotic activity of garlic saccharides with different-molecular-weight obtained by acidolysis

Garlic saccharides have prebiotic activity, but the association between their function and structure is still poorly known. In present study, four different garlic saccharides were obtained from garlic polysaccharides (GPs) after acidolysis by ultrafiltration. Obtained GPs were constituted by different monosaccharides, among which fructose and glucose were the main components, while galactose was a major component of GPs-U6. All four saccharides were partly degraded by the simulated digestive system, and most could reach the large intestine to be utilized by the gut microbiota. Except for GPs-U6, the other three garlic saccharide fractions had good prebiotic activity in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, GPs-U0.3 with lower molecular weight (Mw) showed better prebiotic activity, including promoting the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Bifidobacterium, Lachnospiraceae NK4A136 group and Phoscolarctobacterium, and inhibiting the growth of potentially harmful bacteria. In addition, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) Pathway enrichment analysis showed that GPs-U0.3 could reduce the risk of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Overall, this findings of the present study revealed the digestive properties of GPs, as well as the potential association between their chemical structures and fermentation characteristics by gut microbiota. Thus, it can be stated that GPs-U0.3 can be used as potential prebiotics in functional foods, which provides a theoretical basis for the targeted preparation of functionalized garlic saccharides.

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Four garlic saccharides of different Mw could pass through the digestive system and reach the large intestine safely.

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GPs-U2, GPs-U1 and GPs-U0.3 significantly modulate the composition and abundance of gut microbiota.

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GPs-U2, GPs-U1 and GPs-U0.3 significantly enhance the production of SCFAs.

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GPs-U0.3 exhibit better probiotic activity in vitro and in vivo.

Preparation and characterization of garlic polysaccharide-Zn (II) complexes and their bioactivities as a zinc supplement in Zn-deficient mice

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Garlic polysaccharide-Zn (II) complexes were prepared.

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The structural characterization confirmed the formation of complexes.

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The complexes could significantly improve the health of Zn-deficient mice.

This study explored the potential of garlic polysaccharides (GPs) as a carrier for synthesizing GP-Zn (II) complexes to supplement Zn. According to the response surface analysis, the optimal preparation conditions were: mass ratio of GPs to Zn²⁺ 1:0.21, temperature 53 °C, pH 5.9 and time 148.75 min, with the maximum chelation rate of 90.11%. The chelation of GPs and Zn²⁺ involved O—H/C—O/O—C—O groups, increased crystallinity and altered absorption peaks of circular dichroism spectra, with a higher thermal stability, particle size and negative zeta potential. Compared with inorganic zinc salts, supplementation of GP-Zn (II) complexes showed enhance zinc supplementation effects in Zn-deficient mice model: increased body weight, organ index and Zn (II) levels in serum and liver, enhanced Superoxidedismutase (SOD) activity and alkaline phosphatase activity, decreased NO content and Malondialdehyde (MDA) content and improved colon and testicular morphology. Therefore, GP-Zn (II) complex can be used as a potential zinc supplement for Zn-deficient individuals.

Effects of Lycium barbarum L. Polysaccharides on Vascular Retinopathy: An Insight Review

Vascular retinopathy is a pathological change in the retina caused by ocular or systemic vascular diseases that can lead to blurred vision and the risk of blindness. Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are extracted from the fruit of traditional Chinese medicine, L. barbarum. They have strong biological activities, including immune regulation, antioxidation, and neuroprotection, and have been shown to improve vision in numerous studies. At present, there is no systematic literature review of LBPs on vascular retinal prevention and treatment. We review the structural characterization and extraction methods of LBPs, focus on the mechanism and pharmacokinetics of LBPs in improving vascular retinopathy, and discuss the future clinical application and lack of work. LBPs are involved in the regulation of VEGF, Rho/ROCK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Nrf2/HO-1, AGEs/RAGE signaling pathways, which can alleviate the occurrence and development of vascular retinal diseases in an inflammatory response, oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy, and neuroprotection. LBPs are mainly absorbed by the small intestine and stomach and excreted through urine and feces. Their low bioavailability in vivo has led to the development of novel dosage forms, including multicompartment delivery systems and scaffolds. Data from the literature confirm the medicinal potential of LBPs as a new direction for the prevention and complementary treatment of vascular retinopathy.

Structural Characteristics, Antioxidant, and Immunostimulatory Activities of an Acidic Polysaccharide from Raspberry Pulp

The extraction and characterization of new bioactive plant-derived polysaccharides with the potential for use as functional foods and medicine have attracted much attention. In the present study, A novel acidic polysaccharide (RPP-3a) with a weight-average molecular weight (Mw) of 88,997 Da was isolated from the raspberry pulp. RPP-3a was composed of rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, and galacturonic acid at a molar ratio of 13.1:28.6:16.8:1.4:6.2:33.9. Structural analysis suggested that the RPP-3a backbone was composed of repeating units of →4)-β-Galp-(1→3,4)-α-Rhap-(1→[4)-α-GalAp-(1→4)-α-GalAp-(1→]_n with branches at the C-4 position of rhamnose. The side chain of RPP-3a, containing two branch levels, was comprised of α-Araf-(1→, →5)-α-Araf-(1→, →3,5)-α-Araf-(1→, →3)-β-Galp-(1→, →3,6)-β-Galp-(1→, →4)-β-Glcp-(1→, and →2,6)-α-Manp-1→ residues. RPP-3a exhibited moderate reducing power and strong hydroxyl and superoxide anion radical scavenging abilities. RPP-3a significantly promoted the viability of RAW264.7 macrophages by increasing the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) at both the expression and transcriptional levels. In summary, the immunostimulatory and antioxidant activities make RPP-3a a viable candidate as a health-beneficial functional dietary supplement.

Bioactive polysaccharides and oligosaccharides from garlic (Allium sativum L.): Production, physicochemical and biological properties, and structure-function relationships

Garlic is a common food, and many of its biological functions are attributed to its components including functional carbohydrates. Garlic polysaccharides and oligosaccharides as main components are understudied but have future value due to the growing demand for bioactive polysaccharides/oligosaccharides from natural sources. Garlic polysaccharides have molecular weights of 1 × 10³ to 2 × 10⁶  Da, containing small amounts of pectins and fructooligosaccharides and large amounts of inulin-type fructans ((2→1)-linked β-d-Fruf backbones alone or with attached (2→6)-linked β-d-Fruf branched chains). This article provides a detailed review of research progress and identifies knowledge gaps in extraction, production, composition, molecular characteristics, structural features, physicochemical properties, bioactivities, and structure-function relationships of garlic polysaccharides/oligosaccharides. Whether the extraction processes, synthesis approaches, and modification methods established for other non-garlic polysaccharides are also effective for garlic polysaccharides/oligosaccharides (to preserve their desired molecular structures and bioactivities) requires verification. The metabolic processes of ingested garlic polysaccharides/oligosaccharides (as food ingredients/dietary supplements), their modes of action in healthy humans or populations with chronic conditions, and molecular/chain organization-bioactivity relationships remain unclear. Future research directions related to garlic polysaccharides/oligosaccharides are discussed.

Structural Characterization and Hypoglycemic Activity of a Novel Pumpkin Peel Polysaccharide-Chromium(III) Complex

The aim of our study was to synthesize a pumpkin peel polysaccharide (PPP)-Cr(III) complex and investigate its hypoglycemic activity. Firstly, a novel PPP-Cr(III) complex with a Cr content of 23.77 mg/g was synthesized and characterized. Physicochemical characterization indicated that PPP-Cr(III) had some changes in chemical composition, monosaccharide composition, and morphological structure compared with PPP. The molecular weights of PPP-Cr(III) and PPP were 1.398 × 106 g/mol and 3.386 × 106 g/mol, respectively, showing a lower molecular weight after the introduction of Cr(III). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that a new characteristic absorption peak of Cr-O appeared at 534 cm-1 in PPP-Cr(III), indicating that Cr(III) was successfully complexed with PPP. Secondly, the hypoglycemic activity of PPP-Cr(III) based on α-glucosidase inhibitory and insulin resistance (IR)-HepG2 cells was evaluated. Compared with PPP, PPP-Cr(III) exhibited a more significantly α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. The IR-HepG2 cells confirmed an obvious increase in glucose consumption. Western blot analysis demonstrated that the treated IR-HepG2 cells were able to increase the protein levels of p-AMPK and p-GSK-3β, indicating that IR-HepG2 cells exerted hypoglycemic activity via the AMPK/GSK-3β signaling pathway. These results suggested that PPP-Cr(III) had good hypoglycemic activity, which could provide theoretical support for the development of novel hypoglycemic products.

Polysaccharides From Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.: Characterization and Antioxidant Activities

Two polysaccharide fractions from Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. (P. cablin) (designated as PCB-1 and PCB2-1) were isolated by water extraction and purified by Sepharose chromatography. The chemical properties of the polysaccharides were characterised, and their antioxidant activities were evaluated. The sugar content of the crude polysaccharide (PCB), PCB-1, and PCB2-1 was 58.74, 90.23 and 88.61%, respectively. The molecular weights of PCB-1 and PCB2-1 were determined to be 97.8 and 12.8 kDa, respectively. Monosaccharide composition analysis showed that all the three polysaccharides consisted of mannose, rhamnose, galacturonic acid, galactose, glucose, and arabinose, but with varying molar ratios. The polysaccharides exhibited significantly high antioxidant activities in vitro based on the scavenging activity against hydroxyl radicals, metal ion-chelating and ferric-reducing abilities. In vivo experiments in an oxidatively damaged mice model showed that PCB-1 increased the levels of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, and inhibited malondialdehyde formation in the serum and liver. These findings suggest that PCB-1 has significant potential as an antioxidant in functional foods.

Structural Elucidation and Antioxidant Activities of a Neutral Polysaccharide From Arecanut (Areca catechu L.)

A novel neutral polysaccharide designated as PAP1b was isolated from Areca catechu L. by hot water extraction, ethanol precipitation, and column chromatography. PAP1b was mainly composed of mannose, galactose, xylose, and arabinose in a ratio of 4.1:3.3:0.9:1.7, with an average molecular weight of 37.3 kDa. Structural characterization indicated that the backbone of PAP1b appeared to be composed mainly of → 6-β-Manp-(1 →, → 4)-α-Galp-(1 → and → 3,6)-β-Manp-(1 →) residues with some branches, and terminal of (1 →)-linked-β-Manp residues. The results of bioactivity experiments showed that PAP1b had antioxidant in vitro, esspecially on scavenging DPPH and hydroxyl radicals. Therefore, the polysaccharide from Areca catechu L. could be used as a potential antioxidant in functional food.

Preparation, structural characterization and antioxidant activity of water-soluble polysaccharides and purified fractions from blackened jujube by an activity-oriented approach

This study aimed to investigate the structural features and antioxidant activity in vitro of crude blackened jujube polysaccharides (BJPs) and five purified polysaccharides based on the activity-oriented approach. The crude BJPs exhibited dose-dependent radical scavenging activity and total reducing capacity, and provided excellent protective effects against H₂O₂-damaged HUVECs via up-regulating mitochondrial membrane potential and down-regulating intracellular reactive oxygen species. After fractionation by column chromatography, the five purified components differed in chemical composition, molecular weight, monosaccharide composition (type and relative proportion) and FTIR band (peak pattern or intensity, especially in the range of 1000.0-1200.0 cm^-1), as well as protective effects against H₂O₂-induced HUVECs. As the most abundant and potent antioxidant component, the backbone of BJP-3 was mainly composed of →4)-α-l-GalpA (1→, →5)-α-l-Araf (1→ residues with two terminals of T-α-l-Araf (1→ and T-β-d-Galp (1→. The above results compared the structural and bioactive properties of different blackened jujube polysaccharides and highlighted their potential as antioxidants for functional foods.

Isolation, Structural Characterization and Macrophage Activation Activity of an Acidic Polysaccharide from Raspberry Pulp

The discovery of safe and effective plant polysaccharides with immunomodulatory effects has become a research hotspot. Raspberry is an essential commercial fruit and is widely distributed, cultivated, and consumed worldwide. In the present study, a homogeneous acidic polysaccharide (RPP-2a), with a weight-average molecular weight (Mw) of 55582 Da, was isolated from the pulp of raspberries through DEAE-Sepharose Fast Flow and Sephadex G-200 chromatography. RPP-2a consisted of rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, xylose, galacturonic acid and glucuronic acid, with a molar ratio of 15.4:9.6:7.6:3.2:9.1:54.3:0.8. The results of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS), 1D-, and 2D-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses suggested that the backbone of RPP-2a was primarily composed of →2)-α-L-Rhap-(1→, →2,4)-α-L-Rhap-(1→, →4)-α-D-GalAp-(1→, and →3,4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→ sugar moieties, with side chains of α-L-Araf-(1→, α-L-Arap-(1→, and β-D-Galp-(1→3)-β-D-Galp-(1→ residues linked to the O-4 band of rhamnose and O-3 band of glucose residues. Furthermore, RPP-2a exhibited significant macrophage activation activity by increasing the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cytokines at the transcriptional level in RAW264.7 cells. Overall, the results indicate that RPP-2a can be utilized as a potential natural immune-enhancing agent.

Chemical Characterization and In Vitro Anti-Cancer Activities of a Hot Water Soluble Polysaccharide from Hulless Barley Grass

Hulless barley grass may confer many health benefits attributed to its bioactive functional components, such as polysaccharides. Here, a hot water soluble polysaccharide was extracted from hulless barley grass, and its chemical characterization and in vitro anti-cancer activities were investigated. The yield of hulless barley grass polysaccharide (HBGP) was 2.3%, and the purity reached 99.1% with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 1.11 after purification by a diethylaminoethyl cellulose (DE-32) column and an S-400 high resolution (HR) column. The molecular weight and number-average molecular weight of HBGP were 3.3 × 104 and 2.9 × 104 Da, respectively. The monosaccharide composition of HBGP included 35.1% galactose, 25.6% arabinose, 5.5% glucose, and 5.3% xylose. Based on infrared spectrum analysis, HBGP possessed pyranose and galactose residues. In addition, this water-soluble polysaccharide showed significant cell proliferation inhibitory effects against cancer cell lines HT29, Caco-2, 4T1, and CT26.WT in a dose-dependent manner, especially for HT29 (the half-inhibitory concentration IC50 value = 2.72 mg/mL). The results provide a basis for the development and utilization of hulless barley grass in functional foods to aid in preventing cancer.

A polysaccharide from Lycium barbarum L.: Structure and protective effects against oxidative stress and high-glucose-induced apoptosis in ARPE-19 cells

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are beneficial for vision; however, relevant research has mainly focused on entire crude polysaccharides, with the basis and exact structure of the polysaccharide rarely explored. In this study, LICP009-3F-2a, a novel polysaccharide from Lycium barbarum L., was separated and then purified using anion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. Structural characteristics were investigated using chemical and spectroscopic methods, which revealed that LICP009-3F-2a has an Mw of 13720 Da and is an acidic heteropolysaccharide composed of rhamnose (39.1%), arabinose (7.4%), galactose (22.5%), glucose (8.3%), galacturonic acid (13.7%), and glucuronic acid (4.0%). Linkage and NMR data revealed that LICP009-3F-2a has the following backbone: →2)-α-L-Rha-(1→2,4)-α-L-Rha- (1→4)-α-D-GalAp-(1→3,6)-β-D-Galp-(1→3,6)-β-D-Galp-(1→6)-β-D-Galp-(1→, with three main branches, including: α-L-Araf-(1→5)-α-L-Araf-(1→6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→2,4)-α-L-Rha-(1→, β-D-Glcp-(1→4)-β-D-Glcp-(1→3,6)-β-D-Galp-(1→, and β-D-Galp-(1→3)-β-D-Galp-(1→3,6) -β-D-Galp-(1→. Differential scanning colorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis showed that LICP009-3F-2a is thermally stable, while X-ray diffractometry showed that LICP009-3F-2a has a semi-crystalline structure. In addition, LICP009-3F-2a protects ARPE-19 cells from H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage by regulating the expression of antioxidant SOD1 and CAT enzymes and down-regulating MMP2 expression. Moreover, LICP009-3F-2a promotes the proliferation of ARPE-19 cells in a concentration-dependent manner, and protects ARPE-19 cells from hyperglycemia by inhibiting apoptosis.

Digestive properties and effects of Chimonanthus nitens Oliv polysaccharides on antioxidant effects in vitro and in immunocompromised mice

The study was aimed to investigate the simulated digestion behavior of the bioactive polysaccharides from Chimonanthus nitens Oliv (COP1), antioxidant activity in vitro, and prevention against cyclophosphamide (CP) induced oxidative damage in mice. The results showed that COP1 were 18.843 kDa, and consisted of arabinose (56.6 mol%), galactose (24.9 mol%), xylose (11.1 mol%), and glucose (7.4 mol%). Gastrointestinal digestion significantly improved the radical (DPPH, OH, and ABTS⁺) scavenging activities of COP1. Meanwhile, administration of COP1 (150, 300, and 600 mg/kg, continuous 16 days) prevented hepatotoxicity in CP-induced mice (reducing liver index and transaminase levels, alleviating liver damage). COP1 also attenuated oxidative stress as evident from as shown by reduced levels of MDA and enhanced activity of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD, and GSH-Px). In addition, COP1 regulated the Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway in CP-treated mice, decreasing the upstream factor Keap1 and increasing the upstream factor Nrf2, which in turn enhanced the expression of downstream factors (NQO1, HO-1, GSH-Px, SOD1, and CAT). COP1 also protected the body from CP-induced oxidative damage by down-regulating Bax and caspase3 in the apoptosis pathway and up-regulating Bcl-2 mRNA levels. Overall, COP1 might be harnessed as an effective natural antioxidant for medical and food industries.