Oocysts of , , and in faeces collected from dogs in Germany

A colorimetric assay for Neospora caninum utilizing the loop-mediated isothermal amplification technique

Neospora caninum (N. caninum) is a protozoan parasite that poses a serious risk to livestock by infecting various domestic and wild animals. Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) offers a cost-effective, highly sensitive, and specific method for detecting protozoan parasites. This study aims to develop a precise, rapid, and visually assessable colorimetric LAMP method, improving on traditional techniques. We employed a rigorous screening process to identify the optimal primer set for this experiment. Subsequently, we fine-tuned the LAMP reaction at 65 °C for 40 min with 270 μmol/L neutral red. We then confirmed the specificity of primers for N. caninum through experimental validation. The LAMP method demonstrated a lower detection limit compared to traditional Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques. While LAMP offers clear advantages, the prevalence of DNA detected in 89 sheep serum and 59 bovine serum samples using the nested PCR method was 3.37 % (3/89) and 1.69 % (1/59), respectively. In contrast, when the LAMP method was employed, the prevalence of detected DNA rose to 5.61 % (5/89) for sheep and 3.38 % (2 /59) for bovine. A comparison of two molecular assays using the intragroup correlation coefficient (ICC) resulted in a value of 0.999 (95 % CI: 0.993-0.996, p < 0.001), indicating the LAMP method is in the "better" range according to James Lee's categorization. The LAMP technique, optimized with specific primers of N. caninum and neutral red dye, not only exhibited higher sensitivity but also provided convenience over conventional PCR methods, highlighting its potential for on-site applications and cost-effective field detection.

Serological survey of Toxoplasma gondii infection in a breeding kennel with reproductive disorders

INTRODUCTION

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection in dogs is distributed globally. Given the potential impact of T. gondii on human reproductive health and its zoonotic potential, focusing on infected dogs with breeding disorders may provide valuable new insights into the role of toxoplasmosis on reproductive disorders. This study aimed to elucidate the potential role of T. gondii on reproductive disorders by conducting a serosurvey on a kennel with breeding disorders in Kerman, Iran.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Purebred dogs with American Kennel Club-certified Pedigrees were randomly selected in both genders from a breeding kennel with a history of reproductive problems such as neonatal deaths, abortion stillbirths, and male infertility. Blood samples were collected from selected dogs, and serosurvey was done with a Toxo-Screen kit using the modified agglutination test (MAT).

FINDINGS

From 46 selected breeding dogs, 20 (43.5 %) were positive in the Toxoplasma MAT test, consisting of 24 samples (52.17 %) with different reproductive disorders and 22 (47.83 %) healthy dogs. However, the presence of reproductive disorder had no significant relationship with seropositivity (p = 0.067). Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis had no significant relationship with sex (p = 0.28) and age (p = 0.18) in the studied population.

CONCLUSION

Screening with the standard MAT method reduces the risk of transmitting toxoplasmosis by preventing the entry of infected dogs into the kennel, identifying the infected cases to start specific treatments, optimizing the proper nutritional conditions, and ensuring the hygiene of the environment. Fresh/refrigerated raw meat, unpasteurized milk feeding, rodent infestation of grass-covered dog runs, and the main dry food storage facilities were the primary risk factors in kennels.

Exploring similarities and differences between Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in dogs

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in dogs are predominantly manifest asymptomatic. However, these infections can also present highly varied and potentially severe clinical signs. This is due to the parasites' ability to replicate in a number of cell types within the host organism, with N. caninum exhibiting a particular tropism for the central and peripheral nervous systems, and T. gondii targeting the central nervous system and musculature. In clinical practice, toxoplasmosis and neosporosis are often considered to be closely related diseases, despite their distinct epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic, and therapeutic characteristics. The present review analyses the similarities and differences between these two protozoan infections, since an accurate and timely aetiological diagnosis is essential for establishing effective therapeutic protocols and control strategies.

A multimodal approach to diagnosis of neuromuscular neosporosis in dogs

BACKGROUND

Early diagnosis of neosporosis in dogs is challenging.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the feasibility of a compound multimodal testing approach for diagnosing in dogs neuromuscular and combined forms of neosporosis.

ANIMALS

A total of 16 dogs diagnosed with solely neuromuscular neosporosis or with a combination of neuromuscular and central nervous system neosporosis.

METHODS

Retrospective review of clinical signs, laboratory findings, treatment, and outcome with focus on the diagnostic utility of different tests. Development of a chromogenic in situ hybridization (ISH) assay for the identification of Neospora caninum in paraffin-embedded muscle samples.

RESULTS

13/16 dogs had only neuromuscular signs of neosporosis, 3/16 had disease signs with concomitant central nervous system (CNS) involvement. Serology was performed in 15/16, with 10/15 showing titers >1 : 160 at admission. PCR on muscle samples detected N. caninum DNA in 11/16. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) detected N. caninum in 9/16 and ISH in 9/16. Histopathology revealed inflammatory myopathy in 10/16, necrotizing myopathy in 5/16, borderline changes in 1/16 and tachyzoites in 9/16. In 4 cases, N. caninum infection was confirmed with all 5 diagnostic methods, 3 cases with 4, 2 with 3, 6 with 2, and 1 animal with 1.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Diagnosis of N. caninum infection should rely on a multimodal diagnostic approach and negativity of 1 single test should not allow for exclusion. Serology in combination with direct parasite identification via histopathology, DNA via PCR, or both modalities, appears a reliable diagnostic approach.

Molecular and serological prevalence rates of Neospora caninum infection in dogs from Jordan

Neosporosis is a proven disease of farm animals and dogs caused by Neospora caninum. This cross-sectional study investigates N. caninum prevalence and seroprevalence among 268 dogs. Nc5 gene PCR was carried out on dog faeces and confirmed by sequencing. Seroprevalence was detected using an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Three age groups, gender, locality (Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa Governorates), dog type (stray, pet, and breeding), place of living (indoor/outdoor), food type (raw/cooked), having diarrhoea, having abortion in the area, and having animals nearby were tested as independent variables for associations with positivity to N. caninum using univariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses. The true prevalence of N. caninum was 34.3% (95% CI 28.4, 40.5) using the Nc5-PCR test. The true seroprevalence rate of N. caninum among dogs in Jordan was 47.9% (95% CI 41.4, 54.5) using IFAT. The sequenced isolates of Nc5-PCR products (n = 85) matched three N. caninum strains, namely, NcHareGre (n = 70, 82.4%, 95% CI 72.6-89), NC MS2 (n = 14, 16.5%, 95% CI 9.3-26.1), and L218 (n = 1, 1.2%, 95% CI 0.03-6.4). The three strains were isolated previously from three different countries and continents. N. caninum shedding is associated with abortion among dogs and animals in the area (odds ratio = 3.6). In Amman and Zarqa, living indoors reduced seroprevalence at 0.45, 0.24, and 0.02 odds ratios, respectively. Jordan shares three molecular N. caninum strains with three different countries and continents.

Sentinels in the shadows: Exploring Toxoplasma gondii and other Sarcocystidae parasites in synanthropic rodents and their public health implications

Synanthropic rodents play a crucial role in maintaining the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii in anthropized regions and can serve as indicators of environmental oocyst contamination. This investigation aimed to explore the occurrence of T. gondii infection within synanthropic rodent populations using a molecular diagnostic technique targeting the 18S rDNA gene, which is generic for Coccidia, with subsequent specific PCR confirmation. We examined 97 brown rats (Rattus norvegicus), 67 black rats (R. rattus), 47 house mice (Mus musculus), and 1 common shrew (Sorex araneus). PCR tests were conducted on the brain, heart, and tongue tissues. PCR tested positive in at least one of the examined tissues in 26 R. norvegicus (26.8%), 13 R. rattus (19.4%), and 13 M. musculus (27.6%). Sequencing comparisons by BLAST allowed us to identify four different species of cyst-forming Apicomplexa. In particular, T. gondii DNA was detected in 13 (6.1%) rodents, Hammondia hammondi (including H. hammondi-like organisms) in 36 (17%) subjects, Besnoitia sp. (in two cases identified as B. besnoiti) in 8 (3.7%), and Sarcocystis gigantea in two (0.94%). Rodents from peri-urban and urban environments can act as indicators of environmental contamination by oocysts of apicomplexan parasites with cats as definitive hosts, such as T. gondii, H. hammondi, and S. gigantea, the latter of which has never been previously recorded in rodents. Moreover, the presence of B. besnoiti, a parasite with an unidentified definitive host in Europe, sheds light on the potential role of these hosts as infection sentinels.

Seroprevalence of IgG and IgM Antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in Dogs in Greece

Toxoplasmosis, caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, is a zoonotic disease that affects various animal species, including dogs, that can serve as sentinels for indirectly estimating the environmental contamination. The current study aimed to determine the seroprevalence of T. gondii IgG and IgM antibodies in dogs across different regions of Greece and assess their living area as a potential risk factor. In total, 1282 blood samples were collected from dogs in urban and rural areas of Greece, including Attica and Thessaloniki. Serum samples were tested for T. gondii-specific IgG and IgM antibodies using an indirect immunofluorescent antibody test. A chi-square test was performed to assess the association between seropositivity for T. gondii and geographical location (urban/rural). The overall T. gondii seroprevalence was 47.6%, while the seroprevalence of IgG and IgM antibodies was 34.3% and 22.2%, respectively. Dogs from rural areas exhibited a significantly higher seroprevalence (53.8%) than those from urban areas (43.9%) (p < 0.001), with the estimated odds ratio being equal to 1.49 (95% CI, 1.18 to 1.65) and the relative risk increased by 22.4%. Dogs in Greece are highly exposed to T. gondii, particularly in rural areas. Measures to prevent canine infections are necessary, and basic hygiene practices, such as hand washing after petting dogs, are required to reduce human infection risk and safeguard public health.

Study of specific immunodominant antigens in different stages of Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis spp. and Hammondia spp

The family Sarcocystidae includes several intracellular coccidial parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis spp. and Hammondia spp. with heteroxenous life cycles involving different parasitic stages (oocysts/sporocysts, tachyzoites and bradyzoites in tissue cysts). The aim of this work was to evaluate monoclonal antibodies (MAb) (anti NcSAG1, anti NcSAG4 and anti TgCC2) and/or polyclonal antibodies (PAb) (anti NcSAG4 and anti TgBAG1) to label specific immunodominant antigens in different parasitic stages of N. caninum (oocyst, bradyzoite and tachyzoite), T. gondii (oocyst, cyst and tachyzoite), H. heydorni (oocyst), S. cruzi (cyst and bradyzoite) and S. falcatula (sporocyst). It was observed that the MAb directed against NcSAG1 reacted exclusively with N. caninum tachyzoites. In contrast, the MAb directed against NcSAG4 did not react with any of the parasites tested at any stage. The MAb directed against NcSAG4 reacted with both N. caninum and T. gondii tachyzoites, T. gondii tissue cysts and S. cruzi tissue cysts and bradyzoites. As expected, the MAb directed against the T. gondii tissue cyst wall antigen TgCC2 reacted with T. gondii tissue cysts, N. caninum bradyzoites, but also with T. gondii and H. heydorni oocysts and S. falcatula sporocysts. Finally, the PAb directed against the T. gondii bradyzoite proteinTgBAG1 reacted with T. gondii tissue cysts, N. caninum bradyzoites, and also with S. cruzi tissue cysts and bradyzoites. These data reveal a wide range of cross-reactions between different species of protozoa and between different developmental stages, which should be taken into account in the design and evaluation of diagnostic tests, as well as in the assessment of vaccination and challenge studies.

Nationwide USA re-analysis of amplicon metabarcoding targeting β-tubulin isoform-1 reveals absence of benzimidazole resistant SNPs in Ancylostoma braziliense, Ancylostoma tubaeforme and Uncinaria stenocephala

Nationwide sampling by Venkatesan and colleagues (2023) described the resistance status of the canine hookworm, Ancylostoma caninum, to benzimidazoles across the USA via β-tubulin isotype-1 amplicon metabarcoding. In this study, we aimed to use the existing public amplicon metabarcoding data and mine it for the presence of β-tubulin isotype-1 sequences that belong to hookworm species other than A. caninum. Through bioinformatics analysis we assigned species to A. caninum, Ancylostoma braziliense, Ancylostoma tubaeforme and Uncinaria stenocephala. All non-A. caninum sequences contained only the benzimidazole susceptible residues of β-tubulin isotype-1. Using two β-tubulin isotype-1 metabarcoding sequence data (assay targeting 134 and 167 codons, and assay targeting 198 and 200 codons), 2.0% (6/307) and 2.9% (9/310) individual samples had hookworms other than A. caninum (A. braziliense n = 5, A. tubaeforme n = 4 and U. stenocephala n = 2), respectively. We identified one sample containing A. braziliense in each of the Northeastern region and Midwestern region, and in three samples from the Southern region. Presence of A. tubaeforme in dog faeces is considered as pseudoparasitism. There were no statistically significant regional differences for the distribution of each species, for either of the two assays independently or combined (χ2 tests, P > 0.05). Our work demonstrates the utility of the amplicon metabarcoding for the identification of species through antemortem assays, thus resolving the dilemma of assigning hookworm species based on either post-mortem or egg sizes for the identification of hookworms.

Risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in dogs: a serological survey

BACKGROUND

Dogs, as well as a wide variety of other warm-blooded animals, act as intermediate host of Toxoplasma gondii. In dogs, most cases of toxoplasmosis are subclinical, although clinical disease has been sporadically reported. Beyond its role in diagnostic pathways, seropositivity also functions as a reflection of the parasite's spread within the dog's living environment. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the possible risk factor associated with seropositivity to T. gondii in dogs in Central-Northern Italy, analysing 120 dogs sera for the presence of IgG antibodies by indirect fluorescence antibody test (IFAT).

RESULTS

The population examined was composed of 54.2% hunting dogs, 24.2% companion dogs, 14.2% truffle dogs and 7.5% watchdogs. Thirty-four (29.2%) dogs tested positive for T. gondii IgG, with titres ranging from 1:40 to 1:1280. Seroprevalence and antibodies titres were not related to dog gender, age or function. The logistic regression and ordered logistic regression results indicated that seroprevalence, and antibody titres were significantly higher in dogs cohabiting with cats, exhibiting coprophagy habits, and living constantly outdoors. Notably, the lifestyle factor showed the highest odds-ratios in the study: dogs living constantly outdoors were found to be at approximately 5 times greater risk of testing positive and having higher antibody titres compared to dogs living both indoors and outdoors.

CONCLUSION

Both logistic and ordered logistic regression results support the key role of living with cats, engaging in coprophagy behaviours, and maintaining an outdoor lifestyle in increasing the risk of T. gondii infection in dogs. These identified risk factors collectively suggest that both ingesting oocysts, as observed through cat cohabitation and coprophagy, and engaging in predatory behaviours, as possible for outdoor living dogs, are indicating likely sources of T. gondii infection in this host species.

Addressing the challenges of combined sewer overflows

Europe's ageing wastewater system often combines domestic sewage with surface runoff and industrial wastewaters. To reduce the associated risk of overloading wastewater treatment works during storms, and to prevent wastewater backing-up into properties, Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs) are designed into wastewater networks to release excess discharge into rivers or coastal waters without treatment. In view of growing regulatory scrutiny and increasing public concern about their excessive discharge frequencies and potential impacts on environments and people, there is a need to better understand these impacts to allow prioritisation of cost-effective solutions.We review: i) the chemical, physical and biological composition of CSOs discharges; ii) spatio-temporal variations in the quantity, quality and load of overflows spilling into receiving waters; iii) the potential impacts on people, ecosystems and economies. Despite investigations illustrating the discharge frequency of CSOs, data on spill composition and loading of pollutants are too few to reach representative conclusions, particularly for emerging contaminants. Studies appraising impacts are also scarce, especially in contexts where there are multiple stressors affecting receiving waters. Given the costs of addressing CSOs problems, but also the likely long-term gains (e.g. economic stimulation as well as improvements to biodiversity, ecosystem services, public health and wellbeing), we highlight here the need to bolster these evidence gaps. We also advocate no-regrets options to alleviate CSO problems taking into consideration economic costs, carbon neutrality, ecosystem benefit and community well-being. Besides pragmatic, risk-based investment by utilities and local authorities to modernise wastewater systems, these include i) more systemic thinking, linking policy makers, consumers, utilities and regulators, to shift from local CSO issues to integrated catchment solutions with the aim of reducing contributions to wastewater from surface drainage and water consumption; ii) broader societal responsibilities for CSOs, for example through improved regulation, behavioural changes in water consumption and disposal of waste into wastewater networks, and iii) greater cost-sharing of wastewater use.

Working towards the development of vaccines and chemotherapeutics against neosporosis-With all of its ups and downs-Looking ahead

Neospora caninum is an apicomplexan and obligatory intracellular parasite, which is the leading cause of reproductive failure in cattle and affects other farm and domestic animals, but also induces neuromuscular disease in dogs of all ages. In cattle, neosporosis is an important health problem, and has a considerable economic impact. To date there is no protective vaccine or chemotherapeutic treatment on the market. Immuno-prophylaxis has long been considered as the best control measure. Proteins involved in host cell interaction and invasion, as well as antigens mediating inflammatory responses have been the most frequently assessed vaccine targets. However, despite considerable efforts no effective vaccine has been introduced to the market to date. The development of effective compounds to limit the effects of vertical transmission of N. caninum tachyzoites has emerged as an alternative or addition to vaccination, provided suitable targets and safe and efficacious drugs can be identified. Additionally, the combination of both treatment strategies might be interesting to further increase protectivity against N. caninum infections and to decrease the duration of treatment and the risk of potential drug resistance. Well-established and standardized animal infection models are key factors for the evaluation of promising vaccine and compound candidates. The vast majority of experimental animal experiments concerning neosporosis have been performed in mice, although in recent years the numbers of experimental studies in cattle and sheep have increased. In this review, we discuss the recent findings concerning the progress in drug and vaccine development against N. caninum infections in mice and ruminants.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection and Associated Risk Factors in Different Populations of Dogs from Aguascalientes, Mexico

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

This work aimed to study the seroprevalence of natural infection by T. gondii in different population segments of dogs from Aguascalientes, Mexico as well as its possible association with some risk factors.

METHODS

The study included 210 clinically healthy dogs from three population segments: rural, stray and pet. A blood serum sample was collected on a single occasion and processed by indirect immunofluorescence considering a dilution of 1:16 as a positive reaction; the association between the presence of antibodies and the potential risk factors was estimated with logistic regression.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of anti-T. gondii antibodies in the studied population was 59% (123/210; CI 95% 51-65) being different between population segments, in rural dogs 74% (59/80; CI 95% 62-82), in stray dogs 60% (48/80; CI 95% 48-70) and in pet dogs 32% (16/50; CI 95% 19-46), the titers of the positive sera were in a range of 1:16-1:128. In rural dogs the seroprevalence according to the municipality was in a range of 55% to 100% finding positive dogs in all the studied municipalities. The zootechnical function of guarding the property in rural dogs was identified as a risk factor (OR 2.4), while in pet dogs it was living with cats (OR 7) as well as sharing the drinking water container (OR 4); in stray dogs it was not possible to identify any risk factor.

CONCLUSIONS

This study documents the wide presence of anti-T. gondii antibodies in the population groups examined, this being more important in rural dogs.

Increased seroprevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in dogs in southern Brazil after an outbreak of human toxoplasmosis

Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, which can infect diverse hosts, including dogs. Although T. gondii infection in dogs is usually subclinical, they are susceptible to infection and develop a specific immune response to the parasite. In 2018, the largest outbreak of human toxoplasmosis in the world occurred in Santa Maria, in southern Brazil; however, the impact of this outbreak on other hosts was not investigated at the time. Considering that dogs often share the same environmental sources of infection as humans, mainly water sources, and that in Brazil, the detection rates of anti-T. gondii immunoglobulin G (IgG) in dogs is very high, this study investigated the frequency of anti-T. gondii IgG in dogs in Santa Maria before and after the outbreak. A total of 2.245 serum samples were analyzed, 1159 collected before the outbreak and 1086 collected after the outbreak. Serum samples were tested for anti-T. gondii antibodies using an indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT). The infection detection of T. gondii was 16% (185/1159) before the outbreak and 43% (466/1086) after the outbreak. These results showed the infection of dogs with T. gondii and the high frequency of anti-T. gondii antibodies in dogs after the outbreak in humans in 2018, reinforcing water as a possible source of infection and the importance of including toxoplasmosis in the differential diagnosis of dogs.

Is there any change in the prevalence of intestinal or cardiopulmonary parasite infections in companion animals (dogs and cats) in Germany between 2004-2006 and 2015-2017? An assessment of the impact of the first ESCCAP guidelines

Main objective of the present nationwide study was to assess the impact of the ESCCAP guideline for the control of worm infections in dogs and cats 8-10 years after its first publication in Germany. A secondary aim was to determine the prevalence of canine and feline cardiopulmonary nematodes and intestinal protozoa. Faecal samples of 53,693 dogs and 26,491 cats in 2004-2006 as well as of 129,578 dogs and 45,709 cats in 2015-2017 routinely submitted by veterinarians to a private veterinary laboratory were examined using appropriate parasitological methods. In dogs, the prevalence of Toxocara and taeniid egg shedding was significantly lower in 2015-2017 (3.8 % and 0.16 %, respectively) than in 2004-2006 (4.6 % and 0.27 %, respectively). The prevalence of hookworm and Capillaria eggs was higher in the second study period (2.3 % and 0.77 %, respectively) than in the first (1.3 % and 0.6 %, respectively). For Toxascaris leonina (0.55-0.6 %) and Trichuris (0.8-0.9 %), the difference was not significant between the study periods. Dogs shed more often Angiostrongylus vasorum larvae in the second study (3.1 %) than in the first (1.0 %), whereas the prevalence of Crenosoma vulpis did not change significantly (2.2-2.6 %). Cystoisospora canis and C. ohioensis-like infections were less detected in the second study period (1.0 % and 2.1 %, respectively) than in the first (1.8 % and 2.7 %, respectively). Neospora-like oocysts and Sarcocystis sporocysts were more prevalent in the second study period (0.19 % and 0.13 %, respectively) than in the first (0.13 % and 0.06 %, respectively). The percentage of Giardia or Cryptosporidium coproantigen-positive samples was lower in the second study period (18.9 % and 6.7 %, respectively) than in the first (22.8 % and 10.0 %, respectively). In cats, the prevalence of egg shedding of T. cati, Capillaria and taeniids was significantly lower in 2015-2017 (3.5 %, 0.25 % and 0.1 %, respectively) than in 2004-2006 (4.8 %, 0.54 % and 0.22 %, respectively). No difference was recorded for hookworms (0.12-0.13 %) and Ts. leonina (0.04-0.05 %). Aelurostrongylus-like larvae were detected more often in the second study period (6.5 %) than in the first (2.6 %). Infections with Cystoisospora felis, C. rivolta, Toxoplasma-like coccids and Sarcocystis were less prevalent in the second study period (1.9 %, 0.7 %, 0.24 % and 0.02 %, respectively) than in the first (2.7 %, 1.1 %, 0.36 % and 0.1 %, respectively). The percentage of Giardia or Cryptosporidium coproantigen-positive samples was significantly lower in the second study period (10.6 % and 4.8 %, respectively) than in the first (15.4 % and 8.3 %, respectively). Although these results indicate a decline of the occurrence of most canine and feline intestinal parasites in Germany over the years, a transmission risk of zoonotic parasites remains. Therefore, the control of helminth infections in domestic dogs and cats continues to be a challenge for veterinarians and pet owners.

Comparison of a Commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) with the Modified Agglutination Test (MAT) for the Detection of Antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in a Cohort of Hunting Dogs

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease, caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, affecting most warm-blooded animals. Assessing the seroprevalence of T. gondii in different animal species gives a good estimate of the global circulation of the parasite and the risk for human infections. However, the seroprevalence of T. gondii in dogs is not studied as much as other species, despite their close contact with wildlife and humans in rural or urban environments and evidence that dogs can also be a potential source for human contaminations. A commercial enzyme-inked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit to detect anti-T. gondii antibodies in sera of hunting dogs potentially naturally infected, was compared to the modified agglutination test (MAT), used as the reference method. The ELISA presented a sensitivity of 76.5% (CI 95%: 60.0–87.6) and a specificity of 87.7% (CI 95%: 76.7–93.9) and a substantial agreement with the MAT for the detection of canine anti-T. gondii antibodies. Both tests can therefore be used widely for epidemiology studies on T. gondii infections in dogs. With a mean seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in hunting dogs from northern Algeria of 36.8% (CI 95%: 34.9–38.7), this study also highlights the importance of T. gondii seroprevalence studies in companion animals to assess infectious risk for human populations.

Low Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Dogs From Central China

Background

Toxoplasma gondii can infect almost all warm-blooded animals, including humans and dogs. Humans can become infected with T. gondii by petting dogs that have eaten or contacted infected cat feces. The aim of this study was to evaluate T. gondii infections in dogs from central China. From 2015 to 2021, a total of 536 dog samples (195 fecal, 81 hearts, and 260 serum samples) from Henan Province were collected. Heart juice or serum samples (n = 341) were tested for T. gondii antibodies using the modified agglutination test (MAT). Fresh myocardium (n = 6) and blood (n = 2) samples were bioassayed in mice.

Results

The present study showed that 4.40% (15/341) of the dogs were seropositive for T. gondii by MAT (cut-off, 1:25) and 4.10% (8/195) of dog feces contained T. gondii DNA. No T. gondii DNA was found in any myocardium (n = 81) or blood (n = 2) samples. The viable T. gondii strain was not isolated from any myocardium or blood samples (n = 8). Compared to the prevalence of T. gondii antibodies in dogs sampled from 2015 to 2018, the prevalence significantly declined from 2020 to 2021 (P &lt; 0.05). Gender and age were not risk factors for dogs infected with T. gondii in this study. However, compared to other sources, dogs from Zhoukou City (close to the Yellow River) or from pet shops showed significantly higher prevalence for T. gondii (P &lt; 0.05).

Conclusion

A total of 4.29% dogs were infected by T. gondii (23/536, 8 of 195 fecal samples, 2 of 260 serum, and 13 of 81 heart juice samples). This is the first survey of T. gondii infection in dog feces from China. Dogs were exposed to T. gondii, and they could act as mechanical transmitters of T. gondii.

Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii in cattle from Unai, Minas Gerais state, Brazil

Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread protozoan parasite that causes infections in animals and humans. The presence of tissue cysts in cattle musculature evidences their epidemiological significance in transmission to humans. The present study aimed to evaluate the seroprevalence of and risk factors of T. gondii seropositivity in beef cattle in the municipality of Unaí, Minas Gerais state, Brazil. Bovine blood samples (n = 612) were collected from 31 herds. Risk factors associated with the animal-level and herd-level seroprevalence were analysed using a questionnaire that investigates the epidemiological aspects of toxoplasmosis. A search for anti-T. gondii antibodies was performed by means of an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Analysis of 612 samples showed 369 animals positive for anti-T. gondii antibodies (IFAT ≥64), with a seroprevalence of 60.29% (95% confidence interval (CI): 56.35-64.10). The herd-level seroprevalence was 96.77% (95% CI: 79.00-99.58). Applying a multivariate logistic regression analysis, a test of the association between seroprevalence of T. gondii infection and the potential predictors showed that cats (domestic or wild) with access to the drinking water of cattle were a significant (P = 0.001) predictor. The seroprevalence of T. gondii in cattle destined for human consumption is widely distributed throughout the entire study area. Thus, integrated control measures and strategies are suggested to prevent T. gondii infection in cattle.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in outdoor dogs and cats in Bangkok, Thailand

The aim of this study was to estimate the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii exposure in dogs and cats from Bangkok, Thailand. Blood samples from 318 dogs and 321 cats were tested for T. gondii antibodies by modified agglutination test (cut-off 1:25). Additionally, 18 dogs and 20 cats were longitudinally sampled for T. gondii antibodies during the same study period, between June and July 2019. The overall seroprevalence in dogs and cats was 7.9% (25/318; 95% CI 4.9–10.8%) and 18.7% (95% CI 14.4–23.0%), respectively. For dogs, risk factors identified were being a mixed-breed animal and living totally outdoors, while increasing age was shown to be a risk factor for cats. Seroconversion was not detected and titres from positive animals remained constant over longitudinal study. The present study indicates that there is a prominent presence of T. gondii in urban and peri-urban areas of Bangkok, suggesting that outdoor dogs and cats should be considered as a possible risk factor for humans.

Modelling the Quality of Bathing Waters in the Adriatic Sea

The aim of this study is to develop a relocatable modelling system able to describe the microbial contamination that affects the quality of coastal bathing waters. Pollution events are mainly triggered by urban sewer outflows during massive rainy events, with relevant negative consequences on the marine environment and tourism and related activities of coastal towns. A finite element hydrodynamic model was applied to five study areas in the Adriatic Sea, which differ for urban, oceanographic and morphological conditions. With the help of transport-diffusion and microbial decay modules, the distribution of Escherichia coli was investigated during significant events. The numerical investigation was supported by detailed in situ observational datasets. The model results were evaluated against water level, sea temperature, salinity and E. coli concentrations acquired in situ, demonstrating the capacity of the modelling suite in simulating the circulation in the coastal areas of the Adriatic Sea, as well as several main transport and diffusion dynamics, such as riverine and polluted waters dispersion. Moreover, the results of the simulations were used to perform a comparative analysis among the different study sites, demonstrating that dilution and mixing, mostly induced by the tidal action, had a stronger effect on bacteria reduction with respect to microbial decay. Stratification and estuarine dynamics also play an important role in governing microbial concentration. The modelling suite can be used as a beach management tool for improving protection of public health, as required by the EU Bathing Water Directive.

Molecular analysis suggests that Namibian cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) are definitive hosts of a so far undescribed Besnoitia species

Background

Besnoitia darlingi, B. neotomofelis and B. oryctofelisi are closely related coccidian parasites with felids as definitive hosts. These parasites use a variety of animal species as intermediate hosts. North American opossums (Didelphis virginiana), North American southern plains woodrats (Neotoma micropus) and South American domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are intermediate hosts of B. darlingi, B. neotomofelis and B. oryctofelisi, respectively. Based on conserved regions in the internal transcribed spacer-1 (ITS1) sequence of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA), a real-time PCR for a sensitive detection of these Besnoitia spp. in tissues of intermediate hosts and faeces of definitive hosts has recently been established. Available sequence data suggest that species such as B. akodoni and B. jellisoni are also covered by this real-time PCR. It has been hypothesised that additional Besnoitia spp. exist worldwide that are closely related to B. darlingi or B. darlingi-like parasites (B. neotomofelis, B. oryctofelisi, B. akodoni or B. jellisoni). Also related, but not as closely, is B. besnoiti, the cause of bovine besnoitiosis.

Methods

Faecal samples from two free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) from Namibia that had previously tested positive for coccidian parasites by coproscopy were used for this study. A conventional PCR verified the presence of coccidian parasite DNA. To clarify the identity of these coccidia, the faecal DNA samples were further characterised by species-specific PCRs and Sanger sequencing.

Results

One of the samples tested positive for B. darlingi or B. darlingi-like parasites by real-time PCR, while no other coccidian parasites, including Toxoplasma gondii, Hammondia hammondi, H. heydorni, B. besnoiti and Neospora caninum, were detected in the two samples. The rDNA of the B. darlingi-like parasite was amplified and partially sequenced. Comparison with existing sequences in GenBank revealed a close relationship to other Besnoitia spp., but also showed clear divergences.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that a so far unknown Besnoitia species exists in Namibian wildlife, which is closely related to B. darlingi, B. neotomofelis, B. oryctofelisi, B. akodoni or B. jellisoni. The cheetah appears to be the definitive host of this newly discovered parasite, while prey species of the cheetah may act as intermediate hosts.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-04697-3.

A real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction for the specific detection of Hammondia hammondi and its differentiation from Toxoplasma gondii

Introduction

Hammondia hammondi and Toxoplasma gondii are closely related protozoan parasites, but only T. gondii is zoonotic. Both species use felids as definitive hosts and cannot be differentiated by oocyst morphology. In T. gondii, a 529-base pair (bp) repetitive element (TgREP-529) is of utmost diagnostic importance for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) diagnostic tests. We identified a similar repetitive region in the H. hammondi genome (HhamREP-529).

Methods

Based on reported sequences, primers and probes were selected in silico and optimal primer probe combinations were explored, also by including previously published primers. The analytical sensitivity was tested using serial dilutions of oocyst DNA. For testing analytical specificity, DNA isolated from several related species was used as controls. The newly established TaqMan PCR (Hham-qPCR1) was applied to tissues collected from H. hammondi-infected gamma-interferon gene knockout (GKO) mice at varying time points post-infection.

Results

Ten forward and six reverse primers were tested in varying combinations. Four potentially suitable dual-labelled probes were selected. One set based on the primer pair (Hham275F, Hham81R) and the probe (Hham222P) yielded optimal results. In addition to excellent analytic specificity, the assay revealed an analytical sensitivity of genome equivalents of less than one oocyst. Investigation of the tissue distribution in GKO mice revealed the presence of parasite DNA in all examined organs, but to a varying extent, suggesting 100- to 10,000-fold differences in parasitic loads between tissues in the chronic state of infection, 42 days post-infection.

Discussion

The use of the 529-bp repeat of H. hammondi is suitable for establishing a quantitative real-time PCR assay, because this repeat probably exists about 200 times in the genome of a single organism, like its counterpart in T. gondii. Although there were enough sequence data available, only a few of the primers predicted in silico revealed sufficient amplification; the identification of a suitable probe was also difficult. This is in accord with our previous observations on considerable variability in the 529-bp repetitive element of H. hammondi.

Conclusions

The H. hammondi real-time PCR represents an important novel diagnostic tool for epidemiological and cell biological studies on H. hammondi and related parasites.

Neosporosis in bulls: potential for venereal transmission, and effect on semen quality and production

Neospora caninum caninum is a protozoan parasite that can cause abortions, birth of congenitally infected calves, and reduced milk production in cattle. Neosporosis in cattle can be transmitted through vertical transplacental transmission from dam to calf, or through horizontal transmission between animals. While it is well established that horizontal transmission from dogs (the definitive host) to cattle (an intermediate host) occurs, it is not clear whether horizontal transmission may occur between cows and bulls during mating. Transmission via infected semen of seropositive bulls was suggested when N. caninum DNA was found in bull semen. The primary objective of this article is to critically evaluate the evidence for venereal transmission of N. caninum between cattle, to determine whether this transmission route is likely to occur. A secondary objective is to review and evaluate published evidence for whether neosporosis in bulls may affect semen quality and production. N. caninum DNA can be detected by PCR in occasional batches of semen straws from bulls that are seropositive for N. caninum. Insemination of heifers with semen experimentally infected with 5 × 10⁴ N. caninum tachyzoites has caused persistent seroconversion in some animals. However, the highest concentration of parasites in the semen of naturally infected bulls was estimated, using quantitative PCR, as 10 tachyzoites. Thus it appears that, whether used for natural or artificial insemination, the semen of bulls naturally infected with N. caninum, does not contain the necessary intrauterine dose of tachyzoites to cause persistent seroconversion in a heifer or cow. Thus, based on the available evidence, the venereal transmission of N. caninum via bull semen is extremely unlikely. Nevertheless, neosporosis in bulls may influence semen quality and production. Epididymal semen concentration, viability, and motility appeared "to be" significantly decreased in N. caninum-seropositive bulls compared to seronegative bulls. Furthermore, semen production could be altered if neosporosis affects the thyroid gland. The thyroid hormones such as triiodothyronine and thyroxine (T4) may affect testicular development. Significantly lower concentrations of T4 were observed in the blood of N. caninum-seropositive, compared with those of seronegative bulls. Longitudinal studies are needed to confirm the long-term effect and significance of neosporosis on semen quality and thyroid hormone concentrations in bulls.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. from domestic pigs in Argentina

Cryptosporidiosis in pigs is caused by different Cryptosporidium species or genotypes, with C. suis and C. scrofarum considered porcine specific species. There is scarce information on Cryptosporidium infection in pigs in South America. A total of 520 individual faecal samples were obtained from 1, 2, 3 and 4 week old piglets (n = 130 from each age group), from 13 Argentinean intensive pig farms. The diagnosis of species of Cryptosporidium combined microscopy and molecular techniques. Genotyping from samples with Cryptosporidium oocysts at microscopy was performed by genus-specific and species-specific nested PCR targeting 18S rRNA gene fragments, and sequencing. Microscopic analysis detected Cryptosporidium oocysts in 47/520 (9%) faecal samples from 11/13 (85%) farms, with farm infection rates between 0 and 17.5%. Presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts was associated with diarrhea. The proportion of microscopically positive samples was not associated with piglet age. A total of 15/47 (32% of samples with oocyst compatible structures) were positive by genus and species-specific nested PCR. Species-specific PCR and sequencing showed presence of C. suis, C. scrofarum, and both species in 3, 8 and 4 samples, respectively. The proportion of positive samples on each specific PCR was similar between age groups, being C. suis proportion slightly higher in 4 week old piglets. The use of molecular tools allowed the confirmation of C. suis and C. scrofarum infection in Argentinean pigs. Cryptosporidiosis was widely distributed in the main pig husbandry area from Argentina, with a low to moderate intra farm infection rate.

Detection of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii among owned dogs in Cambodia

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa, which has a two-host life cycle and an extensive global distribution. The presence of antibodies to T. gondii was examined in owned dogs in Cambodia. In total, 103 dog serum samples from 37 households in northern Cambodia were collected and examined for evidence of T. gondii infection using an indirect immunofluorescent antibody test. In total, 52 of 103 (50.5%) samples were serologically positive for T. gondii in this study. No significant risk factor associated with T. gondii infection was found. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the seroprevalence of T. gondii in dogs from Cambodia, which revealed a considerable risk of infection for humans. Therefore, consuming undercooked dog meat or contacting feces with contaminated cat feces should be restricted to avoid the possibility of zoonosis. Further studies are needed to determine the epidemiology of T. gondii in populations of larger dogs and other animals to improve our understanding of the situation of the pathogen in this country.

•

First report of T. gondii infection in dogs from Cambodia

•

Adult dogs are more likely to be infected with the pathogen (T. gondii) at higher antibody concentration.

•

Consumption of undercooked dog meat or contact with cat feces maybe potential risks for human T. gondii infection in Cambodia.

Copro-molecular diagnosis of the Toxoplasmatinae subfamily in dog and cat populations in northern Iran

OBJECTIVES

The oocysts of the Toxoplasmatinae subfamily (Neospora caninum, Hammondia hammondi and H. heydorni, and Besnoitia besnoiti) are morphologically similar to Toxoplasma gondii, and indistinguishable from each other. This study investigated the prevalence of the Toxoplasmatinae subfamily in dog and cat fecal samples using a nested polymerase chain reaction method.

METHODS

Overall, 200 fecal samples from domestic dogs (n=120) and cats (n=80) were collected from 15 farms in northern Iran. The samples were homogenized in 2.5% potassium dichromate solution and subsequently concentrated with sucrose solution. DNA was extracted from samples using a genomic DNA kit. Specific primers and the 18S rDNA gene were used to screen and detect all Toxoplasmatinae oocysts.

RESULTS

Overall, 2.5% (3 of 120) and 22.5% (18 of 80) of the fecal samples collected from dogs and cats were infected with Toxoplasmatinae. In dogs, 2 samples were positive for N. caninum and 1 sample was positive for T. gondii. In cats, all 18 positive samples belonged to T. gondii. No contamination with H. heydorni was observed in dog fecal samples or H. hammondi and B. besnoiti in cat fecal samples. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that the T. gondii (cat) and N. caninum (dog) found had similarities with parasites reported from other regions of the world.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to provide data on the epidemiology of Toxoplasmatinae oocysts in Iran. The findings suggest that public-health monitoring for the effective control of feces from cats and dogs and improved pet hygiene habits are needed.

Toxoplasma gondii infections in dogs: 2009-2020

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in dogs (Canis familiaris) from 2009-2020. Seroprevalence estimates of T. gondii worldwide were tabulated. Reports of high seroprevalence in canine population and high congenital transmission of T. gondii in dogs in Brazil are reviewed. Most reports from China were published in Chinese, and these reports are now summarized here. Dogs have an additional importance in some countries such as China, Vietnam, and Nigeria; whereas in many cities dog meat is sold commercially for human consumption and given to felids, and transmission of T. gondii could occur if meat is not cooked properly. Dogs can ingest T. gondii-infected cat feces and these oocysts remain viable after passage through the digestive tract of the dog; T. gondii DNA was found in feces of dogs from New York City parks in USA. Most clinical canine cases of toxoplasmosis were in immunosuppressed dogs, and ulcerative dermatitis was one of the main presentations. Genetic diversity based on PCR-RFLP markers using DNA derived from 133 viable T. gondii isolates from dogs from several countries is discussed. T. gondii strains from Asia and Americas were more genetically diverse than those from Africa. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in South American camelids in Switzerland and assessment of serological tests for diagnosis

Background

Little is known about the epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and llamas (Lama glama) outside South America. The study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum infections in South American camelids (SAC) in Switzerland, to optimize serological tests for SAC and to identify risk factors, which may favour infection.

Methods

A total of 571 sera from 132 Swiss farms (374 alpacas and 197 llamas, mean 4.3 animals/farm) were obtained. Four commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) for detecting antibodies against T. gondii (ID Screen^® Toxoplasmosis Indirect (TOXO-MS)) or N. caninum (i.e. ID Screen^® Neospora caninum Indirect Multi-species (NCS-MS); ID Screen^® Neospora caninum Competition (NCC) and ID Screen^® Neospora caninum Indirect (NCS)) were first assessed for their use on SAC comparing their results with those in immunoblot, and optimizing cut-offs. Subsequently, two kits (TOXO-MS and NCS-MS) were selected for seroprevalence estimation. Additionally, a risk factor analysis for infection was performed on 41 farms, which agreed to participate in a web-based survey.

Results

Three kits (TOXO-MS, NCS-MS and NCC) showed almost perfect agreement (kappa > 0.901) with immunoblot results when the cut-offs were optimized, and one kit (NCS) proved not to be useful for detecting N. caninum seropositive SAC. By TOXO-MS ELISA, 82.3% (308/374) of the alpacas and 84.8% (167/197) of the llamas were seropositive for T. gondii, and 131/132 (99.2%) farms had seropositive animals. By NCS-MS ELISA, 3.5% (13/374) of the alpacas and 2.5% (5/197) of the llamas evidenced antibodies against N. caninum, and 9.1% (12/132) of the farms had seropositive animals. The variables “age” and “female sex” were identified as risk factors for T. gondii infection and “absence of cats in the farm during the last two years” as a protective factor. No risk or protective factors for N. caninum infection could be identified.

Conclusions

This nationwide cross-sectional study demonstrated for the first time the presence of antibodies against T. gondii and N. caninum in the Swiss SAC population, highlighting a high seroprevalence for T. gondii, the presence of cats as a risk factor and suggesting that SAC meat might represent an additional infection source for humans.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in Dromedary camels ( Camelus dromedarius ) from Saudi Arabia

Serological screening of 199 serum samples from Dromedary camels-from different cities in Saudi Arabia-was performed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detecting antibodies against two cyst-forming coccidian parasites, namely Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum. Antibodies against T. gondii were detected in 68 (34.2%) samples, while those against N. caninum were present in 33 (16.6%) samples. The highest seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies was reported in samples from Taif (51.2%), while the lowest seroprevalence was reported in samples from Riyadh and Hofuf (15.1%). The highest seroprevalence of N. caninum antibodies was reported in samples from Jizan (35.9%) while the lowest was reported in samples from Taif (2.4%). A total of 47 male and 21 female camels exhibited antibodies against T. gondii , while 19 male and 14 female camels showed antibodies against N. caninum . Concurrent detection of both T. gondii and N. caninum antibodies was observed in 18 camels. It has been demonstrated that T. gondii and N. caninum antibodies are prevalent in camels from different cities of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Sensitive, quantitative detection of Besnoitia darlingi and related parasites in intermediate hosts and to assess felids as definitive hosts for known and as-yet undescribed related parasite species

Besnoitia darlingi, B. neotomofelis and B. oryctofelisi are closely related coccidian parasites with cats as definitive hosts. While B. darlingi uses opossums as intermediate hosts, B. neotomofelis and B. oryctofelisi have been described in Southern Plains woodrats (Neotoma micropus) from the USA and in domestic rabbits from Argentina, respectively. A comparison of the Internal Transcribed Spacer-1 (ITS-1) region of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of these Besnoitia spp. showed only a few differences. The present study aimed at developing a real-time PCR to detect B. darlingi, B. neotomofelis and B. oryctofelisi in tissues of intermediate and in faeces of definitive hosts in order to support studies of these organisms’ epidemiology and pathogenesis.

The established PCR was based on primer regions distinct from the ITS-1 sequences of ungulate Besnoitia spp. and made use of a Besnoitia universal probe. To monitor inhibition, a heterologous internal control was established based on the enhanced green fluorescent protein gene. The real-time PCR reacted with B. darlingi, B. neotomofelis and B. oryctofelisi, while the novel PCR did not recognize ungulate Besnoitia spp. (B. besnoiti, B. bennetti, B. tarandi). DNA of Apicomplexa ascribed to other Besnoitia-related genera, including other gut parasites of cats (Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia duodenalis, Tritrichomonas foetus), was not recognized. The real-time PCR had an analytic sensitivity of less than 1 tachyzoite per reaction. In feline faeces spiked with B. darlingi oocysts, the limit of detection was a DNA amount equivalent to 1 oocyst per PCR reaction. In B. darlingi infected ɣ-interferon knock-out mice, the lung was identified as the predilection organ. In conclusion, this real-time PCR should advance further studies on these parasites and may inspire research on related species, not only in the Americas, but also in other parts of the world.

•

A quantitative real-time PCR was established to detect Besnoitia darlingi.

•

Analytical sensitivity of the real-time PCR for tachyzoites and oocysts was high.

•

Lung tissue was the predilection site for B. darlingi in ɣ-interferon knockout mice.

•

Related parasites like B. neotomofelis and B. oryctofelisi are detected by this PCR, too.

•

PCR holds promise to assess the epidemiology of B. darlingi and related species.

Toxoplasma gondii in small exotic felids from zoos in Europe and the Middle East: serological prevalence and risk factors

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasma gondii infections and cases of clinical toxoplasmosis have been recorded in zoo animals. Wild felids in human care can serve as definitive hosts that shed oocysts, but also as intermediate hosts for the parasite. Some felid species, such as the Pallas's cat (Otocolobus manul) or sand cat (Felis margarita), may suffer from clinically apparent toxoplasmosis. In the present study, our main aim was to assess risk factors for T. gondii infections in small exotic felids.

METHODS

A seroepidemiological study was conducted using the reduviid bug Dipetalogaster maxima for blood sample collection, a method previously evaluated on domestic cats. A total of 336 samples from 17 felid species were collected in 51 institutions, 48 of which were within Europe and the remaining three in the Middle East (United Arabic Emirates and Qatar). These samples were analyzed for T. gondii antibodies by immunoblotting and an immunofluorescent antibody test. Potential risk factors in zoos for seropositivity regarding T. gondii among members of the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) were evaluated using a questionnaire and individual data from the Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS).

RESULTS

The sampled felids showed an overall seroprevalence for T. gondii of 63%. The risk factor study including data of 311 small exotic cats of 10 species resulted in a final generalized linear mixed model comprised of five variables: the likelihood of seropositivity increased statistically significantly with "Age", while feeding "Cattle: frozen" relative to "Cattle: fresh", "Outdoor housing fenced in on all sides", "Mesh size 2-5 cm" relative to "Mesh size > 5 cm" and "Wearing gloves: yes" had statistically significant protective effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Wild felids, including endangered species, kept in human care in European and Middle Eastern institutions, are widely exposed to T. gondii. Risk factor analysis revealed that feeding previously frozen tissues, keeping animals in enclosures that are fenced on all sides using fences with small mesh sizes, and wearing gloves when working inside enclosures seem to be the most relevant protective measures to prevent T. gondii infections in these animals .

Neospora caninum DNA in feces of crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous - Linnaeus, 1776) from northeastern Brazil

Neospora caninum is an obligate intracellular tissue cyst-forming coccidian parasite and it was first described in dogs. Despite the relevance of wild canids in the transmission chain of N. caninum, there are few studies in Brazil. The aim of the present study was to detect N. caninum DNA in feces of free-range and captive crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) from different states of northeastern Brazil. Fecal samples of eighteen crab-eating foxes (fifteen individually and three pools) were collected in sterile containers and were kept cool at -20 °C until further processing. All fecal samples were subjected to DNA extraction. A nested PCR targeting the ITS-1 gene was performed for N. caninum. All the positive bands were extracted from the gel and purified. Forward and reverse strands were sequenced and the nucleotide sequences obtained were compared with N. caninum sequences deposited in Genbank. The alignment was edited and phylogenetic reconstruction was based on the ITS1 gene sequences. Thirteen stool samples were PCR-positive for N. caninum DNA. Nine out of thirteen positive samples showed similarity between 99%-100% for N. caninum in relation to the sequence U25044.1 stored at GenBank. The crab-eating fox could have an important role in the sylvatic cycle of Neospora caninum in Brazil. Experimental infections studies involving these wild canids may confirm if the crab-eating foxes are definitive hosts of N. caninum.

Prevalence of Endoparasites in Urban Stray Dogs from Brazil Diagnosed with Leishmania, with Potential for Human Zoonoses

BACKGROUND

In tropical environments, abandoned animals can be an important source for human zoonotic infections, such as human visceral leishmaniasis and other vector-borne diseases. Here, we report the frequency of protozoan and helminth intestinal parasites in stray dogs, which might have an implication for human health in urban Brazilian settings.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We performed necropsies on 93 animals, euthanized due to canine visceral leishmaniasis control program, and examined their intestines looking for the presence of helminths; we determined the parasite load, and the elimination of eggs and cysts of protozoan parasites in fecal samples. Further, we performed serology tests for the detection of specific antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii.

RESULTS

Overall, a high prevalence of intestinal parasites with potential for human zoonoses resulted and only 8.6% of examined intestines remained negative. The most prevalent helminths were Ancylostoma caninum and Dipylidium caninum. For nematodes, high worm burdens were detected for A. caninum and Trichuris vulpis. Additionally, we analyzed worm burdens and quantitative stool examinations, but found no significant association between positive serology for Leishmania infection and intestinal parasite burden. Interestingly, serology for T. gondii infection revealed a prevalence of 33.3% and a positive result was significantly associated with a higher A. caninum adult worm recovery (p = 0.0087).

CONCLUSION

Our results showed stray dogs living in urban areas are heavily parasitized, which presents a potential risk for humans. Beyond the control of canine visceral leishmaniasis, we propose an improvement of the control program to reduce the risk for other parasitic diseases in dogs and humans.

Besnoitia tarandi in Canadian woodland caribou - Isolation, characterization and suitability for serological tests

In the present study, we report the first in vitro isolation of Besnoitia tarandi from North America and the second of B. tarandi at all. The parasite was isolated directly from the skin of a Canadian woodland caribou from the migratory ecotype. The animal belonged to the Leaf River Herd, in Northern Quebec, Canada. The isolate was designated Bt-CA-Quebec1. Sequencing of the 3'-end of the 18S rRNA gene, the complete sequence of the ITS1 and the 5'-end of the 5.8S rRNA gene of Bt-CA-Quebec1 revealed only minor differences to rDNA gene fragments of B. besnoiti. In contrast, the patterns for the microsatellite loci Bt-20 and Bt-21 varied substantially from those reported for B. besnoiti and B. bennetti. Surprisingly, the typing results in the loci Bt-6 and Bt-7 differed between Bt-CA-Quebec1 and results obtained for skin samples from caribou of the Canadian regions of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories reported by other investigators. This indicates that differences might exist among B. tarandi in caribou from different regions in Canada. Mice (γ-interferon knockout) intraperitoneally inoculated with 1.2 × 106 or 1.5 × 106 bradyzoites mechanically released from skin tissue cysts fell ill 8, 9 or 18 days post inoculation. GKO mice inoculated with 3.0 × 104 tachyzoites isolated from the peritoneal cavity of a bradyzoites-inoculated mouse became ill earlier, i.e. 5 days post inoculation. Lung was the predilection site in all mice. Bt-CA-Quebec1 tachyzoites rapidly grew in MARC-145 cells and were used for antigen production. Comparative Western blot analyses revealed only a few differences between B. tarandi Bt-CA-Quebec1 and B. besnoiti Evora antigen when probed with sera collected from chronically infected caribou. Due to its fast growth in vitro, the Bt-CA-Quebec1 isolate may represent an interesting antigen source to establish B. tarandi-specific serological tools and to study the biology of this parasite species further.

Risk of environmental exposure to small coccidia from wild canid feces in rural Ohio

OBJECTIVE To determine the extent of environmental exposure to heteroxenous coccidia from wild canid feces in southeastern Ohio. SAMPLE 285 presumed wild canid fecal samples collected across an ecological system in southeastern Ohio. PROCEDURES Morphological classification and molecular analysis were used to determine the canid genus for collected fecal samples. Microscopic and molecular analysis were used to detect coccidian oocysts and DNA. Several variables were analyzed for associations with coccidian DNA detection or prevalence. RESULTS Coccidian DNA was detected in 51 of 285 (17.9%) fecal samples. Of those positive samples, 1% (95% confidence interval, 0.4% to 3%) had positive results for Hammondia heydorni and none had positive results for Neospora caninum, for an estimated environmental N caninum prevalence of 0% (95% confidence interval, 0% to 7%)/1-km² hexagonal area evaluated. Morphological classification revealed that 78.9% (225/285) of fecal samples were from coyotes and 17.2% (49/285) were from foxes. No difference in proportions of coccidian DNA-positive fecal samples was identified among canid species. Environmental temperature and fecal freshness were associated with coccidian DNA detection. Land use type, relative canid density, and cattle density were not associated with the prevalence of coccidian DNA-positive samples. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The low prevalence of coccidia shed in wild canid feces in this study, including the estimated 0% environmental prevalence of N caninum, suggested that the role of the oocyst environmental phase in coccidia transmission to ruminants is likely minor in rural southeastern Ohio.

Seroprevalence and factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii-, Neospora caninum- and Coxiella burnetii-infections in dairy goat flocks from Costa Rica

A total of 391 goats from 13 dairy flocks from all Costa Rican regions were analyzed for Toxoplasma gondii-, Neospora caninum- and Coxiella burnetii-related seroprevalence by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Additionally, a risk factor analysis for these parasitic infections was performed based on a questionnaire considering several environmental and housing/management factors. A total of 62.1% (243/391) of individual serum samples revealed seropositive for T. gondii, 7.9% (31/391) for N. caninum, and 1.8% (7/391) for C. burnetii. At herd level, the overall seroprevalence for T. gondii was 100%, for N. caninum 69.2% and for C. burnetii 7.7%. However, no clinical signs related to toxoplasmosis, neosporosis or Q fever were apparent in these flocks. T. gondii-related risk factors were the contact with cats (OR = 3.44; CI 95%; 2.0-5.91), dogs (OR = 5.75; CI 95%; 2.84-11.66), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (OR = 0.15; CI 95%; 0.08-0.26) within or around the farms. The presence of reproductive males in each flock (OR = 0.32; CI 95%; 0.14-0.74) and the coexistence of sheep (OR = 0.46; CI 95%; 0.2-1.08) and cattle (OR = 5.94; CI 95%; 1.70-20.78) revealed as protective and risk factors respectively for N. caninum infections. This study determined for the first time the seroprevalences of N. caninum, T. gondii and C. burnetii in Costa Rican goat flocks. Particularly, the high within-herd seroprevalences determined for T. gondii requires further surveillance to complement these findings.

Prevalence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in pets and their owners in Shandong province, Eastern China

Background

Pet ownership in China has been steadily increasing over recent years. However, the risk of pet-associated zoonotic infection with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii remains poorly defined.

Methods

In a cross-sectional survey, we have determined the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in pet dogs and cats, and pet owners. Serum samples were collected from 360 pets and 460 corresponding pet owners between March 2016 to June 2017, from Shandong province, eastern China. Sera from the animals were tested for anti-T. gondii antibodies using an indirect haemagglutination assay (IHA) and from the pet owners using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results

Antibodies against T. gondii were detected in 67 of 360 (18.61%) pets. Seroprevalence of T. gondii in pet cats and dogs was 21.67% and 15.56%, respectively. IgG and IgM antibodies were detected in 79 (17.17%) and 4 (0.87%) of pet owners, respectively; with a total of 83 of 460 (18.04%) pet owners testing seropositive for T. gondii. Our seroprevalence data also suggest that cat owners in general and female pet owners in particular could face a higher risk of acquiring T. gondii infection.

Conclusions

Significant levels of anti-T. gondii antibodies were detected in the pets and their owners in Shandong province, eastern China, indicating a potential zoonotic risk. Prophylactic measures should be implemented to reduce the risk of pet owner’s exposure to T. gondii infection.

Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum in local Bali dog

Aim:

The aim of this research was to identify the seroprevalence of Neospora caninum in local Bali dogs.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 147 local Bali dog serum samples have been examined for antibodies of N. caninum using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test.

Results:

The results confirmed that 5 (3.4%) local Bali dogs have antibody for N. caninum. There were no significant differences in seroprevalence of Neospora infection in local Bali dogs between different genders, ages, and take care methods (p>0.05).

Conclusion:

The results provided evidence for the presence of N. caninum infection in local Bali dogs and thus the risk to Bali cattle and dog health.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and other intestinal parasites in cats in Tokachi sub-prefecture, Japan

The present study investigated the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and other intestinal parasites in cats in the Tokachi subprefecture in Japan. A total of 365 household cats were included in the study, and 353 serum and 351 fecal samples were collected and analyzed. T. gondii IgG antibodies were detected in the sera of 16.14% of cats based on Latex agglutination test and ELISA. For ELISA, T. gondii RH strain tachyzoites lysate and T. gondii SAG2 recombinant protein were used as antigens. Low seropositivity was detected in cats younger than one year and older than 11 years; outdoor and hunter cats showed significantly high seropositivities. Neutering either in male or female cats, but not gender, had a considerable effect on seroprevalence. Toxoplasma gondii oocysts were detected in one fecal sample. The overall parasitic infestation in cats was 12.5%. Other detected parasites included Toxocara species, which showed the highest prevalence of 7.7%, followed by Isospora spp. (2%), Taenia spp. (1.7%), and Ancylostoma spp. (0.9%). Spirometra spp. was detected in only one sample. Outdoor cats comprised 50% of all 44 parasite-infested cats. Although T. gondii oocysts were detected in only one sample, the relatively high seroprevalence of T. gondii indicated that it can pose significant risks to the environment. Our findings highlighted the potential of outdoor cats as a source of T. gondii and other parasites.

[Identification of parasites in dogs housed in temporary homes in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico]

Objetivo. Identificar la presencia de parásitos de interés zoonótico en heces de animales ferales alojados en Hogares Temporales en la ciudad de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México. Materiales y métodos.  Las muestras fecales fueron colectadas en ocho Hogares Temporales. Las muestras fueron analizadas por técnicas coproparasitológicas para su observación microscópica y posterior identificación taxonómica por microscopía. Resultados. Se obtuvieron 72 muestras de ocho Hogares Temporales, de las cuales, en 18 animales (25%) se identificaron una o varias especies de parásitos intestinales. Conclusiones. Se pudieron identificar parásitos de importancia clínica y veterinaria en animales alojados en hogares temporales, que pudieran representar una fuente de infección para personas interesadas en adoptarlos.

Free-range chickens from Santa Catarina state, southern Brazil, as asymptomatic intermediate hosts for Toxoplasma gondii clonal type I and typical Brazilian genotypes

Chickens are a host that is very resistant to the development of clinical toxoplasmosis. Free-range chickens have been used to indirectly track environmental contamination with Toxoplasma gondii oocysts because they feed on the ground. This study evaluated the genetic diversity of T. gondii isolates from free-range chickens from Florianópolis island in Santa Catarina state, southern Brazil. Sera from 21 chickens were tested for IgG anti-T. gondii antibodies using the modified agglutination test (MAT). Tissue homogenates from the 11 seropositive birds (MAT titres ≥5) were bioassayed in mice. The four obtained isolates (TgCkBrSC1-4) were genotyped using 11 PCR-RFLP markers and 15 microsatellite markers (MS). Four genotypes were identified, three of which are typical Brazilian genotypes (ToxoDB-RFLP #26 and #53 were previously reported and #278 is new), and the other is the rare clonal type I genotype. This type I isolate was considered a variant according to MS analysis, with two atypical alleles, which emphasizes the genetic diversity of the parasite in Brazil. The genetic variability of T. gondii in South America may be related to the high occurrence of severe ocular and congenital toxoplasmosis in humans in this region. High human seroprevalence and frequency of ocular toxoplasmosis are reported in southern Brazil, but there is limited information on the T. gondii strains that are circulating in this region, so more studies should be conducted to identify the strains in different hosts and in human toxoplasmosis cases.

Neospora caninum in properties in the west region of Paraná, Brazil: prevalence and risk factors

Abstract Neospora caninum is a heteroxenous protozoa, whose definitive hosts are canids and intermediate hosts are herbivores, and is of great importance in cattle. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of N. caninum in dairy cattle and dogs, to detect the presence of the protozoa at the molecular level in aborted fetuses, and to identify the risk factors associated with infection in properties in the western region of the state of Paraná. For this study, 600 bovine serum samples from 60 properties, 163 canine serum samples from 52 properties and 17 bovine fetuses from nine properties were collected. Data were collected using an epidemiological questionnaire to verify the risk factors. Serum samples were analyzed using the indirect fluorescent antibody test. Fetal tissues were analyzed using polymerase chain reaction and subsequent DNA sequencing. Of the bovine samples, 23.67% were positive for N. caninum. Among the canine samples, 11.66% were positive for N. caninum. Risk factors in cattle were history of abortion, low milk production, extensive breeding, and Jersey breed (p<0.05). Protozoan DNA was detected in 52.94% of the 17 fetuses and the sequencing presented high similarity with N. caninum.

Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum-specific antibodies in German breeding bitches

BACKGROUND

Neospora caninum is an intracellular obligate apicomplexan parasite responsible for multisystemic lesions in dogs. Being definitive hosts and reservoirs, dogs excrete environmentally resistant oocysts. Breeding bitches represent a susceptible dog group and infected bitches may spread this parasite through transplacental transmission.

RESULTS

A total of 218 serum samples of German breeding bitches were collected to determine the presence of N. caninum. Antibodies were detected in 16 (7.33%) bitches using a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Immunoblotting analysis confirmed all seropositive samples detected by ELISA, proving that the animals were infected with N. caninum. The owners were interviewed regarding breed, age, environment, type, vaccine status, feeding habits and the presence of reproductive disorders. Seropositive animals were between the ages of two to seven years; three of them were kept in kennels while the others were household dogs, one of which was additionally a hunting dog. Owners of four seropositive bitches reported one gestation, while multiple pregnancies had been recorded for the other twelve bitches. Fourteen bitches were regularly vaccinated and six were fed with fresh raw meat.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the results confirmed a low incidence of N. caninum seropositive German breeding bitches, further epidemiological and surveillance studies are required to complement our findings regarding the current situation of neosporosis in this specific canine population of Germany.

Diagnostic accuracy of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblot (IB) for the detection of antibodies against Neospora caninum in milk from dairy cows

The aim of the study was to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblot (IB) for detecting antibodies of Neospora caninum in dairy cows, in the absence of a gold standard. The study complies with STRADAS-paratuberculosis guidelines for reporting the accuracy of the test. We tried to apply Bayesian models that do not require conditional independence of the tests under evaluation, but as convergence problems appeared, we used Bayesian methodology, that does not assume conditional dependence of the tests. Informative prior probability distributions were constructed, based on scientific inputs regarding sensitivity and specificity of the IB test and the prevalence of disease in the studied populations. IB sensitivity and specificity were estimated to be 98.8% and 91.3%, respectively, while the respective estimates for ELISA were 60% and 96.7%. A sensitivity analysis, where modified prior probability distributions concerning IB diagnostic accuracy applied, showed a limited effect in posterior assessments. We concluded that ELISA can be used to screen the bulk milk and secondly, IB can be used whenever needed.

High seroprevalance of Neospora caninum in dogs in Victoria, Australia, compared to 20 years ago

BACKGROUND

Canids are definitive hosts of the apicomplexan parasite Neospora caninum, the leading cause of abortion in cattle worldwide. For horizontal transmission from canids to occur, oocysts of N. caninum must be shed by the definitive host into the environment of susceptible intermediate hosts such as cattle. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of N. caninum in canids in Victoria, Australia's leading dairy producing state.

RESULTS

Neospora-like oocysts were observed in 8% (18/234) of faecal samples from wild dogs, domestic dogs and red foxes from Victoria, Australia. However, none tested positive for N. caninum DNA using a quantitative PCR. In a separate sample population, blood sera from 483 domestic dogs were tested for anti-N. caninum antibodies using competitive ELISA. A subset of cELISA samples were re-tested using indirect fluorescence antibody test (IFAT). A seroprevalence of 29.8% (144/483; 95% CI: 11.7-47.8%) was calculated when using cELISA; whereas it was 32.9% (27/80; 95% CI: 15.8-51.8%) using IFAT. Potential risk factors were evaluated using univariable analyses and then assessed in separate multivariable models. Using 'aged' dogs as a reference, the seroprevalence of 'adolescent' and 'adult' dogs was 88% (P = 0.05) and 91% (P = 0.08), respectively, indicating seroprevalence increases with age. There was a 19% higher likelihood of infection in rural locations (P = 0.10) relative to urban areas. Jack Russell Terriers had a 22% higher risk of a cELISA-positive result (P = 0.05) regardless of geographical location, age or sex.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that exposure to N. caninum in domestic dogs is widespread in Victoria, although faecal oocyst shedding is infrequent. Our results indicate increased N. caninum seroprevalance status in dogs over the past two decades. The results imply that dogs get either exposed to the infected meat more frequently or that vertical dam to foetus transmission is more frequent than previously thought. Our study calls for re-evaluation of historical N. caninum seroprevalance studies, because the attitude to dog diet changes.

Hammondia heydorni: Oocyst shedding by dogs fed in vitro generated tissue cysts, and evaluation of cross-immunity between H. heydorni and Neospora caninum in mice

Hammondia heydorni is a coccidian parasite believed to be nonpathogenic for naturally-infected animals, but it is biologically and genetically related to Neospora caninum, a worldwide cause of abortion in cattle. The major aim of the present work was to determine whether dogs shed H. heydorni oocysts after consuming in vitro generated tissue cysts of the parasite. In addition, we investigated cross-immunity between H. heydorni and N. caninum in mice. Two dogs were fed cultured cells containing tissue cysts of H. heydorni mixed with canned dog food, and a third dog (negative control) received only non-infected cells mixed with canned food. The two dogs that consumed in vitro produced tissue cysts shed high numbers of oocysts, which were induced to sporulate and tested positive for H. heydorni by a species-specific PCR. The third uninfected dog did not shed H. heydorni oocysts in the feces. Oocysts shed by the dogs induced the formation of encysted bradyzoites of H. heydorni on KH-R cells. Nineteen BALB/c mice were employed in the cross-immunity study. Nine mice were orally inoculated with 1×10⁵ sporulated oocysts of H. heydorni and challenged with N. caninum tachyzoites 30days after infection with H. heydorni. Other ten mice, which did not receive H. heydorni oocysts, were infected with 2×10⁵N. caninum tachyzoites. Thirty days after challenging with N. caninum, all mice were euthanized and N. caninum DNA in their tissues was quantified by real time PCR. No statistically significant difference in N. caninum DNA concentrations were observed between the two groups. We concluded that in vitro generated cysts of H. heydorni are biologically active, because they induced oocyst shedding in dogs. As no cross-protection occurred in mice inoculated with H. heydorni and challenged with N. caninum, it is suspected that these parasites do not express significant numbers of homologous proteins during infection, or the immune response of BALB/c mice after H. heydorni infection was not sufficient.

Molecular characterization of Sarcocystis spp. in intestine mucosal scrapings and fecal samples of Pampas fox (Lycalopex gymnocercus)

Sarcocystis spp. are obligatory intracellular protozoan parasites which can infect humans and animals. Most of Sarcocystis species were identified based on the detection of muscle cysts in different intermediate hosts (IH). Regarding to natural infection in definitive host, there are few reports which have reached to determining species of Sarcocystis. The present work was aimed to studying the occurrence of Sarcocystis spp. (oocysts and sporocysts) in mucosal scrapings of small intestine and fecal samples of one the most abundant wild canids from South America, Lycalopex gymnocercus (Pampas fox), and to identify the Sarcocystis spp. using molecular tools. A total of 131 free-living L. gymnocercus were sampled in rural areas located in several departments from Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Fecal samples from all the animals and 33 small intestines were analyzed. Fecal and mucosal scrapings samples were analyzed by sugar flotation method and once oocysts or sporocysts were detected, sedimentation was performed and DNA extracted with a commercial kit. A PCR was conducted using primers targeting a fragment of the 18S rRNA gene and the amplicons were purified and sequenced. Of the total Pampas foxes analyzed, 23 (17.6%) had Sarcocystis spp. oocysts/sporocysts in fecal and/or mucosal samples. Sarcocystis spp. sporocysts were detected in 13.0% (17/131) of fecal samples and in 39.4% (13/33) of mucosal samples by the initial sugar flotation. Twenty one L. gymnocercus samples were processed by DNA extraction and PCR. Molecular identification of Sarcocystis spp. infection was successfully achieved in 14 foxes and was distributed as follows: 4.6% S. cruzi (6/131), 3.8% Sarcocystis spp. using birds as IH (S. albifronsi and S. anasi among others, 5/131), 0.8% S. tenella (1/131) and 1.5% (2/131) with low homology (97%) with S. miescheriana. In one fecal sample with spherical oocysts, the sequencing results showed a 100% sequence identity with Hammondia heydorni. The results show that the mucosal scrapings are the eligible sample to identify prevalence and to proceed with species identification. Lycalopex gymnocercus is suggested as definitive host for S. cruzi, S. tenella and probably various Sarcocystis spp. using birds as intermediate hosts as well as for H. heydorni.