Nanotechnology-based siRNA delivery strategies for treatment of triple negative breast cancer

Precision arrows: Navigating breast cancer with nanotechnology siRNA

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, including siRNA, present an innovative approach to treating breast cancer, which disproportionately affects women. These systems enable personalized and targeted therapies, adept at managing drug resistance and minimizing off-target effects. This review delves into the current landscape of nanotechnology-derived siRNA transport systems for breast cancer treatment, discussing their mechanisms of action, preclinical and clinical research, therapeutic applications, challenges, and future prospects. Emphasis is placed on the importance of targeted delivery and precise gene silencing in improving therapeutic efficacy and patient outcomes. The review addresses specific hurdles such as specificity, biodistribution, immunological reactions, and regulatory approval, offering potential solutions and avenues for future research. SiRNA drug delivery systems hold promise in revolutionizing cancer care and improving patient outcomes, but realizing their full potential necessitates ongoing research, innovation, and collaboration. Understanding the intricacies of siRNA delivery mechanisms is pivotal for designing effective cancer treatments, overcoming challenges, and advancing siRNA-based therapies for various diseases, including cancer. The article provides a comprehensive review of the methods involved in siRNA transport for therapeutic applications, particularly in cancer treatment, elucidating the complex journey of siRNA molecules from extracellular space to intracellular targets. Key mechanisms such as endocytosis, receptor-mediated uptake, and membrane fusion are explored, alongside innovative delivery vehicles and technologies that enhance siRNA delivery efficiency. Moreover, the article discusses challenges and opportunities in the field, including issues related to specificity, biodistribution, immune response, and clinical translation. By comprehending the mechanisms of siRNA delivery, researchers can design and develop more effective siRNA-based therapies for various diseases, including cancer.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Immunotherapy in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype with the worst prognosis and highest recurrence rates. The treatment choices are limited due to the scarcity of endocrine and HER2 targets, except for chemotherapy. However, the side effects of chemotherapy restrict its long-term usage. Immunotherapy shows potential as a promising therapeutic strategy, such as inducing immunogenic cell death, immune checkpoint therapy, and immune adjuvant therapy. Nanotechnology offers unique advantages in the field of immunotherapy, such as improved delivery and targeted release of immunotherapeutic agents and enhanced bioavailability of immunomodulators. As well as the potential for combination therapy synergistically enhanced by nanocarriers. Nanoparticles-based combined application of multiple immunotherapies is designed to take the tactics of enhancing immunogenicity and reversing immunosuppression. Moreover, the increasing abundance of biomedical materials holds more promise for the development of this field. This review summarizes the advances in the field of nanoparticle-mediated immunotherapy in terms of both immune strategies for treatment and the development of biomaterials and presents challenges and hopes for the future.

TNA-Mediated Antisense Strategy to Knockdown Akt Genes for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Therapy

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains a significant challenge in terms of treatment, with limited efficacy of chemotherapy due to side effects and acquired drug resistance. In this study, a threose nucleic acid (TNA)-mediated antisense approach is employed to target therapeutic Akt genes for TNBC therapy. Specifically, two new TNA strands (anti-Akt2 and anti-Akt3) are designed and synthesized that specifically target Akt2 and Akt3 mRNAs. These TNAs exhibit exceptional enzymatic resistance, high specificity, enhance binding affinity with their target RNA molecules, and improve cellular uptake efficiency compared to natural nucleic acids. In both 2D and 3D TNBC cell models, the TNAs effectively inhibit the expression of their target mRNA and protein, surpassing the effects of scrambled TNAs. Moreover, when administered to TNBC-bearing animals in combination with lipid nanoparticles, the targeted anti-Akt TNAs lead to reduced tumor sizes and decreased target protein expression compared to control groups. Silencing the corresponding Akt genes also promotes apoptotic responses in TNBC and suppresses tumor cell proliferation in vivo. This study introduces a novel approach to TNBC therapy utilizing TNA polymers as antisense materials. Compared to conventional miRNA- and siRNA-based treatments, the TNA system holds promise as a cost-effective and scalable platform for TNBC treatment, owing to its remarkable enzymatic resistance, inexpensive synthetic reagents, and simple production procedures. It is anticipated that this TNA-based polymeric system, which targets anti-apoptotic proteins involved in breast tumor development and progression, can represent a significant advancement in the clinical development of effective antisense materials for TNBC, a cancer type that lacks effective targeted therapy.

Targeting triple negative breast cancer stem cells using nanocarriers

Breast cancer is a complex and heterogeneous disease, encompassing various subtypes characterized by distinct molecular features, clinical behaviors, and treatment responses. Categorization of subtypes is based on the presence or absence of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), leading to subtypes such as luminal A, luminal B, HER2-positive, and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). TNBC, comprising around 20% of all breast cancers, lacks expression of ER, PR, and HER2 receptors, rendering it unresponsive to targeted therapies and presenting significant challenges in treatment. TNBC is associated with aggressive behavior, high rates of recurrence, and resistance to chemotherapy. Tumor initiation, progression, and treatment resistance in TNBC are attributed to breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs), which possess self-renewal, differentiation, and tumorigenic potential. Surface markers, self-renewal pathways (Notch, Wnt, Hedgehog signaling), apoptotic protein (Bcl-2), angiogenesis inhibition (VEGF inhibitors), and immune modulation (cytokines, immune checkpoint inhibitors) are among the key targets discussed in this review. However, targeting the BCSC subpopulation in TNBC presents challenges, including off-target effects, low solubility, and bioavailability of anti-BCSC agents. Nanoparticle-based therapies offer a promising approach to target various molecular pathways and cellular processes implicated in survival of BSCS in TNBC. In this review, we explore various nanocarrier-based approaches for targeting BCSCs in TNBC, aiming to overcome these challenges and improve treatment outcomes for TNBC patients. These nanoparticle-based therapeutic strategies hold promise for addressing the therapeutic gap in TNBC treatment by delivering targeted therapies to BCSCs while minimizing systemic toxicity and enhancing treatment efficacy.

Hyaluronic acid engineered gallic acid embedded chitosan nanoparticle as an effective delivery system for treatment of psoriasis

Psoriasis is a deleterious auto-immune disorder which seriously harms the patients physical and mental health. CD44 are found to be over-expressed on psoriatic lesions which are highly responsible for epidermal hyperproliferation and inflammation. Gallic acid (GA), a phenolic acid natural compound has potential inhibitory impact on pro-inflammatory transcription factors. However, the penetration across skin and availability is low when applied topically, making the treatment extremely challenging. Considering such factors, we developed GA loaded chitosan nanoparticles and modified with hyaluronic acid (HA) (HA@CS-GA NP) to assess the therapeutic potential against psoriasis. The formulations were characterized by DSC, zetasizer and TEM for assuring the development of nanosystems. GA loaded CS NP had a particle size of 207.2 ± 0.08 nm while after coating with HA, the size increased to 220.1 ± 0.18 nm. The entrapment efficiency was 93.24 ± 0.132% and drug loading of 73.17 ± 0.23%. The in vitro cell viability assessment study confirmed enhanced anti-proliferative effect of HA@CS-GA NP over plain GA which is due to high sensitivity towards HaCaT cell. The in vivo results on imiquimod induced psoriasis model indicated that CD44 receptor mediated targeted approach of HA@CS-GA NP gel had great potential in restricting the keratinocyte hyperproliferation and circumventing psoriasis. For the therapy of further skin-related conditions, HA modified nanoparticles should be investigated extensively employing genes, antibodies, chemotherapeutics, or natural substances.

Progressing nanotechnology to improve targeted cancer treatment: overcoming hurdles in its clinical implementation

The use of nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the detection and treatment of cancer. Developments in protein engineering and materials science have led to the emergence of new nanoscale targeting techniques, which offer renewed hope for cancer patients. While several nanocarriers for medicinal purposes have been approved for human trials, only a few have been authorized for clinical use in targeting cancer cells. In this review, we analyze some of the authorized formulations and discuss the challenges of translating findings from the lab to the clinic. This study highlights the various nanocarriers and compounds that can be used for selective tumor targeting and the inherent difficulties in cancer therapy. Nanotechnology provides a promising platform for improving cancer detection and treatment in the future, but further research is needed to overcome the current limitations in clinical translation.

Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles: a custom-tailored next-generation approach for cancer therapeutics

Lipid-based polymeric nanoparticles are the highly popular carrier systems for cancer drug therapy. But presently, detailed investigations have revealed their flaws as drug delivery carriers. Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are advanced core-shell nanoconstructs with a polymeric core region enclosed by a lipidic layer, presumed to be derived from both liposomes and polymeric nanounits. This unique concept is of utmost importance as a combinable drug delivery platform in oncology due to its dual structured character. To add advantage and restrict one's limitation by other, LPHNPs have been designed so to gain number of advantages such as stability, high loading of cargo, increased biocompatibility, rate-limiting controlled release, and elevated drug half-lives as well as therapeutic effectiveness while minimizing their drawbacks. The outer shell, in particular, can be functionalized in a variety of ways with stimuli-responsive moieties and ligands to provide intelligent holding and for active targeting of antineoplastic medicines, transport of genes, and theragnostic. This review comprehensively provides insight into recent substantial advancements in developing strategies for treating various cancer using LPHNPs. The bioactivity assessment factors have also been highlighted with a discussion of LPHNPs future clinical prospects.

Targeted therapy of breast tumor by PLGA-based nanostructures: The versatile function in doxorubicin delivery

Breast carcinoma is a molecularly diverse illness, and it is among the most prominent and often reported malignancies in female across the globe. Surgical intervention, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and endocrine treatment are among the currently viable treatment options for the carcinoma of breast. Chemotherapy is among the most prevalent cancer management strategy. Doxorubicin (DOX) widely employed as a cytostatic medication for the treatment of a variety of malignancies. Despite its widespread acceptance and excellent efficacy against an extensive line up of neoplasia, it has a variety of shortcomings that limit its therapeutic potential in the previously mentioned indications. Employment of nanoparticulate systems has come up as a unique chemo medication delivery strategy and are being considerably explored for the amelioration of breast carcinoma. Polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)-based nano systems are being utilized in a number of areas within the medical research and medication delivery constitutes one of the primary functions for PLGA given their inherent physiochemical attributes, including their aqueous solubility, biocompatibility, biodegradability, versatility in formulation, and limited toxicity. Herein along with the different application of PLGA-based nano formulations in cancer therapy, the present review intends to describe the various research investigations that have been conducted to enumerate the effectiveness of DOX-encapsulated PLGA nanoparticles (DOX-PLGA NPs) as a feasible treatment option for breast cancer.

Advances with Lipid-Based Nanosystems for siRNA Delivery to Breast Cancers

Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer among women. Breast cancer is also the key reason for worldwide cancer-related deaths among women. The application of small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based drugs to combat breast cancer requires effective gene silencing in tumor cells. To overcome the challenges of drug delivery to tumors, various nanosystems for siRNA delivery, including lipid-based nanoparticles that protect siRNA from degradation for delivery to cancer cells have been developed. These nanosystems have shown great potential for efficient and targeted siRNA delivery to breast cancer cells. Lipid-based nanosystems remain promising as siRNA drug delivery carriers for effective and safe cancer therapy including breast cancer. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) encapsulating siRNA enable efficient and specific silencing of oncogenes in breast tumors. This review discusses a variety of lipid-based nanosystems including cationic lipids, sterols, phospholipids, PEG-lipid conjugates, ionizable liposomes, exosomes for effective siRNA drug delivery to breast tumors, and the clinical translation of lipid-based siRNA nanosystems for solid tumors.

Gold nanoparticles and gold nanorods in the landscape of cancer therapy

Cancer is a grievous disease whose treatment requires a more efficient, non-invasive therapy, associated with minimal side effects. Gold nanoparticles possessing greatly impressive optical properties have been a forerunner in bioengineered cancer therapy. This theranostic system has gained immense popularity and finds its application in the field of molecular detection, biological imaging, cancer cell targeting, etc. The photothermal property of nanoparticles, especially of gold nanorods, causes absorption of the light incident by the light source, and transforms it into heat, resulting in tumor cell destruction. This review describes the different optical features of gold nanoparticles and summarizes the advance research done for the application of gold nanoparticles and precisely gold nanorods for combating various cancers including breast, lung, colon, oral, prostate, and pancreatic cancer.

Gold nanostructure-mediated delivery of anticancer agents: Biomedical applications, reversing drug resistance, and stimuli-responsive nanocarriers

The application of nanoarchitectures in cancer therapy seems to be beneficial for the delivery of antitumor drugs. In recent years, attempts have been made to reverse drug resistance, one of the factors threatening the lives of cancer patients worldwide. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are metal nanostructures with a variety of advantageous properties, such as tunable size and shape, continuous release of chemicals, and simple surface modification. This review focuses on the application of GNPs for the delivery of chemotherapy agents in cancer therapy. Utilizing GNPs results in targeted delivery and increased intracellular accumulation. Besides, GNPs can provide a platform for the co-delivery of anticancer agents and genetic tools with chemotherapeutic compounds to exert a synergistic impact. Furthermore, GNPs can promote oxidative damage and apoptosis by triggering chemosensitivity. Due to their capacity for providing photothermal therapy, GNPs can enhance the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents against tumor cells. The pH-, redox-, and light-responsive GNPs are beneficial for drug release at the tumor site. For the selective targeting of cancer cells, surface modification of GNPs with ligands has been performed. In addition to improving cytotoxicity, GNPs can prevent the development of drug resistance in tumor cells by facilitating prolonged release and loading low concentrations of chemotherapeutics while maintaining their high antitumor activity. As described in this study, the clinical use of chemotherapeutic drug-loaded GNPs is contingent on enhancing their biocompatibility.

Eco-friendly deacetylated chitosan base siRNA biological-nanopesticide loading cyromazine for efficiently controlling Spodoptera frugiperda

Spodoptera frugiperda is a serious threat to various crops, such as corn and rice, and results in severe economic losses. Herein, a chitin synthase sfCHS highly expressed in the epidermis of S. frugiperda was screened, and when interfered by an sfCHS-siRNA nanocomplex, most individuals could not ecdysis (mortality rate 53.3 %) or pupate (abnormal pupation 80.6 %). Based on the results of structure-based virtual screening, cyromazine (CYR, binding free energy -57.285 kcal/mol) could inhibit ecdysis (LC₅₀, 19.599 μg/g). CYR-CS/siRNA nanoparticles encapsulating CYR and SfCHS-siRNA with chitosan (CS) were successfully prepared, as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and 74.9 mg/g CYR was characterized in the core of CYR-CS/siRNA by high-performance liquid chromatography and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Small amounts of prepared CYR-CS/siRNA containing only 1.5 μg/g CYR could better inhibit chitin synthesis in the cuticle and peritrophic membrane (mortality rate 84.4 %). Therefore, chitosan/siRNA nanoparticle-loaded pesticides were useful for pesticide reduction and comprehensive control of S. frugiperda.

Research Status and Prospect of Non-Viral Vectors Based on siRNA: A Review

Gene therapy has attracted much attention because of its unique mechanism of action, non-toxicity, and good tolerance, which can kill cancer cells without damaging healthy tissues. siRNA-based gene therapy can downregulate, enhance, or correct gene expression by introducing some nucleic acid into patient tissues. Routine treatment of hemophilia requires frequent intravenous injections of missing clotting protein. The high cost of combined therapy causes most patients to lack the best treatment resources. siRNA therapy has the potential of lasting treatment and even curing diseases. Compared with traditional surgery and chemotherapy, siRNA has fewer side effects and less damage to normal cells. The available therapies for degenerative diseases can only alleviate the symptoms of patients, while siRNA therapy drugs can upregulate gene expression, modify epigenetic changes, and stop the disease. In addition, siRNA also plays an important role in cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal diseases, and hepatitis B. However, free siRNA is easily degraded by nuclease and has a short half-life in the blood. Research has found that siRNA can be delivered to specific cells through appropriate vector selection and design to improve the therapeutic effect. The application of viral vectors is limited because of their high immunogenicity and low capacity, while non-viral vectors are widely used because of their low immunogenicity, low production cost, and high safety. This paper reviews the common non-viral vectors in recent years and introduces their advantages and disadvantages, as well as the latest application examples.

Potential of siRNA in COVID-19 therapy: Emphasis on in silico design and nanoparticles based delivery

Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated mRNA degradation approach have imparted its eminence against several difficult-to-treat genetic disorders and other allied diseases. Viral outbreaks and resulting pandemics have repeatedly threatened public health and questioned human preparedness at the forefront of drug design and biomedical readiness. During the recent pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2, mRNA-based vaccination strategies have paved the way for a new era of RNA therapeutics. RNA Interference (RNAi) based approach using small interfering RNA may complement clinical management of the COVID-19. RNA Interference approach will primarily work by restricting the synthesis of the proteins required for viral replication, thereby hampering viral cellular entry and trafficking by targeting host as well as protein factors. Despite promising benefits, the stability of small interfering RNA in the physiological environment is of grave concern as well as site-directed targeted delivery and evasion of the immune system require immediate attention. In this regard, nanotechnology offers viable solutions for these challenges. The review highlights the potential of small interfering RNAs targeted toward specific regions of the viral genome and the features of nanoformulations necessary for the entrapment and delivery of small interfering RNAs. In silico design of small interfering RNA for different variants of SARS-CoV-2 has been discussed. Various nanoparticles as promising carriers of small interfering RNAs along with their salient properties, including surface functionalization, are summarized. This review will help tackle the real-world challenges encountered by the in vivo delivery of small interfering RNAs, ensuring a safe, stable, and readily available drug candidate for efficient management of SARS-CoV-2 in the future.

Unravelling the enigma of siRNA and aptamer mediated therapies against pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a fatal disease that has a poor 5-year survival rate. The poor prognosis can be attributed to both troublesome detections at the initial stage, which makes the majority of the treatment options largely unsuccessful and leads to extensive metastasis, as well as to its distinct pathophysiological characteristics, such as rich desmoplastic tumours bounded by dysplastic and hypo perfused vessels restricting the mobility of therapeutic agents. Continued attempts have been made to utilise innovative measures for battling PC to increase the therapeutic effectiveness of therapies and overcome their cytotoxicity. Combined cancer targeting and gene silencing approach has shown improved outcomes in patients' survival rates and quality of life, offering a potential solution to therapeutic complications. It particularly targets various barriers to alleviate delivery problems and diminish tumour recurrence and metastasis. While aptamers, a type of single-stranded nucleic acids with strong binding affinity and specificity to target molecules, have recently surfaced as a viable PC strategy, siRNA can interfere with the expression of certain genes. By concurrently suppressing genes and boosting targeted approach, the cocktail of siRNA/Aptamer and other therapeutic drugs can circumvent the multi-drug resistance phenomena. Additionally, combination therapy with additive or synergistic effects can considerably increase the therapeutic efficacy of anti-cancer medications. This study outlines the primary difficulties in treating PC, along with recent developments in siRNA/Aptamer mediated drug delivery to solve the major hiccup of oncology field.

Innovative nanotheranostics: Smart nanoparticles based approach to overcome breast cancer stem cells mediated chemo- and radioresistances

The alarming increase in the number of breast cancer patients worldwide and the increasing death rate indicate that the traditional and current medicines are insufficient to fight against it. The onset of chemo- and radioresistances and cancer stem cell-based recurrence make this problem harder, and this hour needs a novel treatment approach. Competent nanoparticle-based accurate drug delivery and cancer nanotheranostics like photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, chemodynamic therapy, and sonodynamic therapy can be the key to solving this problem due to their unique characteristics. These innovative formulations can be a better cargo with fewer side effects than the standard chemotherapy and can eliminate the stability problems associated with cancer immunotherapy. The nanotheranostic systems can kill the tumor cells and the resistant breast cancer stem cells by novel mechanisms like local hyperthermia and reactive oxygen species and prevent tumor recurrence. These theranostic systems can also combine with chemotherapy or immunotherapy approaches. These combining approaches can be the future of anticancer therapy, especially to overcome the breast cancer stem cells mediated chemo- and radioresistances. This review paper discusses several novel theranostic systems and smart nanoparticles, their mechanism of action, and their modifications with time. It explains their relevance and market scope in the current era. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Exosomes in sarcoma: Prospects for clinical applications

Sarcoma is a group of rare and heterogeneous mesenchymal tumors, prone to late diagnosis and poor prognosis. Exosomes are cell-derived small extracellular vesicles found in most body fluids and contain nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other molecules. Qualitative and quantitative changes of exosomes and the contents are associated with sarcoma progression, exhibiting their potential as biomarkers. Exosomes possess the capacity of evading immune responses, bioactivity for trafficking, tumor tropism, and lesion residence. Thus, exosomes could be engineered as tumor-specific vehicles in drugs and RNA delivery systems. Exosomes might also serve as therapeutic targets in targeted therapy and immunotherapy and be involved in chemotherapy resistance. Here, we provide a comprehensive summary of exosome applications in liquid biopsy-based diagnosis and explore their implications in the delivery system, targeted therapy, and chemotherapy resistance of sarcoma. Moreover, challenges in exosome clinical applications are raised and some future research directions are proposed.

Efficient Delivery of P3H4 siRNA and Chlorin e6 by cRGDfK-Installed Polyarginine Nanoparticles for Tumor-Targeting Therapy of Bladder Cancer

Purpose: Prolyl 3-hydroxylase family member 4 (P3H4) is a potent prognostic oncogene in bladder cancer (BC), and the inhibition of P3H4 suppresses BC tumor growth. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of P3H4 inhibition for BC tumor therapy via tumor-targeting nanoparticles. Methods and results: A linear polyarginine peptide (R9) was synthesized, azide-modified, and then assembled with cyclic pentapeptide cRGDfK. Chlorin e6 (ce6)-conjugated CH3-R9-RGD nanoparticles were prepared for the delivery of siP3H4 into T24 cells in vitro and BC tumors in vivo. Dynamic light scattering analysis identified that the optimum CH3-R9-RGD@siP3H4 molar ratio was 30/1. CH3-R9-RGD@ce6/siP3H4 nanocomposites decreased P3H4 expression and cell proliferation and promoted reactive oxygen species production, apoptosis, and calreticulin exposure in T24 cells in vitro. In vivo experiments showed that CH3-R9-RGD@ce6/siP3H4 nanocomposites caused pathological changes, suppressed BC tumor growth, promoted caspase 3 expression, and enhanced calreticulin exposure in tumor cells. Conclusions: The tumor-targeting CH3-R9-RGD nanocomposites encapsulating siP3H4 and ce6 might be an alternative therapeutic strategy or intravesical instillation chemotherapy for BC.

Emerging innovations in cold plasma therapy against cancer: A paradigm shift

Cancer is one of the major causes of mortality, accounting for ∼ 9.5 million deaths globally in 2018. The spectrum of conventional treatment for cancer includes surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Recently, cold plasma therapy surfaced as a novel technique in the treatment of cancer. The FDA approval of the first trial for the use of cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) in cancer therapy in 2019 is evidence of this. This review highlights the mechanisms of action of CAP. Additionally, its applications in anticancer therapy have been reviewed. In summary, this article will introduce the readers to the exciting field of plasma oncology and help them understand the current status and prospects of plasma oncology.

Multifunctional Plant Virus Nanoparticles for Targeting Breast Cancer Tumors

Breast cancer treatment using plant-virus-based nanoparticles (PVNPs) has achieved considerable success in preclinical studies. PVNP-based breast cancer therapies include non-targeted and targeted nanoplatforms for delivery of anticancer therapeutic chemo and immune agents and cancer vaccines for activation of local and systemic antitumor immunity. Interestingly, PVNP platforms combined with other tumor immunotherapeutic options and other modalities of oncotherapy can improve tumor efficacy treatment. These applications can be achieved by encapsulation of a wide range of active ingredients and conjugating ligands for targeting immune and tumor cells. This review presents the current breast cancer treatments based on PVNP platforms.

Polymeric nanoparticles-siRNA as an emerging nano-polyplexes against ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer (OC) is considered fifth-deadliest cancer globally responsible for high mortality in women. As the conventional therapeutic and diagnostic approaches are ineffective in increasing the survival rates of advanced staged patients by more than 5 years, OC has resulted in high morbidity and mortality rates over the last two decades. As a result, there is a dire need for innovative treatment approaches to address the issues. RNAi and nanotechnology can be considered the most appropriate strategies that can be used to improve OC therapy and help circumvent the chemo-resistance. siRNA is considered highly successful in facilitating the knockdown of specific genes on entering the cytosol when administered in-vivo via inhibiting the mRNA expression responsible for translation of those specific genes through the mechanism called RNA interference (RNAi). However, the primary barrier of utmost importance in the clinical efficacy of employed siRNA for the treatment of OC is the systemic distribution to the targeted site from the administration site. As a result, nanoparticles are constructed to carry the siRNA molecules inside them to the targeted site by preventing serum degradation and enhancing the serum stability of administered siRNA. The present review assesses the developments made in the polymeric-based nanoparticle siRNA delivery for targeting particular genes involved in the prognosis of ovarian cancers and surpassing the chemo-resistance and thus improving the therapeutic potentials of administered agents.

Recent advances in nanotechnology based combination drug therapy for skin cancer

Skin-cancer (SC) is more common than all other cancers affecting large percentage of the population in the world and is increasing in terms of morbidity and mortality. In the United States, 3million people are affected by SC annually whereas millions of people are affected globally. Melanoma is fifth most common cancer in the United States. SC is commonly occurred in white people as per WHO. SC is divided into two groups, i.e. melanoma and non-melanoma. In the previous two decades, management of cancer remains to be a tough and a challenging task for many scholars. Presently, the treatment protocols are mostly based on surgery and chemo-radiation therapy, which sooner or later harm the unaffected cells too. To reduce these limitations, nano scaled materials and its extensive range may be recognized as the probable carriers for the selective drug delivery in response to cancerous cells. Recently, the nanocarriers based drugs and their combinations were found to be a new and interesting approach of study for the management of skin carcinoma to enhance the effectiveness, to lessen the dose-dependent side effects and to avoid the drug resistance. This review may emphasize on the wide-range of information on nanotechnology-based drugs and their combination with physical techniques.

Lymphatic targeting for therapeutic application using nanoparticulate systems

The lymphatic system has grasped attention of researchers to a greater extent. The conventional methods of lymphatic delivery are now being modified to include nanotechnology to enhance the targeting of the drug at the specific pathological site. Scientists have worked successfully on different drug loaded nanocarriers that are modulated for the lymphatic system targeting for the treatment of various fatal diseases. Huge strides have been made in methods of delivery of these drugs either individually or in combination along with nanoparticles, therapeutic genes, and vaccines. However, the products introduced for commercial use are almost near nil. Altogether, there are challenges that need to be resolved and studies that are meant to be done for further improvements. The current review focuses on the understanding and pathophysiology of the lymphatic system and changes that occur during disease, drug characteristics, and physicochemical parameters that influence the lymphatic uptake of drugs and different nanocarriers. We further highlight different potential results obtained over the years with nanocarriers and other delivery methods to effectively target the lymphatic system for their therapeutic application. The challenges and drawbacks governing the lack of products available clinically have also been discussed.

Clinical progress of therapeutics and vaccines: Rising hope against COVID-19 treatment

Cases of deaths due to COVID-19 (COrona VIrus Disease-19) infection are increasing gradually worldwide. Immense research is ongoing to control this pandemic condition. Continual research outcomes are indicating that therapeutic and prophylactic agents are the possible hope to prevent the pandemic from spreading and to combat this increasing death count. Experience gained from previous coronavirus infections (eg., SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), MERS (Middle Ease Respiratory Syndrome), accumulated clinical knowledge during this pandemic, and research helped to identify a few therapeutic agents for emergency treatment of COVID-19. Thereby, monoclonal antibodies, antivirals, broad-spectrum antimicrobials, immunomodulators, and supplements are being suggested for treatment depending on the stage of the disease. These recommended treatments are authorized under medical supervision in emergency conditions only. Urgent need to control the pandemic condition had resulted in various approaches of repurposing the existing drugs, However, poorly designed clinical trials and associated outcomes do not provide enough evidence to fully approve treatments against COVID-19. So far, World Health Organization (WHO) authorized three vaccines as prophylactic against SARS-CoV-2. Here, we discussed about various therapeutic agents, their clinical trials, and limitations of trials for the management of COVID-19. Further, we have also spotlighted different vaccines in research in combating COVID-19.

siRNA nanohybrid systems: false hope or feasible answer in cancer management

Finding out predisposition and makeup alterations in cancer cells has prompted the exploration of exogenous small interference RNA (siRNA) as a therapeutic agent to deal with cancer. siRNA is subjected to many limitations that hinders its cellular uptake. Various nanocarriers have been loaded with siRNA to improve their cellular transportation and have moved to clinical trials. However, many restrictions as low encapsulation efficiency, nanocarrier cytotoxicity and premature release of siRNA have impeded the single nanocarrier use. The realm of nanohybrid systems has emerged to overcome these limitations and to synergize the criteria of two or more nanocarriers. Different nanohybrid systems that were developed as cellular pathfinders for the exogenous siRNA to target cancer will be illustrated in this review.

Recent Progress of RGD Modified Liposomes as Multistage Rocket Against Cancer

Cancer is a life-threatening disease, contributing approximately 9.4 million deaths worldwide. To address this challenge, scientific researchers have investigated molecules that could act as speed-breakers for cancer. As an abiotic drug delivery system, liposomes can hold both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, which promote a controlled release, accumulate in the tumor microenvironment, and achieve elongated half-life with an enhanced safety profile. To further improve the safety and impair the off-target effect, the surface of liposomes could be modified in a way that is easily identified by cancer cells, promotes uptake, and facilitates angiogenesis. Integrins are overexpressed on cancer cells, which upon activation promote downstream cell signaling and eventually activate specific pathways, promoting cell growth, proliferation, and migration. RGD peptides are easily recognized by integrin over expressed cells. Just like a multistage rocket, ligand anchored liposomes can be selectively recognized by target cells, accumulate at the specific site, and finally, release the drug in a specific and desired way. This review highlights the role of integrin in cancer development, so gain more insights into the phenomenon of tumor initiation and survival. Since RGD is recognized by the integrin family, the fate of RGD has been demonstrated after its binding with the acceptor’s family. The role of RGD based liposomes in targeting various cancer cells is also highlighted in the paper.

Recent update on electrospinning and electrospun nanofibers: current trends and their applications

Electrospinning is a versatile and viable technique for generating ultrathin fibers. Remarkable progress has been made in techniques for creating electro-spun and non-electro-spun nanofibers. Nanofibers were the center of attention for industries and researchers due to their simplicity in manufacture and setup. The review discusses a thorough overview of both electrospinning and non-electrospinning processes, including their setup, fabrication process, components, and applications. The review starts with an overview of the field of nanotechnology, the background of electrospinning, the surge in demand for nanofiber production, the materials needed to make nanofibers, and the critical process variables that determine the characteristics of nanofibers. Additionally, the diverse applications of electrospun nanofibers, such as smart mats, catalytic supports, filtration membranes, energy storage/heritage components, electrical devices (batteries), and biomedical scaffolds, are then covered. Further, the review concentrates on the most recent and pertinent developments in nanofibers that are connected to the use of nanofibers, focusing on the most illustrative cases. Finally, challenges and their possible solutions, marketing, and the future prospects of nanofiber development are discussed.

Electrospinning is a versatile and viable technique for generating ultrathin fibers.

Aptamer grafted nanoparticle as targeted therapeutic tool for the treatment of breast cancer

Breast carcinomas repeat their number and grow exponentially making it extremely frequent malignancy among women. Approximately, 70-80% of early diagnosed or non-metastatic conditions are treatable while the metastatic cases are considered ineffective to treat with current ample amount of therapy. Target based anti-cancer treatment has been in the limelight for decades and is perceived significant consideration of scientists. Aptamers are the 'coming of age' therapeutic approach, selected using an appropriate tool from the library of sequences. Aptamers are non-immunogenic, stable, and high-affinity ligand which are poised to reach the clinical benchmark. With the heed in nanoparticle application, the delivery of aptamer to the specific site could be enhanced which also protects them from nuclease degradation. Moreover, nanoparticles due to robust structure, high drug entrapment, and modifiable release of cargo could serve as a successful candidate in the treatment of breast carcinoma. This review would showcase the method and modified method of selection of aptamers, aptamers that were able to make its way towards clinical trial and their targetability and selectivity towards breast cancers. The appropriate usage of aptamer-based biosensor in breast cancer diagnosis have also been discussed.

RGD engineered dendrimer nanotherapeutic as an emerging targeted approach in cancer therapy

A bird's eye view is now demanded in the area of cancer research to suppress the suffering of cancer patient and mediate the lack of treatment related to chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is always preferred over surgery or radiation therapy, but they never met the patient's demand of safe medication. Targeted therapy has now been in research that could hinder the unnecessary effect of drug on normal cells but could affect the tumor cells in much efficient manner. Angiogenesis is process involved in development of new blood vessel that nourishes tumor growth. Integrin receptors are over expressed on cancer cells that play vital role in angiogenesis for growth and metastasis of tumor cell. A delivery of RGD based peptide to integrin targeted site could help in its successful binding and liberation of drug in tumor vasculature. Dendrimers, in addition to its excellent pharmacokinetic properties also helps to carry targeting ligand to site of tumor by successfully conjugating with them. The aim of this review is to bring light upon the role of integrin in cancer progression, interaction of RGD to integrin receptor and more importantly the RGD-dendrimer based targeted therapy for the treatment of various cancers.

Surface engineered nanocarriers for the management of breast cancer

Breast cancer is commonly known life-threatening malignancy in women after lung cancer. The standard of care (SOC) treatment for breast cancer primarily includes surgery, radiotherapy, hormonal therapy, and chemotherapy. However, the effectiveness of conventional chemotherapy is restricted by several limitations such as poor targeting, drug resistance, poor drug delivery, and high toxicity. Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have gained a lot of interest in the scientific community because of its unique features and promising potential in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. The unique physicochemical and biological properties of the nanoparticulate drug delivery systems promotes the drug accumulation, Pharmacokinetic profile towards the tumor site and thereby, reduces the cytotoxicity towards healthy cells. In addition, to improve tumor-specific drug delivery, researchers have focused on surface engineered nanocarrier system with targeting molecules/ligands that are specific to overexpressed receptors present on cancer cells. In this review, we have summarized the different biological ligands and surface-engineered nanoparticles, enlightening the physicochemical characteristics, toxic effects, and regulatory considerations of nanoparticles involved in treatment of breast cancer.

Peptide Nanoparticle-Mediated Combinatorial Delivery of Cancer-Related siRNAs for Synergistic Anti-Proliferative Activity in Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one of the deadliest types of cancer for women of different age groups. Frequently this cancer does not respond to conservative treatment. Combinatorial RNAi can be suggested as an advanced approach to TNBC therapy. Due to the fact that TNBC cells overexpress chemokine receptor 4 we used modular L1 peptide-based nanoparticles modified with CXCR4 ligand for combinatorial delivery of siRNAs suppressing major transduction pathways. TNBC cell line MDA-MB-231 was used as a cellular model. Genes encoding the AQP3, CDC20, and COL4A2 proteins responsible for proliferative activity in TNBC cells were selected as RNAi targets. The siRNA binding ability of the carrier was studied at different charge ratios. The silencing specificity was demonstrated for all siRNAs studied. Alamar Blue proliferation assay has shown significant reduction in the anti-proliferative activity after combinatorial siRNA transfection compared to single siRNA delivery. The most significant synergistic effect has been demonstrated for combinatorial transfection of anti-COL4A2 and anti-CDC20 siRNAs what resulted in 1.5-2 fold inhibition of proliferation and migration of TNBC cells. Based on our findings, we have concluded that combinatorial treatment by CXCR4-ligand modified L1-polyplexes formed with AQP3, CDC20, and COL4A2 siRNAs effectively inhibits proliferation of TNBC cells and can be suggested as useful tool for RNAi-mediated cancer therapy.

Advanced nanomedicine approaches applied for treatment of skin carcinoma

Skin-cancer is the commonest malignancy affecting huge proportion of the population, reaching heights in terms of morbidity. The treatment strategies are presently focusing on surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, which eventually cause destruction to unaffected cells. To overcome this limitation, wide range of nanoscaled materials have been recognized as potential carriers for delivering selective response to cancerous cells and neoplasms. Nanotechnological approach has been tremendously exploited in several areas, owing to their functional nanometric dimensions. The alarming incidence of skin cancer engenders burdensome effects worldwide, which is further awakening innovational medicinal approaches, accompanying target specific drug delivery tools for coveted benefits to provide reduced toxicity and tackle proliferative episodes of skin cancer. The developed nanosystems for anti-cancer agents include liposomes, ethosomes, nanofibers, solid lipid nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles, which exhibit pronounced outcomes for skin carcinoma. In this review, skin cancer with its sub-types is explained in nutshell, followed by compendium of specific nanotechnological tools presented, in addition to therapeutic applications of drug-loaded nano systems for skin cancer.