The interactive effect of exercise intensity and task difficulty on human cognitive processing

Physical activity moderated the mediating effect of self-control between bullying victimization and mobile phone addiction among college students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between bullying victimization and mobile phone addiction (MPA) among college students, taking into consideration the mediating role of self-control and the moderating role of physical activity. A self-report survey was administered to college students from 4 universities in Guangxi, Liaoning, and Hunan provinces in China. Participants were asked to report their experiences of bullying victimization, level of MPA, self-control, and physical activity. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression analysis were conducted to analyze the data. Mediation and moderation models were subsequently established to examine the relationships between variables. The results indicated a positive correlation between bullying victimization and MPA among college students. Additionally, bullying victimization was negatively correlated with self-control. Bullying victimization significantly predicted MPA, and self-control partially mediated this relationship. Furthermore, physical activity moderated the association between bullying victimization and self-control among college students. The findings suggest that self-control plays a partial mediating role in the relationship between bullying victimization and MPA among college students. Moreover, physical activity weakens the association between bullying victimization and self-control. Therefore, promoting physical activity to reduce MPA among college students who have experienced bullying victimization is highly recommended.

Neurophysiological effects of acute aerobic exercise in young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Evidence continues to accumulate that acute aerobic exercise (AAE) impacts neurophysiological excitability as measured by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Yet, uncertainty exists about which TMS measures are modulated after AAE in young adults. The influence of AAE intensity and duration of effects are also uncertain. This pre-registered meta-analysis (CRD42017065673) addressed these uncertainties by synthesizing data from 23 studies (including 474 participants) published until February 2024. Meta-analysis was run using a random-effects model and Hedge's g used as effect size. Our results demonstrated a decrease in short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) following AAE (g = 0.27; 95 % CI [0.16-0.38]; p <.0001), particularly for moderate (g = 0.18; 95 % CI [0.05-0.31]; p <.01) and high (g = 0.49; 95 % CI [0.27-0.71]; p <.0001) AAE intensities. These effects remained for 30 minutes after AAE. Additionally, increased corticospinal excitability was only observed for high intensity AAE (g = 0.28; 95 % CI, [0.07-0.48]; p <.01). Our results suggest potential mechanisms for inducing a more susceptible neuroplastic environment following AAE.

A systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis provide evidence for an effect of acute physical activity on cognition in young adults

Physical exercise is a potential intervention for enhancing cognitive function across the lifespan. However, while studies employing long-term exercise interventions consistently show positive effects on cognition, studies using single acute bouts have produced mixed results. Here, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to determine the impact of acute exercise on cognitive task performance in healthy young adults. A Bayesian hierarchical model quantified probabilistic evidence for a modulatory relationship by synthesizing 651 effect sizes from 113 studies from PsychInfo and Google Scholar representing 4,390 participants. Publication bias was mitigated using the trim-and-fill method. Acute exercise was found to have a small beneficial effect on cognition (g = 0.13 ± 0.04; BF = 3.67) and decrease reaction time. A meta-analysis restricted to executive function tasks revealed improvements in working memory and inhibition. Meta-analytic estimates were consistent across multiple priors and likelihood functions. Physical activities were categorized based on exercise type (e.g., cycling) because many activities have aerobic and anaerobic components, but this approach may limit comparison to studies that categorize activities based on metabolic demands. The current study provides an updated synthesis of the existing literature and insights into the robustness of acute exercise-induced effects on cognition. Funding provided by the United States Army Research Office.

Effects of physical activity and self-control on mobile phone addiction in college students: a cross-lagged study in China

Purpose

This study aims to investigate the impact of physical activity and self-control on college students' mobile phone addiction through cross-lagged longitudinal surveys, addressing the limitations of previous cross-sectional studies.

Patients and methods

A total of 414 college students were tracked three times during a 12-month period using the Physical Activity Rating Scale-3 (PARS-3), the Mobile Phone Addiction Tendency Scale (MPATS), and the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS). AMOS25.0 software was used to construct the cross-lagged relationship model, and the maximum likelihood approach was employed to investigate the model fitting. The asynchronous correlation between variables was investigated from the time series through the cross-lagged path coefficient.

Results

The fitting indexes of the cross-lagged model showed x 2/df = 5.098, GFI = 0.977, NFI = 0.969, IFI = 0.975, CFI = 0.974; RMSEA = 0.100, and SRMR = 0.030. The calculation conducted by combining the path coefficient of the model shows that PA and SC are the antecedent variables of MPA, and PA is the antecedent variable of SC. In addition, SC serves as a mediator in the path of PA, affecting MPA.

Conclusion

(1) physical activity can positively affect subsequent self-control; (2) physical activity can negatively influence subsequent mobile phone addiction; (3) self-control can negatively affect subsequent mobile phone addiction; and (4) physical activity can indirectly influence subsequent mobile phone addiction through self-control.

Maintaining Cognitive Performance at the Expense of Gait Speed for Asymptomatic Concussed Athletes: A Novel Dual-Task and Post-Exercise Assessment

Our goal was to evaluate persisting deficits in gait and executive functioning in asymptomatic athletes with a history of concussion using a novel approach combining a dual-task paradigm and post-exercise exertion. Thirty-eight athletes aged 17 to 25 years old participated in the study, including 18 with a history of concussion. The dual-task paradigm required walking continuously at a predetermined self-paced target speed of 6.5 km/h while executing a complex switch task. Athletes completed two conditions, each on separate days: (1) dual task alone and (2) dual task following 20 min of running on a non-motorized treadmill. The statistical analyses revealed a significant reduction in gait speed exclusively for athletes with a history of concussion and only following the post-exercise condition (p = 0.008). These findings suggest that although asymptomatic concussed athletes maintain a cognitive performance comparable to non-concussed athletes, this appears to be achieved at the expense of gait speed. Our results underscore the importance of incorporating gait assessments and post-exercise exertion into concussion evaluation protocols in both research and clinical settings.

A treadmill running research protocol to assess dynamic visual acuity and balance for athletes with and without recent concussion history

Athletes interpret dynamic visual scenes quickly and accurately during physical exertion. It is important to understand how increased exertion may impact vision and cognition following sport-related concussion (SRC).Purpose To examine the effect of a treadmill running research protocol on the assessment of dynamic visual acuity (DVA) and balance for athletes with and without recent history of SRC.Methods Varsity athletes following recent SRC (CONC=12) were compared to athletes without SRC (ATHLETE=19). The DVA task presented a Tumbling 'E' target in four possible orientations during random walk (RW) or horizontal (H) motion at a speed of 30°/s. Participants performed DVA trials standing on a force plate (1000Hz) at four time points: 1) pre-exercise (PRE-EX), 2) immediately (POST1), 3) 10-minutes (POST10), and 4) 20-minutes post- exercise (POST20). Performance was calculated as a change in DVA score from PRE-EX and median response time (RT, ms). Balance control was analyzed using the root mean square of centre of pressure displacement (dCOP).Results Both groups maintained DVA scores for both motion types and exhibited immediate exercise-induced benefits on RT. Both groups had similar change in balance control strategy following treadmill exercise.Conclusion Both groups elicited similar exercise-induced benefits on DVA following exercise. A repeated measures assessment following vigorous exercise may provide meaningful insights about visual and neurocognitive functions for athletes returning to sport following concussion.

Differences in brain activation during working memory tasks between badminton athletes and non-athletes: An fNIRS study

BACKGROUND

Working memory refers to our ability to temporarily store and process information, and it is crucial for efficient cognition and motor control. In the context of badminton matches, athletes need to make quick decisions and reactions in rapidly changing situations. Athletes with strong working memory capacity can better process this information and translate it into actual motor performance. Although previous research has demonstrated that exercise can improve brain function and structure, it remains unclear how the brain functions of athletes engaged in long-term professional training are specifically involved in performing working memory tasks.

METHOD

In this study, we assessed behavioral performance and cerebral oxygenation in the prefrontal lobe, using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, with 22 athletes and 30 non-athletes. Each participant was evaluated while performing 1-back, 2-back, and 3-back tasks. The area under the curve (AUC) of HbO (oxyhemoglobin) is used as an indicator of cortical brain oxygenation.

RESULTS

The behavioral performance results indicated no difference between badminton athletes and non-athletes in the n-back task. We observed significantly different activation in channels of left FPA, right DLPFC, and left VLPFC when performing 3-back tasks. Brain activation indicated that long-term training in badminton caused a better performance in high-load working memory tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term professional training in badminton primarily activates the left frontal-parietal attention network (left FPA), right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (right DLPFC), and left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (left VLPFC) during working memory tasks.

Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation: a narrative review

Aerobic exercise improves the three stages of emotion regulation: perception, valuation and action. It reduces the perception of negative emotions, encourages individuals to reinterpret emotional situations in a positive or non-emotional manner, and enhances control over emotion expression behaviours. These effects are generated via increased prefrontal cortex activation, the strengthening of functional connections between the amygdala and several other brain regions, and the enhancement of the plasticity of key emotion regulation pathways and nodes, such as the uncinate fasciculus. The effect of aerobic exercise on emotion regulation is influenced by the exercise intensity and duration, and by individuals' exercise experience. Future research may explore the key neural basis of aerobic exercise's promotion of emotion regulation.

Time course efficiency of MICE and HIIE on inhibitory control and HRV in adolescents with obesity and different cardiorespiratory fitness

Background

Adolescent obesity is associated with impaired inhibitory control. Acute exercise can improve executive function. However, due to the influence of exercise intensity, cognitive test timing, and cardiorespiratory fitness (CF) level, the most effective exercise program remains controversial.

Methods

The current study investigated the time-course effects of moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) on inhibitory control (Stroop) and task-related heart rate variability (HRV) in adolescents with different CF. A mixed experimental design of 2 CF levels (high CF, HCF; low CF, LCF) × 3 exercise methods (MICE, HIIE, CON) × 3 test timing (pre, post-0, post-20) was adopted. Heart rate variability (HRV) and Stroop task tests were conducted before exercise (pre), immediately after exercise (post-0), and 20 min after exercise (post-20).

Results

Individuals with HCF exhibited a positive decrease in Stroop response time immediately and 20 min after MICE and HIIE, compared to pretest response times (RT). Conversely, individuals with LCF showed a slight increase in Stroop task (RT) only immediately after HIIE. All individuals had a slight increase in ACC after MICE and HIIE compared to before exercise. In addition, compared with the control group, the time-domain index (the square root of the mean squared differences of successive NN intervals, RMSSD) of HRV was significantly decreased, the frequency-domain index (the absolute power of the Low-Frequency band/the absolute power of the High-Frequency band ratio, LF/HF) was significantly increased after MICE and HIIE, and the effect of HIIE on RMSSD and LF/HF was significantly greater than that of MICE.

Conclusion

The current study found that the acute effects of MICE and HIIE on inhibitory control in obese adolescents were influenced by the interaction of cognitive test timing and cardiorespiratory fitness. Individuals with high cardiorespiratory fitness performed better on the Stroop task than individuals with low cardiorespiratory fitness. The inhibitory control of HIIE in high-cardiorespiratory obese adolescents produced positive effects similar to those in MICE but more lasting, suggesting that HIIE is more beneficial for high-cardiorespiratory obese adolescents. MICE promoted inhibitory control in obese adolescents with low cardiorespiratory fitness, but HIIE impaired inhibitory control in obese adolescents with low cardiorespiratory fitness immediately after exercise, suggesting that low cardiopulmonary fitness obese adolescents may be suitable for MICE rather than HIIE exercise intervention. The shift from balanced HRV to sympathetic dominance after acute exercise reflects increased arousal levels and may be one of the underlying mechanisms by which acute exercise brings benefits to executive function.

Acute aerobic exercise benefits allocation of neural resources related to selective attention

A single session of aerobic exercise has been shown to potentially benefit subsequent performance in a wide range of cognitive tasks, but the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of exercise on selective attention, a cognitive process that involves prioritized processing of a subset of available inputs over others. Twenty-four healthy participants (12 women) underwent two experimental interventions in a random, crossover, and counterbalanced design: a vigorous-intensity exercise (60-65% HRR) and a seated rest (control) condition. Before and after each protocol, participants performed a modified selective attention task that demanded attending stimuli of different spatial frequencies. Event-related magnetic fields were concurrently recorded using magnetoencephalography. The results showed that exercise, relative to the seated rest condition, reduced neural processing of unattended stimuli and increased processing of attended stimuli. The findings suggest that changes in neural processing related to selective attention may be one of the mechanisms underlying exercise-induced improvements in cognition.

Weight status impacts children's incidental statistical learning

The expanding literature investigating the cognitive effects of childhood weight status has not included examinations of incidental statistical learning, the process by which children unintentionally acquire knowledge about patterns in their environments, despite evidence that it underlies many higher-level information processing capabilities. In the present study, we measured event-related potentials (ERPs) while school-aged participants completed a variation of an oddball task in which stimuli predicted the appearance of a target. Children were asked to respond to the target but were not given any information about the existence of predictive dependencies. We found that children with a healthy weight status had larger P3 amplitudes in response to the predictors that were most meaningful in completing the task, a finding that may suggest optimized learning mechanisms influenced by weight status. These findings offer an important first step to understanding how healthy lifestyle factors may influence incidental statistical learning.

Hippocampal blood flow rapidly and preferentially increases after a bout of moderate-intensity exercise in older adults with poor cerebrovascular health

Over the course of aging, there is an early degradation of cerebrovascular health, which may be attenuated with aerobic exercise training. Yet, the acute cerebrovascular response to a single bout of exercise remains elusive, particularly within key brain regions most affected by age-related disease processes. We investigated the acute global and region-specific cerebral blood flow (CBF) response to 15 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise in older adults (≥65 years; n = 60) using arterial spin labeling magnetic resonance imaging. Within 0-6 min post-exercise, CBF decreased across all regions, an effect that was attenuated in the hippocampus. The exercise-induced CBF drop was followed by a rebound effect over the 24-minute postexercise assessment period, an effect that was most robust in the hippocampus. Individuals with low baseline perfusion demonstrated the greatest hippocampal-specific CBF effect post-exercise, showing no immediate drop and a rapid increase in CBF that exceeded baseline levels within 6-12 minutes postexercise. Gains in domain-specific cognitive performance postexercise were not associated with changes in regional CBF, suggesting dissociable effects of exercise on acute neural and vascular plasticity. Together, the present findings support a precision-medicine framework for the use of exercise to target brain health that carefully considers age-related changes in the cerebrovascular system.

Measuring the Immediate Effects of High-Intensity Functional Training on Motor, Cognitive and Physiological Parameters in Well-Trained Adults

The importance of physical activity has been widely demonstrated both in clinics and in sports. One of the new frontier training programs is high-intensity functional training (HIFT). The immediate effects of HIFT on the psychomotor and cognitive performance of well-trained people are still not clear. This paper aims to evaluate the immediate effects induced by HIFT on blood lactate levels, physical performance in terms of body stability and jump ability, and cognitive performance in terms of reaction time. Nineteen well-trained participants were enrolled in the experimental studies and asked to execute six repetitions of a circuit training. Data were gathered both in a pre-training session and after each one of the circuit repetitions. An immediate significant increase with respect to the baseline was observed during the first repetition, with a further increase after the third one. No effects on jump ability were found, whereas a deterioration in body stability was found. Positive immediate effects on cognitive performance in terms of accuracy and speed in task execution were assessed. The findings can be exploited by trainers during coaching to optimize the design of training programs.

Effects of cognitive demand during acute exercise on inhibitory control and its electrophysiological indices: A randomized crossover study

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of cognitive demand during acute exercise on the behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory control. In a within- participants design, 30 male participants (age range = 18-27 years) performed 20-min sessions of high cognitive-demand exercise (HE), low cognitive-demand exercise (LE), and an active control (AC) on separate days in a randomized order. A moderate-to-vigorous intensity interval step exercise was used as the exercise intervention. During the exercise periods, the participants were instructed to respond to the target among competing stimuli to impose different cognitive demands with their feet. A modified flanker task was administered to assess inhibitory control before and after the interventions, and electroencephalography was used to derive stimulus-elicited N2 and P3 components. Behavioral data showed that the participants performed significantly shorter reaction time (RT), regardless of congruency and a reduced RT flanker effect following HE and LE compared with the AC condition with large (ds = -0.934 to -1.07) and medium effect sizes (ds = -0.502 to -0.507), respectively. Electrophysiological data revealed that compared with the AC condition, acute HE and LE had facilitative effects on stimuli evaluation, as indicated by significantly shorter N2 latency for congruent trials and P3 latency regardless of congruency with medium effect sizes (ds = -0.507 to -0.777). Compared with the AC condition, only acute HE elicited more efficient neural processes in conditions requiring high inhibitory control demand, as indicated by significantly shorter N2 difference latency, with a medium effect size (d = -0.528). Overall, the findings suggest that acute HE and LE facilitate inhibitory control and the electrophysiological substrates of target evaluation. Acute exercise with higher cognitive demand may be associated with more refined neural processing for tasks demanding greater amounts of inhibitory control.

Effects of acute aerobic exercise on the motor inhibitory process in the go/no-go task in humans: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

While many studies have reported the relationship between human cognitive functions and exercise, only a few have investigated the effect of mild-intensity exercise on the human motor inhibitory process. We employed the go/no-go task as a useful paradigm for studying the neural mechanisms involved in response execution and inhibition.

METHOD

Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, we observed 17 subjects performing go/no-go tasks under a control condition and an exercise condition. Under the control condition, the subjects performed a go/no-go session before and after a 15 min rest. Under the exercise condition, the subjects performed a go/no-go session before and after a 10 min ergometer cycling session followed by a 5 min rest. We set the exercise intensity individually for each subject at 30% of their maximum heart rate as calculated by Karvonen's formula.

RESULTS

We recorded an increase oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) in the go/no-go blocks compared to those in the go blocks and found that mild exercise significantly enhanced the peak amplitude of oxy-Hb. On the other hand, we observed no significant changes under the control condition.

CONCLUSION

This result suggests that mild exercise could trigger enhanced activation in the right frontal area, and cause a stronger inhibitory effect related to go/no-go tasks.

Cerebral blood flow and immediate and sustained executive function benefits following single bouts of passive and active exercise

Passive exercise occurs when an individual's limbs are moved via an external force and is a modality that increases cerebral blood flow (CBF) and provides an immediate postexercise executive function (EF) benefit. To our knowledge, no work has examined for how long passive exercise benefits EF. Here, healthy young adults (N = 22; 7 female) used a cycle ergometer to complete three 20-min conditions: passive exercise (via mechanically driven flywheel), a traditional light intensity (37 W) "active" exercise condition (i.e., via volitional pedalling) and a non-exercise control condition. An estimate of CBF was obtained via transcranial Doppler ultrasound measurement of middle cerebral artery blood velocity (MCAv) and antisaccades (i.e., saccade mirror-symmetrical to a target) were completed prior to and immediately, 30- and 60-min following each condition to assess EF. Passive and active exercise increased MCAv; however, the increase was larger in the latter condition. In terms of antisaccades, passive and active exercise provided an immediate postexercise reaction time benefit. At the 30-min assessment, the benefit was observed for active but not passive exercise and neither produced a benefit at the 60-min assessment. Thus, passive exercise provided an evanescent EF "boost" and is a finding that may reflect a smaller cortical hemodynamic response.

Sustained visual attentional load modulates audiovisual integration in older and younger adults

Previous studies have shown that attention influences audiovisual integration (AVI) in multiple stages, but it remains unclear how AVI interacts with attentional load. In addition, while aging has been associated with sensory-functional decline, little is known about how older individuals integrate cross-modal information under attentional load. To investigate these issues twenty older adults and 20 younger adults were recruited to conduct a dual task including a multiple object tracking (MOT) task, which manipulated sustained visual attentional load, and an audiovisual discrimination task, which assesses AVI. The results showed that response times were shorter and hit rate was higher for audiovisual stimuli than for auditory or visual stimuli alone and in younger adults than in older adults. The race model analysis showed that AVI was higher under the load_3 condition (monitoring two targets of the MOT task) than under any other load condition (no-load [NL], one or three targets monitoring). This effect was found regardless of age. However, AVI was lower in older adults than younger adults under NL condition. Moreover, the peak latency was longer, and the time window of AVI was delayed in older adults compared to younger adults under all conditions. These results suggest that slight visual sustained attentional load increased AVI but that heavy visual sustained attentional load decreased AVI, which supports the claim that attention resource was limited, and we further proposed that AVI was positively modulated by attentional resource. Finally, there were substantial impacts of aging on AVI; AVI was delayed in older adults.

Exercising is good for the brain but exercising outside is potentially better

It is well known that exercise increases cognitive function. However, the environment in which the exercise is performed may be just as important as the exercise itself. Time spent in natural outdoor environments has been found to lead to increases in cognition similar to those resulting from acute exercise. Therefore, the benefits of both exercise and nature exposure suggest an additive impact on brain function when both factors are combined. This raises the question: what is the interaction between acute exercise and environment on cognition? We answered this question using electroencephalography to probe cognitive function using the oddball task before and after brief indoor and outdoor walks on 30 participants (average 21 years old, 95% CI [20, 22]). Our results demonstrate improved performance and an increase in the amplitude of the P300, an event-related neural response commonly associated with attention and working memory, following a 15-min walk outside; a result not seen following a 15-min walk inside. Importantly, this finding indicates that the environment may play a more substantial role in increasing cognitive function such as attention than exercise, at least in terms of acute exercise (i.e., a brief walk). With the world's growing urbanization and the associated increase in sedentary time indoors, a deeper understanding of how these factors interact and influence cognition may be critical to combat adverse health effects.

Acute Effects of Augmented Reality Exergames versus Cycle Ergometer on Reaction Time, Visual Attention, and Verbal Fluency in Community Older Adults

BACKGROUND

This study aims to investigate the acute effects of an augmented reality session and a cycle ergometer session compared to no exercise on the reaction times, cognitive flexibility, and verbal fluency of older adults.

METHODS

Each participant did a familiarization with cognitive tests and the following three sessions: cycle ergometer, no exercise (control group), and augmented reality exergame (Portable Exergame Platform for Elderly) sessions. The participants were randomized in a within-group design into one of six possible combinations. Each moment had a 30 min duration, and after the session, the participants performed a Trail Making Test, a verbal fluency test, and a Deary-Liewald reaction time task. The data were analyzed with a one-way ANOVA with a Bonferroni adjustment.

RESULTS

The analysis between the no exercise, cycle ergometer, and augmented reality sessions showed no significant differences in the cognitive measurements.

CONCLUSIONS

One session of the cycle ergometer exercise or the augmented reality exergames does not acutely improve the reaction times, cognitive flexibility, or verbal fluency in the elderly.

Changes in dual-task cognitive performance elicited by physical exertion vary with motor task

Background

Integrated movement and cognitive load paradigms are used to expose impairments associated with concussion and musculoskeletal injury. There is currently little information on the discriminatory nature of dual-task complexity and the relative influence of physical exertion on cognitive outcomes.

Purpose

Assess cognitive performance while under motor conditions of increasing complexity before and after a standardized exercise protocol.

Methods

34 participants were recruited (17 male and 17 female; 24 ± 1.4 yrs). A modified Eriksen flanker test was used to assess cognitive performance under four conditions (seated, single-leg stance, walking, and lateral stepping) before and after a 20-min moderate-to vigorous intensity treadmill protocol. The flanker test consisted of 20 sets of 5-arrow configurations, appearing in random order. To complete the response to cognitive stimulus, participants held a smartphone horizontally and were instructed to respond as quickly and as accurately as possible by tilting the device in the direction corresponding to the orientation of the middle arrow. The metrics used for analysis included average reaction time (ms), inverse efficiency index (average reaction time penalized for incorrect responses), and conflict effect (the average time cost of responding to an incongruent repetition vs. a congruent repetition). Mixed effects (condition by time) RMANOVAs were conducted to examine the effects of motor task complexity and physical exertion on cognitive performance.

Results

There was a condition by time interaction for inverse efficiency index (p < 0.001), in which participants displayed higher cognitive efficiency for the pre-activity lateral stepping condition compared to the other three conditions (Cohen's d = 1.3–1.6). For reaction time and conflict effect, there were main effects for condition (p = 0.004 and 0.006, respectively), in which performance during lateral stepping was improved in relation to the seated condition (reaction time Cohen's d = 0.68; conflict effect Cohen's d = 0.64).

Conclusion

Participants tended to display better dual-task cognitive performance under more stimulating or complex motor tasks before physical exertion, likely associated with the inverted-U arousal-performance relationship. When using dual-task assessments, clinicians should be mindful of the accompanying motor task and baseline exertion levels and their potential to disrupt or optimize cognitive performance.

Comparison of the acute effects of Tai chi versus high-intensity interval training on inhibitory control in individuals with substance use disorder

Objective

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of a single session of Tai chi (TC) exercise and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on inhibitory control in individuals with substance use disorder (SUD).

Methods

A total 47 males with methamphetamine dependence were recruited from a compulsory drug rehabilitation center; participation in this study was voluntary. The participants were randomly assigned to the TC group or the HIIT group, and computer-based Go/No-go and Stroop tasks were used to assess inhibitory control in an indoor setting prior to and following exercise. Independent sample t-test was applied for baseline comparison of continuous variables, while analysis of variance was applied to test differences in the effect of each intervention before and after a single session of exercise.

Results

In Go/No-go test, the reaction time of the TC and HIIT groups in the post-test was shorter than that at the baseline, and the response accuracy of the post-test were higher than that of the baseline. In the Stroop task, the reaction time of two groups in the post-test was shorter than that at the baseline; while, greater improvement in response accuracy was observed in HIIT group in the post-test than that of the baseline.

Conclusion

Both TC and HIIT can promote inhibitory control in individuals with SUD. Compared with the TC group, the HIIT group showed greater improvements in response accuracy. These findings demonstrate the potential of TC and HIIT in improving cognition in SUD.

Clinical trial registration

[http://www.chictr.org.cn/], identifier [ChiCTR1900022158].

Analysis of the mediating effects of self-efficacy and self-control between physical activity and Internet addiction among Chinese college students

It explores the roles of self-efficacy and self-control in physical activity and Internet addiction. And it further provides a theoretical basis for the treatment and improvement of Internet addiction among college students. This study employs the whole group sampling method. The questionnaire was conducted on 855 college students from five universities in three provinces using the Physical Activity Level Scale, the General Self-Efficacy Scale, the Self-Control Scale, and the Chinese Internet Addiction Scale (IAS). The analyses yielded three main findings. (1) A large amount of physical activity was helpful in reducing the symptoms of Internet addiction and the problematic status of each dimension among college students. (2) A large or moderate amount of physical activity was helpful in enhancing college students’ self-efficacy. Besides, a large amount of physical activity was likely to enhance college students’ self-control. (3) The condition of physical activity not only directly has the negative correlation with college students’ Internet addiction but also influences college students’ Internet addiction through two indirect ways: the mediating role of self-control and the chain mediating role of self-efficacy and self-control. These conclusions provide a deeper understanding of the protective factors of Internet addiction among Chinese college students.

Fitness tracking reveals task-specific associations between memory, mental health, and physical activity

Physical activity can benefit both physical and mental well-being. Different forms of exercise (e.g., aerobic versus anaerobic; running versus walking, swimming, or yoga; high-intensity interval training versus endurance workouts; etc.) impact physical fitness in different ways. For example, running may substantially impact leg and heart strength but only moderately impact arm strength. We hypothesized that the mental benefits of physical activity might be similarly differentiated. We focused specifically on how different intensities of physical activity might relate to different aspects of memory and mental health. To test our hypothesis, we collected (in aggregate) roughly a century’s worth of fitness data. We then asked participants to fill out surveys asking them to self-report on different aspects of their mental health. We also asked participants to engage in a battery of memory tasks that tested their short and long term episodic, semantic, and spatial memory performance. We found that participants with similar physical activity habits and fitness profiles tended to also exhibit similar mental health and task performance profiles. These effects were task-specific in that different physical activity patterns or fitness characteristics varied with different aspects of memory, on different tasks. Taken together, these findings provide foundational work for designing physical activity interventions that target specific components of cognitive performance and mental health by leveraging low-cost fitness tracking devices.

Effects of aerobic exercise on event-related potentials related to cognitive performance: a systematic review

Introduction

Aerobic exercise interventions may affect different cognitive domains such as attention, working memory, inhibition, etc. However, the neural mechanisms underlying this relationship, remains uncertain.

Objective

To perform a systematic review on exercise intervention studies that use event-related potentials (ERPs) as outcome for cognitive performance.

Methods

We identified studies through searches in four databases reporting the effects of either an acute bout or chronic exercise on any ERP associated with cognitive performance. Study population included participants >17 years of age with or without a diagnosis.

Results

A total of 5,797 records were initially identified through database searching of which 52 were eligible for inclusion. Most studies were of acute aerobic exercise with moderate intensity. Results were heterogenious across studies, but there was a trend that ERP amplitude increased and (to a lesser extent) latencies decreased post-exercise. The P3 ERP was the most often reported ERP.

Conclusion

Heterogeneity across studies regarding methodology limited the possibility to draw definitive conclusions but the most consistent findings were that acute aerobic exercise was associated with higher amplitudes, and to a lesser extent shorter latencies, of ERPs.

Multivariate Training Programs during Physical Education Classes in School Context: Theoretical Considerations and Future Perspectives

Physical Education plays a fundamental role in promoting healthy habits and lifestyles, as well as in the development of individual and cognitive skills. To date, several investigations have reported positive effects on indicators of physical fitness, motor proficiency, and creativity as a result of specific training programs during Physical Education classes. However, the effects of multivariate training programs on the improvement of the aforementioned skills remain unclear in the literature. Through this brief review, the benefit of applying multivariate training programs during Physical Education classes on indicators of physical fitness, motor proficiency and creativity was critically analyzed. A narrative approach was applied to summarize the availed research as following: (i) theoretical background; (ii) research gaps/issues; (iii) subject explanation about multivariate training programs in Physical Education; and (iv) practical application and further research. The evidence reported in this regard may be useful for the development of multivariate training programs that simultaneously enable the improvement of indicators of physical fitness, motor proficiency and creativity. However, there is still no consensus in the literature on the best strategies (i.e., type of program, duration, intensity) to enhance motor proficiency and creativity in the context of Physical Education classes using multivariate training programs.

Physical Activity and Academic Procrastination among Chinese University Students: A Parallel Mediation Model of Self-Control and Self-Efficacy

Previous studies have suggested that physical activity may decrease academic procrastination; however, few studies have explored the underlying mechanisms of how physical activity exerts an effect on academic procrastination. This study aimed to examine the mediating effects of self-control and self-efficacy in the relationship between physical activity and academic procrastination among Chinese university students. Methods: A cross-sectional design was used in this study. The sample comprised 564 university students from a university in Zhejiang, China. The physical activity rating scale-3 (PARS-3), self-control scale (SCS), generalized self-efficacy scale (GSES), and procrastination assessment scale-students (PASS) were used to investigate university students’ physical activity, self-control, self-efficacy, and academic procrastination respectively. The Percentile-Bootstrap technique was performed to examine the mediating effects of self-control and self-efficacy on the association between physical activity and academic procrastination. Results: Physical activity significantly predicted higher levels of self-control and self-efficacy, as well as lower levels of academic procrastination. Self-control and self-efficacy were significant mediators between physical activity and academic procrastination. Conclusion: This study indicated that physical activity interventions targeting the improvement of self-control and self-efficacy may reduce academic procrastination in university students.

Acute Effect of a Dietary Multi-Ingredient Nootropic as a Cognitive Enhancer in Young Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Triple-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Trial

Aim

To study the acute effect of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic on cognitive performance in young healthy adults. We also analyzed the influence of the dietary multi-ingredient nootropic on emotional state, heart rate (HR), and heart rate variability (HRV).

Methods

This is a randomized, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. In total, 26 young healthy adults (50% women; 24.9 ± 3.3 years old) ingested 10 g of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic [Evo-Gamers^®; Harrison Sport Nutrition (HSN), Granada, Spain] or placebo (maltodextrin) in a randomized order (clinicaltrials.gov No. NCT04790188). After 30 min of the ingestion, participants performed a battery of cognitive performance tests to measure the processing speed, inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, creativity, and verbal fluency. The emotional status was assessed through questionnaires, and HR and HRV were measured using a heart rate monitor.

Results

In comparison with placebo, the acute ingestion of the nootropic showed a significantly better response time in several cognitive tests (i.e., processing speed, inhibitory control, spatial working memory, and cognitive flexibility, all P < 0.05 and effect size range of 0.4–0.6). It also displayed a higher accuracy in the processing speed, the inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility tests (all P < 0.05; effect size ranged from 0.4 to 0.6). Furthermore, the nootropic showed a higher creativity and positive emotions and lower sadness-depression emotions, whereas HR and HRV remained similar between placebo vs. nootropic conditions. However, there were no differences between the nootropic and placebo in verbal fluency, motivation, or anxiety (all P > 0.05).

Conclusion

An acute ingestion of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic enhances cognitive performance in comparison with placebo without negatively influencing HR or HRV in young healthy adults.

Effects of Differing Exercise Intensities on the Response Time of Gymnasts and Nongymnasts in a Mental Body Rotation Task

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of different levels of exercise intensity on mental rotation performance in gymnasts versus nongymnasts. A group of elite gymnasts and a group of nongymnasts performed a mental body rotation task at rest and then performed the same task preceded by short bouts of intense exercise at 60%, 80%, 100%, and 120% of their maximum aerobic speed. The analyses of response times showed that gymnasts performed the mental rotation task faster after bouts of intense exercise than in rest condition, but nongymnasts performed equally in rest and after exercise. This finding highlights the specific physical expertise as a variable that can affect the influence of exercise on cognitive processing.

The Relationship Between Physical Exercise and Mobile Phone Addiction Tendency of University Students in China: A Moderated Mediation Model

This study aims to explore the relationship between physical exercise (PE), self-control (SC), physical exercise atmosphere (PEA), and mobile phone addiction tendency (MPAT) among Chinese university students. Through the quota sampling, 1,433 students complied with the requirements were surveyed from 10 universities in China. PE, SC, PEA, and MPAT were assessed using standard scales. For data analysis, common method deviation test, mean number, standard deviation, correlation analysis and structural equation model analysis were carried out in turn. The results showed PE and MPAT were negatively related (r = -0.158, p < 0.05); PE significantly positively predicted SC (β = 0.082, t = 3.748, p < 0.01), and SC significantly negatively predicted MPAT (β = -0.743, t = -19.929, p < 0.01). Bootstrap method was used to test the mediating effect of SC. The results showed that 95% confidence interval did not include 0. After adding the mediating variable of SC, PE did not significantly negatively predict the tendency of MPAT (β = -0.027, t = -1.257, p > 0.05). The interaction item PEA and SC could significantly positively predict the tendency of MPAT (β = 0.165, t = 2.545, p < 0.05). In the high PEA group, SC had a significant negative predictive effect on the tendency of MPAT (β = -0.665, t = -14.408, p < 0.01); However, in the low PEA group, the negative predictive effect was stronger (β = -0.834, t = -15.015, p < 0.01). The present study shows that PE significantly negatively predicted the tendency of MPAT, and SC played a complete mediating role in the relationship between PE and MPAT; The second half of the indirect effect of PE and MPAT was regulated by the PEA. The PEA will enhance the influence of SC on MPAT, but the high PEA will increase the level of MPAT of individuals at a very high level of SC.

Acute effects of aerobic exercise on conflict suppression, response inhibition, and processing efficiency underlying inhibitory control processes: An ERP and SFT study

Aerobic exercise has been identified as an effective strategy for transiently enhancing inhibitory control, an ability to suppress irrelevant distractors while focusing on relevant information in facilitating the implementation of goal-directed behavior. The purpose of this study was to employ a go/no-go version of the redundant-target task and event-related potential to further determine whether inhibitory control at the perceptual and response levels as well as their underlying processing capacity and neuroelectric alterations are differentially affected by a single bout of aerobic exercise. Twenty-seven young adults completed the redundant-target task while electroencephalogram was recorded before and after one 20-min bout of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise and a sitting control condition on separate days in counterbalanced order. Although behavioral outcomes of mean-level performance did not differ between intervention conditions, time-related decreases in processing capacity for the faster responses were only observed following rest. Aerobic exercise resulted in maintained P3b amplitude from pretest to posttest for all trial types while decreased P3b amplitude from pretest to posttest during single-target and redundant-target trials was observed following rest. Further, the time-related changes in P3b amplitude were positively correlated with improvements in task performance following exercise. These findings suggest that a short bout of aerobic exercise selectively counteracts the time-related decrements in processing capacity as well as neuroelectric processing of attention and conflict suppression that contribute to behavioral outcomes of inhibitory control.

From occupants to occupants: A review of the occupant information understanding for building HVAC occupant-centric control

Occupants are the core of the built environment. Traditional heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems operate with predefined schedules and maximum occupancy assumptions with no consideration of specific occupant information. These generalized assumptions usually do not align with the actual demand and result in over-conditioning and occupant discomfort. In recent years, with the aid of Information & Communication Technology (ICT) and Computer Science (CS), it is possible to acquire real-time and accurate occupant information to satisfy the exact thermal requirement through specific HVAC control in one particular built environment. This mechanism is called HVAC "Occupant-centric Control (OCC)." HVAC OCC strategy starts with collecting the occupant's information (e.g., presence/absence) and then applies it to meet the occupant's requirement (e.g., thermal comfort). However, even though some research studies and field pilot demonstrations have been devoted to the field of OCC, there is a lack of systematic knowledge about occupant data, which is the principal component of OCC for HVAC researchers and practitioners. To fill this gap, this review paper discusses OCC with a particular emphasis on occupant information and investigates how this information can assist HVAC operation in providing an acceptable built environment in required spaces during the required time. We provide a fine-grained, comprehensive picture of occupant information, discuss its features, the modalities of information feed-in into the HVAC control, and the application of commonly utilized occupant information for OCC.

Acute Effects of Different Exercise Intensities on Executive Function and Oculomotor Performance in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: Moderate-Intensity Continuous Exercise vs. High-Intensity Interval Exercise

A wealth of evidence has shown that a single bout of aerobic exercise can facilitate executive function. However, none of current studies on this topic have addressed whether the magnitude of the acute-exercise benefit on executive function and oculomotor performance is influenced by different aerobic exercise modes. The present study was thus aimed toward an investigation of the acute effects of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) vs. moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) on executive-related oculomotor performance in healthy late middle-aged and older adults. Using a within-subject design, twenty-two participants completed a single bout of 30 min of HIIE, MICE, or a non-exercise-intervention (REST) session in a counterbalanced order. The behavioral [e.g., reaction times (RTs), coefficient of variation (CV) of the RT], and oculomotor (e.g., saccade amplitude, saccade latency, and saccadic peak velocity) indices were measured when participants performed antisaccade and prosaccade tasks prior to and after an intervention mode. The results showed that a 30-min single-bout of HIIE and MICE interventions shortened the RTs in the antisaccade task, with the null effect on the CV of the RT in the late middle-aged and older adults. In terms of oculomotor metrics, although the two exercise modes could not modify the performance in terms of saccade amplitudes and saccade latencies, the participants’ saccadic peak velocities while performing the oculomotor paradigm were significantly altered only following an acute HIIE intervention. The present findings suggested that a 30-min single-bout of HIIE and MICE interventions modulated post-exercise antisaccade control on behavioral performance (e.g., RTs). Nevertheless, the HIIE relative MICE mode appears to be a more effective aerobic exercise in terms of oculomotor control (e.g., saccadic peak velocities) in late middle-aged and older adults.

Visual Perceptual Load Attenuates Age-Related Audiovisual Integration in an Audiovisual Discrimination Task

Previous studies confirmed that the cognitive resources are limited for each person, and perceptual load affects the detection of stimulus greatly; however, how the visual perceptual load influences audiovisual integration (AVI) is still unclear. Here, 20 older and 20 younger adults were recruited to perform an auditory/visual discrimination task under various visual perceptual-load conditions. The analysis for the response times revealed a significantly faster response to the audiovisual stimulus than to the visual stimulus or auditory stimulus (all p < 0.001), and a significantly slower response by the older adults than by the younger adults to all targets (all p ≤ 0.024). The race-model analysis revealed a higher AV facilitation effect for older (12.54%) than for younger (7.08%) adults under low visual perceptual-load conditions; however, no obvious difference was found between younger (2.92%) and older (3.06%) adults under medium visual perceptual-load conditions. Only the AV depression effect was found for both younger and older adults under high visual perceptual-load conditions. Additionally, the peak latencies of AVI were significantly delayed in older adults under all visual perceptual-load conditions. These results suggested that visual perceptual load decreased AVI (i.e., depression effects), and the AVI effect was increased but delayed for older adults.

Investigating Cortical Buffering Effects of Acute Moderate Intensity Exercise: A cTBS Study Targeting the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

Background: The beneficial effects of both single-session bouts of aerobic exercise and therapeutic exercise interventions on the cortical regions associated with top-down attentional control [i.e., prefrontal cortex (PFC)] have been well documented. However, it remains unclear whether aerobic exercise can be used to buffer against suppressive influences on the dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC). Objective: The current study sought to determine whether a single session of moderate intensity aerobic exercise can offset the expected suppressive effects of continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). Methods: Twenty-two right-handed participants (aged 19-30) completed a 20-minute movement-only control session [10% heart rate reserve (HRR)] and moderate intensity (50% HRR) exercise in a counterbalanced order. Following each exercise session, participants received active cTBS to the left dlPFC. Changes in executive functions were quantified using a Flanker paradigm employed at baseline, post-exercise and post-cTBS time points. Additionally, EEG was used to measure changes in event-related potential components related to inhibitory control (i.e., N2) and attentional control (i.e., P3) during the flanker task. Results: Behavioral results from the flanker task revealed a significant improvement in task performance following an acute bout of moderate intensity exercise. Furthermore, the effect of cTBS in both the movement-only control and moderate intensity conditions were non-significant. Similarly, EEG data from P3b and N2 ERP components revealed no changes to amplitude across time and condition. P3b latency data revealed a significant effect of time in both the moderate intensity and movement-only conditions, such that P3b latencies were significantly shorter across time points. Latency data within the N2 ERP component revealed no significant interactions or main effects. Conclusion: The findings of the current study provide tentative support for the hypothesis that both moderate and light intensity exercise promote cortical buffering against the suppressive effects of cTBS targeting the dlPFC. However, in the absence of a no-movement control, a lack of expected suppressive effects of cTBS cannot be ruled out.

Acute exercise effects on inhibitory control and the pupillary response in young adults

Previous research has established an impact of acute exercise on cognitive performance, which has inspired investigations into neurobiological mechanisms that may underlie the observed benefits. Pupillary responses have been posited to reflect activation of such underlying neurobiological mechanisms. The current study recruited healthy young adults to investigate the effects of a single bout of moderate-to-vigorous intensity aerobic exercise on subsequent performance and pupillary responses during an inhibitory control task. Results showed that an acute bout of exercise was related to shorter reaction times and increased tonic pupil dilation during an inhibitory control task. Although pupillary responses did not mediate the acute exercise effect on inhibitory control, higher cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with greater phasic pupil dilation following exercise relative to seated rest. The current study supported the plausibility of the pupillary response as a marker of LC-NE system activation that is sensitive to acute exercise. Whether pupillary responses could account for transient benefits of acute exercise on brain and cognition remains unclear.

Postural Control, Dual Task Performance and Executive Function Following an Ultramarathon

As research into the postural and cognitive effects of ultramarathon running is sparse and still needed, we investigated the effect of ultramarathon running on runners' postural control, dual task postural control and a measure of executive function-the flanker test, expecting fatigue-related deterioration on each measure. We used a pre- and post-test research design with 14 runners who completed (a) postural assessment with eyes open and closed, on a flat surface and on foam during (b) a two-choice reaction time dual task postural assessment, and (c) an executive function modified flanker task. With regard to postural stability, we observed, after running, increased anterior-posterior (AP) path length and AP root mean square (RMS) and reductions in both mediolateral (ML) RMS and ML median frequency. Dual task analysis showed reduced ML RMS prior to the race, whereas the effect was absent afterwards. Reaction times were not significantly altered between pre-post or surface conditions assessments. There were no statistically significant differences in mean modified flanker scores before and after the race. These data demonstrated that, following an endurance run, there were plane specific movement adaptations in postural sway that may have resulted from neuroprotective changes under extreme fatigue.

Acute effects of high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous exercise on BDNF and irisin levels and neurocognitive performance in late middle-aged and older adults

The purposes of the present study were (1) to explore and compare the acute effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) on neurocognitive performance and molecular biomarkers in late middle-aged and older adults, and (2) to examine the relationships of HIIT/MICE exercise-induced neurocognitive changes with changes in circulating irisin and BDNF levels elicited by different acute exercise modes. Using a within-subject design, twenty-one participants completed an acute bout of 30 min of HIIT, MICE, or a non-exercise-intervention (REST) session in a counterbalanced order. The neuropsychological [i.e., accuracy rate (AR) and reaction time (RT)] and neurophysiological [i.e., event-related potential (ERP) P3 latency and amplitude] indices were simultaneously measured when the participants performed a working memory task at baseline and after an intervention mode. Blood samples were also taken before and after the intervention mode. The results showed that, although ARs were significantly increased only via the MICE intervention mode, the acute HIIT and MICE interventions improved RT performance and increased ERP P3 amplitudes in the late middle-aged and older adults under consideration. Serum BDNF levels were significantly increased with the acute HIIT and MICE interventions, and significant irisin level increases were only observed following the HIIT intervention. However, changes in the levels of Irisin and BDNF pre- and post-intervention were not correlated with changes in neurocognitive performance, with the exception of the correlation between the changes in irisin levels and RTs with acute exercise in the MICE intervention mode. The present findings suggested similar beneficial effects on neurocognitive performance (i.e., RTs and ERP P3 amplitudes) and peripheral BDNF levels following MICE and HIIT interventions in the middle-aged and older adults. In terms of ARs and irisin, the two acute exercise modes appear to induce divergent effects. Irisin may play a potential facilitating role in the neuropsychological (e.g., RT) performance of working memory in such a group. However, the mechanisms remain to be determined.

The effect of acute exercise for reducing cognitive alterations associated with individuals high in anxiety

Single bouts of exercise have been observed to exhibit therapeutic benefits for reducing affective responses associated with anxiety. However, anxiety has also been found to relate to less efficient cognitive processing as well as a greater reliance on action monitoring processes. Given the extant body of evidence demonstrating that single bouts of exercise result in cognitive enhancements; the present investigation sought to determine the extent to which exercise might be effective at reducing these anxiety-related impairments in cognition. Using a randomized within-subjects crossover design in a sample of high-anxious and low-anxious college-aged adults, measures of inhibition, attention, and action monitoring were assessed before and after 20-min of either aerobic exercise or a cognitively engaging control condition during two separate, counterbalanced sessions. Findings from this investigation revealed that both high anxious and low anxious individuals exhibited enhancements in behavioral indices of performance on an inhibitory control task with faster and more accurate responses following 20 min of moderate intensity aerobic exercise. Additionally, both high anxious and low anxious individuals demonstrated exercise induced enhancements in the allocation of attentional resources (as indexed by P3 amplitude) as well as action monitoring (as indexed by ERN amplitude). Accordingly, these findings provide evidence consistent with broad-base claims regarding the benefits of exercise, suggesting that both high and low anxious individuals appear to incur cognitive benefits.

Effects of two types of dynamic office workstations (DOWs) used at two intensities on cognitive performance and office work in tasks with various complexity

This study examines the possible effects on objective work performance while using two types of dynamic office workstations (DOWs). 20 participants each used one type with three intensities (seated, light, moderate) and completed a task battery assessing cognitive performance and office work with two levels of complexity. Repeated measures MANOVA showed a significant interaction effect for work performance between the type of workstation and intensity for the simple level and a significant main effect for intensity for the complex level. Comparing the types of DOWs to each other, accuracy of text processing differed when working sedentary. Using both devices with light and moderate intensity had a significant detrimental effect on mouse tasks compared to working sedentary, but none comparing the intensities. No further results indicated neither a detrimental nor an enhancing effect of using DOWs on cognitive performance and office-work related tasks, regardless of the intensity of use or the task complexity. Practitioner Summary: By using DOWs, light physical activity can be integrated while working at a desk. Results showed that using different types of DOWs with different intensities does have a detrimental effect on tasks requiring a high motor control, but not on cognitive or further office work-related tasks of various complexity. Abbreviations: DOW: dynamic office workstation; aLT: activeLife Trainer; DB: deskbike; RPE: rated perceived exertion; MANOVA: multivariate analysis of variance; ANOVA: analysis of variance.

The impact of exercise intensity on neurophysiological indices of food-related inhibitory control and cognitive control: A randomized crossover event-related potential (ERP) study

Food-related inhibitory control, the ability to withhold a dominant response towards highly palatable foods, influences dietary decisions. Food-related inhibitory control abilities may increase following a bout of aerobic exercise; however, the impact of exercise intensity on both food-related inhibitory control and broader cognitive control processes is currently unclear. We used a high-powered, within-subjects, crossover design to test how relative intensity of aerobic exercise influenced behavioral (response time, accuracy) and neural (N2 and P3 components of the scalp-recorded event-related potential [ERP]) measures of food-related inhibitory and cognitive control. Two hundred and ten participants completed three separate conditions separated by approximately one week in randomized order: two exercise conditions (35% VO_2max or 70% VO_2max) and seated rest. Directly following exercise or rest, participants completed a food-based go/no-go task and a flanker task while electroencephalogram data were recorded. Linear mixed models showed generally faster response times (RT) and improved accuracy following 70% VO_2max exercise compared to rest, but not 35% VO_2max; RTs and accuracy did not differ between 35% VO_2max exercise and rest conditions. N2 and P3 amplitudes were larger following 70% VO_2max exercise for the food-based go/no-go task compared to rest and 35% VO_2max exercise. There were no differences between exercise conditions for N2 amplitude during the flanker task; however, P3 amplitude was more positive following 70% VO_2max compared to rest, but not 35% VO_2max exercise. Biological sex did not moderate exercise outcomes. Results suggest improved and more efficient food-related recruitment of later inhibitory control and cognitive control processes following 70% VO_2max exercise.

Effects of acute exercise at different intensities on fine motor-cognitive dual-task performance while walking: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Studies on the effects of acute exercises on cognitive functions vary greatly and depend on the duration and intensity of exercise and the type of cognitive tasks. This study aimed to investigate the neural correlates that underpin the acute effects of high-intensity interval (HIIE) versus moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MCE) on fine motor-cognitive performance while walking (dual-task, DT) in healthy young adults. Twenty-nine healthy right-handers (mean age: 25.1 years ± 4.04; 7 female) performed the digital trail-making-test (dTMT) while walking (5 km/h) before and after acute exercise. During task performance, the hemodynamic activation of the frontopolar area (FPA), dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPFC), and motor cortex (M1) was recorded using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Both HIIE and MCE resulted in improved dTMT performance, as reflected by an increase in the number of completed circles and a reduction in the time within and between circuits (reflecting improvements in working memory, inhibition, and decision making). Notably, HIIE evoked higher cortical activity on all brain areas measured in the present study than the MCE group. To our knowledge, these results provide the first empirical evidence using a mobile neuroimaging approach that both HIIE and MCE improve executive function during walking, likely mediated by increased activation of the task-related area of the prefrontal cortex and the ability to effectively use, among other things, high fitness levels as neural enrichment resources.

Sustained Effects of High-Intensity Interval Exercise and Moderate-Intensity Continuous Exercise on Inhibitory Control

This study examined the immediate and sustained effects of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) bouts on inhibitory control in young adults. Participants (n = 41) engaged in (1) a session of HIIE, involving 10 one-minute runs on a treadmill at an intensity targeting 85–90% HR_max interspersed with self-paced walking at 60% HR_max; (2) a session of MICE, involving a 20 min run on a treadmill at an intensity of 60–70% HR_max; and (3) a control session, involving 24 min of resting on separate days in a counterbalanced order. Using a flanker task, inhibitory control was assessed before the intervention (t₀), immediately after the session (t₁), and then at 30 min (t₂), 60 min (t₃), and 90 min (t₄) after the session. During the flanker task, the response time (RT) for incongruent trials immediately after HIIE was significantly shortened compared to that before exercise. This shortened RT was sustained for 90 min post-exercise during recovery from HIIE. Interference scores of RT were also reduced after HIIE, benefitting inhibitory control, and were maintained for 90 min post-exercise. Reduced accuracy interference scores were recorded following HIIE compared to the control session. Improvements in inhibitory control elicited by HIIE were sustained for at least 90 min post-exercise. In contrast, an improvement in inhibitory control was not observed during the MICE session. HIIE might represent a time-efficient approach for enhancing inhibitory control.

Cross-Sectional Study Using Virtual Reality to Measure Cognition

Dual-task research is limited in its transferability to authentic contexts because laboratory conditions do not replicate real-world physical activity and decision-making scenarios. Creating valid, reliable methodologies to assess physiological and behavioral responses under varying physical and cognitive demands using virtual reality (VR) environment addresses this limitation. This study determined the feasibility of using VR to investigate the effects of dual-tasking on healthy young adults' cognitive performance. Three dual-tasking conditions (i.e., standing, preferred-paced walking, and fast-paced walking, each with blocked congruent and incongruent tasks) were developed. Using a within-subjects, randomized design, thirty-two young adults (17 female, mean age = 21.03 ± 2.86) were randomly assigned to a starting condition but experienced all three conditions. Physiological responses of heart rate (HR) and accelerometry data measured energy expenditure as the physical demand. Behavioral responses of reaction time and error rate quantified cognitive performance. Results indicated that (a) each condition verified independent physiological and behavioral responses; (b) reaction time and error rate during preferred walking or fast-paced walking dual-tasking conditions was significantly lower than standing condition; and surprisingly, (c) congruent tasks showed lower reaction time than the incongruent tasks. These findings suggest that it is feasible to use VR to assess the effects of dual-task conditions. Specifically, walking can optimize the motor-cognitive dual-task performance, compared to standing. These findings may be attributed to the dose-response effects of exercise intensity. Future studies should incorporate advanced technology such as the VR exercise.

The Impact of Vigorous Cycling Exercise on Visual Attention: A Study With the BR8 Wireless Dry EEG System

Many studies have reported that exercise can influence cognitive performance. But advancing our understanding of the interrelations between psychology and physiology in sports neuroscience requires the study of real-time brain dynamics during exercise in the field. Electroencephalography (EEG) is one of the most powerful brain imaging technologies. However, the limited portability and long preparation time of traditional wet-sensor systems largely limits their use to laboratory settings. Wireless dry-sensor systems are emerging with much greater potential for practical application in sports. Hence, in this paper, we use the BR8 wireless dry-sensor EEG system to measure P300 brain dynamics while cycling at various intensities. The preparation time was mostly less than 2 min as BR8 system’s dry sensors were able to attain the required skin-sensor interface impedance, enabling its operation without any skin preparation or application of conductive gel. Ten participants performed four sessions of a 3 min rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task while resting and while cycling. These four sessions were pre-CE (RSVP only), low-CE (RSVP in 40–50% of max heart rate), vigorous-CE (RSVP in 71–85% of max heart rate) and post-CE (RSVP only). The recorded brain signals demonstrate that the P300 amplitudes, observed at the Pz channel, for the target and non-target responses were significantly different in all four sessions. The results also show decreased reaction times to the visual attention task during vigorous exercise, enriching our understanding of the ways in which exercise can enhance cognitive performance. Even though only a single channel was evaluated in this study, the quality and reliability of the measurement using these dry sensor-based EEG systems is clearly demonstrated by our results. Further, the smooth implementation of the experiment with a dry system and the success of the data analysis demonstrate that wireless dry EEG devices can open avenues for real-time measurement of cognitive functions in athletes outside the laboratory.

Acute Exercise-Induced Set Shifting Benefits in Healthy Adults and Its Moderators: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Positive effects of acute exercise on cognitive performances in general inspired research that investigated the effects of acute exercise on specific cognitive subdomains. Many existing studies examined beneficial effects of acute exercise on subsequent set shifting performance in healthy adults. Set shifting, a subdomain of executive function, is the ability to switch between different cognitive sets. The results of existing studies are inconsistent. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted that pooled available effect sizes. Additionally, moderator analyses were carried out to identify covariates that determine the magnitude of exercise-induced set shifting benefits.

Methods: Medline, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus were searched for eligible studies. Hedges' g corrected standardized mean difference values were used for analyses. Random-effects weights were applied to pool effects. Potential moderation of the effect of acute exercise on subsequent set shifting performance by exercise intensity, type of exercise, participants' age, and type of control group were examined.

Results: Twenty-two studies (N = 1,900) were included into analysis. All aggregated effect sizes ranged from small to moderate. Overall, a small significant beneficial effect was revealed (g = −0.32, 95 % CI −0.45 to −0.18). Heterogeneity of included effect sizes was moderate and significant (T² = 0.0715, I² = 46.4%, (p < 0.0016). Moderator analyses revealed a larger average effect in older adults than for studies examining younger adults (−0.42 vs. −0.29). Light exercise (−0.51) led to larger effects than moderate (−0.24) or vigorous exercise (−0.29). Studies testing acute exercise against active control groups showed a noticeably smaller average effect (−0.13) than studies that used passive (−0.38) or cognitive engaging control groups (−0.34). Interestingly, application of resistance or aerobic exercise led to no different average effect sizes (−0.30 vs. −0.32). However, none of the tested covariates reached statistical significance.

Conclusion: Acute exercise improves subsequent set shifting performance. However, effect sizes are small, making the relevance for everyday life questionable. The results indicate that older adults benefit more from acute exercise than younger adults do. Light intensity exercise seems most effective while the type of exercise does not seem to influence the magnitude of effects. Research designs with active control groups show the smallest average effect, raising concerns about placebo effects.

PROSPERO registration number: CRD42019138799

Behavioral and Neurophysiological Aspects of Inhibition-The Effects of Acute Cardiovascular Exercise

This review summarizes behavioral and neurophysiological aspects of inhibitory control affected by a single bout of cardiovascular exercise. The review also examines the effect of a single bout of cardiovascular exercise on these processes in young adults with a focus on the functioning of prefrontal pathways (including the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and elements of the prefrontal-basal ganglia pathways). Finally, the review offers an overview on the potential effects of cardiovascular exercise on GABA-ergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission in the adult brain and propose mechanisms or processes that may mediate these effects. The main findings show that a single bout of cardiovascular exercise can enhance inhibitory control. In addition, acute exercise appears to facilitate activation of prefrontal brain regions that regulate excitatory and inhibitory pathways (specifically but not exclusively the prefrontal-basal-ganglia pathways) which appear to be impaired in older age. Based on the reviewed studies, we suggest that future work examine the beneficial effects of exercise on the inhibitory networks in the aging brain.

The Association Between Light Physical Activity and Cognition Among Adults: A Scoping Review

Background

The physical and cognitive benefits of moderate-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) for adults have been well documented. Recently, there has been increasing interest in the independent health benefits of light-intensity physical activity (LPA). This research has primarily focused on the relationship between LPA and morbidity and mortality risk, with few studies investigating cognitive associations. The purpose of this scoping review was to catalog existing evidence on the association between device-based or technologically measured LPA and cognition among adults, identify trends in the literature, and recommend future areas for research.

Methods

Six electronic databases were searched between January and June 2020. Forty published studies met the inclusion criteria, which included both healthy and clinical young and older adult populations. Among the 40 articles were 14 acute exercise studies, 4 randomized control trials (RCTs), 18 cross-sectional studies, and 4 longitudinal studies.

Results

7/14 (50%) acute, 3/4 (75%) RCT, 10/18 (56%) cross-sectional, and 2/4 (50%) longitudinal studies reported a significant, positive relationship between LPA and one or more cognitive outcomes. These heterogeneous findings can largely be attributed to the diverse study designs and populations, as well as the numerous assessments used to test the cognitive domains.

Conclusion

These collective findings suggest LPA may be a potential lifestyle intervention to improve cognition across adulthood. However, the inconsistent approaches used among these studies suggest a more concerted, unified scientific approach is needed to further understand the LPA-cognition relationship.

Moderate aerobic exercise, but not anticipation of exercise, improves cognitive control

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests a single bout of exercise can improve cognitive control. However, many studies only include assessments after exercise. It is unclear whether exercise changes as a result, or in anticipation, of exercise.

OBJECTIVE

To examine changes in cognitive control due to moderate aerobic exercise, and anticipation of such exercise.

METHODS

Thirty-one young healthy adults (mean age 22 years; 55% women) completed three conditions (randomized order): 1) exercise (participants anticipated and completed exercise); 2) anticipation (participants anticipated exercise but completed rest); and 3) rest (participants anticipated and completed rest). Cognitive control was assessed with a modified Flanker task at three timepoints: (1) early (20 min pre-intervention, pre-reveal in anticipation session); (2) pre-intervention (after reveal); and (3) post-intervention. An accuracy-weighted response time (RTLISAS) was the primary outcome, analyzed with a linear mixed effects modeling approach.

RESULTS

There was an interaction between condition and time (p = 0.003) and between session and time (p = 0.015). RTLISAS was better post-exercise than post-rest and post-deception, but was similar across conditions at other timepoints. RTLISAS improved across time in session 1 and session 2, but did not improve over time in session 3. There were also main effects of condition (p = 0.024), session (p = 0.005), time (p<0.001), and congruency (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive control improved after moderate aerobic exercise, but not in anticipation of exercise. Improvements on a Flanker task were also observed across sessions and time, indicative of a learning effect that should be considered in study design and analyses.