1
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Karmakar S, Mishra A, Pal P, Lal G. Effector and cytolytic function of natural killer cells in anticancer immunity. J Leukoc Biol 2024; 115:235-252. [PMID: 37818891 DOI: 10.1093/jleuko/qiad126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptive immune cells play an important role in mounting antigen-specific antitumor immunity. The contribution of innate immune cells such as monocytes, macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells, and gamma-delta T cells is well studied in cancer immunology. NK cells are innate lymphoid cells that show effector and regulatory function in a contact-dependent and contact-independent manner. The cytotoxic function of NK cells plays an important role in killing the infected and transformed host cells and controlling infection and tumor growth. However, several studies have also ascribed the role of NK cells in inducing pathophysiology in autoimmune diseases, promoting immune tolerance in the uterus, and antitumor function in the tumor microenvironment. We discuss the fundamentals of NK cell biology, its distribution in different organs, cellular and molecular interactions, and its cytotoxic and noncytotoxic functions in cancer biology. We also highlight the use of NK cell-based adoptive cellular therapy in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surojit Karmakar
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Tolerance, National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune, MH-411007, India
| | - Amrita Mishra
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Tolerance, National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune, MH-411007, India
| | - Pradipta Pal
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Tolerance, National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune, MH-411007, India
| | - Girdhari Lal
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Tolerance, National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune, MH-411007, India
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2
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Schmied L, Luu TT, Søndergaard JN, Hald SH, Meinke S, Mohammad DK, Singh SB, Mayer C, Perinetti Casoni G, Chrobok M, Schlums H, Rota G, Truong HM, Westerberg LS, Guarda G, Alici E, Wagner AK, Kadri N, Bryceson YT, Saeed MB, Höglund P. SHP-1 localization to the activating immune synapse promotes NK cell tolerance in MHC class I deficiency. Sci Signal 2023; 16:eabq0752. [PMID: 37040441 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abq0752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells recognize virally infected cells and tumors. NK cell function depends on balanced signaling from activating receptors, recognizing products from tumors or viruses, and inhibitory receptors (such as KIR/Ly49), which recognize major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules. KIR/Ly49 signaling preserves tolerance to self but also conveys reactivity toward MHC-I-low target cells in a process known as NK cell education. Here, we found that NK cell tolerance and education were determined by the subcellular localization of the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1. In mice lacking MHC-I molecules, uneducated, self-tolerant Ly49A+ NK cells showed accumulation of SHP-1 in the activating immune synapse, where it colocalized with F-actin and the signaling adaptor protein SLP-76. Education of Ly49A+ NK cells by the MHC-I molecule H2Dd led to reduced synaptic accumulation of SHP-1, accompanied by augmented signaling from activating receptors. Education was also linked to reduced transcription of Ptpn6, which encodes SHP-1. Moreover, synaptic SHP-1 accumulation was reduced in NK cells carrying the H2Dd-educated receptor Ly49G2 but not in those carrying the noneducating receptor Ly49I. Colocalization of Ly49A and SHP-1 outside of the synapse was more frequent in educated compared with uneducated NK cells, suggesting a role for Ly49A in preventing synaptic SHP-1 accumulation in NK cell education. Thus, distinct patterning of SHP-1 in the activating NK cell synapse may determine NK cell tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Schmied
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Thuy T Luu
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jonas N Søndergaard
- Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research (CIDER), Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan
| | - Sophia H Hald
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stephan Meinke
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Dara K Mohammad
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Food Technology, College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, Salahaddin University-Erbil, Erbil KRG-Kurdistan Region, Iraq
| | - Sunitha B Singh
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Biomedicum, Solnavägen 9, S-171 65 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Corinna Mayer
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Giovanna Perinetti Casoni
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael Chrobok
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Heinrich Schlums
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Giorgia Rota
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Hieu M Truong
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lisa S Westerberg
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Biomedicum, Solnavägen 9, S-171 65 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Greta Guarda
- Università della Svizzera Italiana, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Institute for Research in Biomedicine, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Evren Alici
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Arnika K Wagner
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nadir Kadri
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yenan T Bryceson
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
- Clinical Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge C2:66, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
- Broegelmann Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 87, Laboratory Building 5th floor, N-5021 Bergen, Norway
| | - Mezida B Saeed
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Biomedicum, Solnavägen 9, S-171 65 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Petter Höglund
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, NEO building, Blickagången 16, S-141 57 Stockholm, Sweden
- Clinical Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge C2:66, S-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
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3
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PD-1 expression on mouse intratumoral NK cells and its effects on NK cell phenotype. iScience 2022; 25:105137. [PMID: 36185379 PMCID: PMC9523278 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Although PD-1 was shown to be a hallmark of T cells exhaustion, controversial studies have been reported on the role of PD-1 on NK cells. Here, we found by flow cytometry and single cell RNA sequencing analysis that PD-1 can be expressed on MHC class I-deficient tumor-infiltrating NK cells in vivo. We also demonstrate distinct alterations in the phenotype of PD-1-deficient NK cells and a more mature phenotype which might reduce their capacity to migrate and kill in vivo. Tumor-infiltrating NK cells that express PD-1 were highly associated with the expression of CXCR6. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that PD-L1 molecules in membranes of PD-1-deficient NK cells migrate faster than in NK cells from wild-type mice, suggesting that PD-1 and PD-L1 form cis interactions with each other on NK cells. These data demonstrate that there may be a role for the PD-1/PD-L1 axis in tumor-infiltrating NK cells in vivo. NK cells from PD-1 deficient mice have a more mature phenotype Elimination of MHC-I-deficient cells is impaired in PD-1−/− mice PD-1 expression on NK cells is associated with surface expression of CXCR6 PD-1/PD-L1 interactions on NK cells may occur in cis
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4
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Licensing Natural Killers for Antiviral Immunity. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10070908. [PMID: 34358058 PMCID: PMC8308748 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10070908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM)-bearing receptors (IRs) enable discrimination between self- and non-self molecules on the surface of host target cells. In this regard, they have a vital role in self-tolerance through binding and activating intracellular tyrosine phosphatases which can inhibit cellular activation. Yet, self-MHC class I (MHC I)-specific IRs are versatile in that they can also positively impact lymphocyte functionality, as exemplified by their role in natural killer (NK) cell education, often referred to as ’licensing‘. Recent discoveries using defined mouse models of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection have revealed that select self-MHC I IRs can increase NK cell antiviral defenses as well, whereas other licensing IRs cannot, or instead impede virus-specific NK responses for reasons that remain poorly understood. This review highlights a role for self-MHC I ‘licensing’ IRs in antiviral immunity, especially in the context of CMV infection, their impact on virus-specific NK cells during acute infection, and their potential to affect viral pathogenesis and disease.
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5
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Zamai L, Del Zotto G, Buccella F, Gabrielli S, Canonico B, Artico M, Ortolani C, Papa S. Understanding the Synergy of NKp46 and Co-Activating Signals in Various NK Cell Subpopulations: Paving the Way for More Successful NK-Cell-Based Immunotherapy. Cells 2020; 9:cells9030753. [PMID: 32204481 PMCID: PMC7140651 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The NK cell population is characterized by distinct NK cell subsets that respond differently to the various activating stimuli. For this reason, the determination of the optimal cytotoxic activation of the different NK cell subsets can be a crucial aspect to be exploited to counter cancer cells in oncologic patients. To evaluate how the triggering of different combination of activating receptors can affect the cytotoxic responses of different NK cell subsets, we developed a microbead-based degranulation assay. By using this new assay, we were able to detect CD107a+ degranulating NK cells even within the less cytotoxic subsets (i.e., resting CD56bright and unlicensed CD56dim NK cells), thus demonstrating its high sensitivity. Interestingly, signals delivered by the co-engagement of NKp46 with 2B4, but not with CD2 or DNAM-1, strongly cooperate to enhance degranulation on both licensed and unlicensed CD56dim NK cells. Of note, 2B4 is known to bind CD48 hematopoietic antigen, therefore this observation may provide the rationale why CD56dim subset expansion correlates with successful hematopoietic stem cell transplantation mediated by alloreactive NK cells against host T, DC and leukemic cells, while sparing host non-hematopoietic tissues and graft versus host disease. The assay further confirms that activation of LFA-1 on NK cells leads to their granule polarization, even if, in some cases, this also takes to an inhibition of NK cell degranulation, suggesting that LFA-1 engagement by ICAMs on target cells may differently affect NK cell response. Finally, we observed that NK cells undergo a time-dependent spontaneous (cytokine-independent) activation after blood withdrawal, an aspect that may strongly bias the evaluation of the resting NK cell response. Altogether our data may pave the way to develop new NK cell activation and expansion strategies that target the highly cytotoxic CD56dim NK cells and can be feasible and useful for cancer and viral infection treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loris Zamai
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, 61032 Urbino, Italy
- INFN-Gran Sasso National Laboratory, Assergi, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0722-304319; Fax: +39-0722-304319
| | - Genny Del Zotto
- Area Aggregazione Servizi e Laboratori Diagnostici, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, 16147 Genoa, Italy
| | - Flavia Buccella
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, 61032 Urbino, Italy
| | - Sara Gabrielli
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, 61032 Urbino, Italy
| | - Barbara Canonico
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, 61032 Urbino, Italy
| | - Marco Artico
- Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Claudio Ortolani
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, 61032 Urbino, Italy
| | - Stefano Papa
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, 61032 Urbino, Italy
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6
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Zamai L, Del Zotto G, Buccella F, Gabrielli S, Canonico B, Artico M, Ortolani C, Papa S. Understanding the Synergy of NKp46 and Co-Activating Signals in Various NK Cell Subpopulations: Paving the Way for More Successful NK-Cell-Based Immunotherapy. Cells 2020. [PMID: 32204481 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030753.pmid:32204481;pmcid:pmc7140651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The NK cell population is characterized by distinct NK cell subsets that respond differently to the various activating stimuli. For this reason, the determination of the optimal cytotoxic activation of the different NK cell subsets can be a crucial aspect to be exploited to counter cancer cells in oncologic patients. To evaluate how the triggering of different combination of activating receptors can affect the cytotoxic responses of different NK cell subsets, we developed a microbead-based degranulation assay. By using this new assay, we were able to detect CD107a+ degranulating NK cells even within the less cytotoxic subsets (i.e., resting CD56bright and unlicensed CD56dim NK cells), thus demonstrating its high sensitivity. Interestingly, signals delivered by the co-engagement of NKp46 with 2B4, but not with CD2 or DNAM-1, strongly cooperate to enhance degranulation on both licensed and unlicensed CD56dim NK cells. Of note, 2B4 is known to bind CD48 hematopoietic antigen, therefore this observation may provide the rationale why CD56dim subset expansion correlates with successful hematopoietic stem cell transplantation mediated by alloreactive NK cells against host T, DC and leukemic cells, while sparing host non-hematopoietic tissues and graft versus host disease. The assay further confirms that activation of LFA-1 on NK cells leads to their granule polarization, even if, in some cases, this also takes to an inhibition of NK cell degranulation, suggesting that LFA-1 engagement by ICAMs on target cells may differently affect NK cell response. Finally, we observed that NK cells undergo a time-dependent spontaneous (cytokine-independent) activation after blood withdrawal, an aspect that may strongly bias the evaluation of the resting NK cell response. Altogether our data may pave the way to develop new NK cell activation and expansion strategies that target the highly cytotoxic CD56dim NK cells and can be feasible and useful for cancer and viral infection treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loris Zamai
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino "Carlo Bo", 61032 Urbino, Italy
- INFN-Gran Sasso National Laboratory, Assergi, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Genny Del Zotto
- Area Aggregazione Servizi e Laboratori Diagnostici, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, 16147 Genoa, Italy
| | - Flavia Buccella
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino "Carlo Bo", 61032 Urbino, Italy
| | - Sara Gabrielli
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino "Carlo Bo", 61032 Urbino, Italy
| | - Barbara Canonico
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino "Carlo Bo", 61032 Urbino, Italy
| | - Marco Artico
- Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Claudio Ortolani
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino "Carlo Bo", 61032 Urbino, Italy
| | - Stefano Papa
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino "Carlo Bo", 61032 Urbino, Italy
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7
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Chen S, Li D, Wang Y, Li Q, Dong Z. Regulation of MHC class I-independent NK cell education by SLAM family receptors. Adv Immunol 2019; 145:159-185. [PMID: 32081197 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ai.2019.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Seven members of signaling lymphocytic activation molecule (SLAM) family receptors (SFRs) are ubiquitously expressed on hematopoietic cells and they play critical roles in immune cell differentiation and activation. The engagement of these receptors transmits intracellular signaling mainly by recruiting SLAM-associated protein (SAP) and its related adaptors, EWS-FLI1-activated transcript-2 (EAT-2) and EAT-2-related transducer (ERT). The critical roles of SFRs and SAP-family adaptors are highlighted by the discovery that SAP is mutated in human X-linked lymphoproliferative (XLP1) disease in which the contact between T and B cells in germinal center and cytotoxic lymphocytes (NK cells and CD8+ T cells) function are severely compromised. These immune defects are closely associated with the defective antibody production and the high incidence of lymphoma in the patients with XLP1. In addition to these well-known functions, SLAM-SAP family is involved in NK cell education, a process describing NK cell functional competence. In this chapter, we will mainly discuss these unappreciated roles of SAP-dependent and SAP-independent SFR signaling in regulating MHC-I-independent NK cell education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shasha Chen
- School of Medicine and Institute for Immunology, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
| | - Dan Li
- School of Medicine and Institute for Immunology, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuande Wang
- School of Medicine and Institute for Immunology, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Qiaozhen Li
- School of Medicine and Institute for Immunology, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhongjun Dong
- School of Medicine and Institute for Immunology, Beijing Key Lab for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
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8
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Choucair K, Duff JR, Cassidy CS, Albrethsen MT, Kelso JD, Lenhard A, Staats H, Patel R, Brunicardi FC, Dworkin L, Nemunaitis J. Natural killer cells: a review of biology, therapeutic potential and challenges in treatment of solid tumors. Future Oncol 2019; 15:3053-3069. [DOI: 10.2217/fon-2019-0116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells lead immune surveillance against cancer and early elimination of small tumors. Owing to their ability to engage tumor targets without the need of specific antigen, the therapeutic potential of NK cells has been extensively explored in hematological malignancies. In solid tumors, however, their role in the clinical arena remains poorly exploited despite a broad accumulation of preclinical data. In this article, we review our current knowledge of NK cells’ biology, and highlight the challenges facing NK cell antitumor strategies in solid tumors. We further summarize the abundant preclinical attempts at overcoming these challenges, present past and ongoing clinical trial data and finally discuss the potential impact of novel insights on the development of NK cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalil Choucair
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Joseph R Duff
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Christine S Cassidy
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Mary T Albrethsen
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Jesse D Kelso
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Amanda Lenhard
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Hannah Staats
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Rayna Patel
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - F Charles Brunicardi
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Lance Dworkin
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - John Nemunaitis
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
- ProMedica Health System, Toledo, OH 43604, USA
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9
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Železnjak J, Lisnić VJ, Popović B, Lisnić B, Babić M, Halenius A, L'Hernault A, Roviš TL, Hengel H, Erhard F, Redwood AJ, Vidal SM, Dölken L, Krmpotić A, Jonjić S. The complex of MCMV proteins and MHC class I evades NK cell control and drives the evolution of virus-specific activating Ly49 receptors. J Exp Med 2019; 216:1809-1827. [PMID: 31142589 PMCID: PMC6683999 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20182213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Železnjak et al. demonstrate that two MCMV-encoded proteins interact with MHC I molecules, forming an altered-self complex that prevents missing self recognition by increasing specificity for inhibitory Ly49 receptors. This led to the evolution of CMV-specific activating Ly49s. CMVs efficiently target MHC I molecules to avoid recognition by cytotoxic T cells. However, the lack of MHC I on the cell surface renders the infected cell susceptible to NK cell killing upon missing self recognition. To counter this, mouse CMV (MCMV) rescues some MHC I molecules to engage inhibitory Ly49 receptors. Here we identify a new viral protein, MATp1, that is essential for MHC I surface rescue. Rescued altered-self MHC I molecules show increased affinity to inhibitory Ly49 receptors, resulting in inhibition of NK cells despite substantially reduced MHC I surface levels. This enables the virus to evade recognition by licensed NK cells. During evolution, this novel viral immune evasion mechanism could have prompted the development of activating NK cell receptors that are specific for MATp1-modified altered-self MHC I molecules. Our study solves a long-standing conundrum of how MCMV avoids recognition by NK cells, unravels a fundamental new viral immune evasion mechanism, and demonstrates how this forced the evolution of virus-specific activating MHC I–restricted Ly49 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Železnjak
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Vanda Juranić Lisnić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Branka Popović
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Berislav Lisnić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Marina Babić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Innate Immunity, German Rheumatism Research Centre, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anne Halenius
- Institute of Virology, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Anne L'Hernault
- Precision Medicine and Genomics, Innovative Medicines and Early Development Biotech Unit, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Tihana Lenac Roviš
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.,Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Hartmut Hengel
- Institute of Virology, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Florian Erhard
- Institute of Virology and Immunobiology, Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Alec J Redwood
- Institute for Respiratory Health, University of Western Australia, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Silvia M Vidal
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,McGill Center for Complex Traits, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Lars Dölken
- Institute of Virology and Immunobiology, Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Astrid Krmpotić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Stipan Jonjić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia .,Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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10
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Le Luduec JB, Boudreau JE, Freiberg JC, Hsu KC. Novel Approach to Cell Surface Discrimination Between KIR2DL1 Subtypes and KIR2DS1 Identifies Hierarchies in NK Repertoire, Education, and Tolerance. Front Immunol 2019; 10:734. [PMID: 31024561 PMCID: PMC6460669 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cumulative activating and inhibitory receptor signaling controls the functional output of individual natural killer (NK) cells. Investigation of how competing signals impact response, however, has been hampered by the lack of available antibodies capable of distinguishing inhibitory and activating receptors with highly homologous ectodomains. Utilizing a novel combination of monoclonal antibodies with specificity for discrete inhibitory KIR2DL1 and activating KIR2DS1 allotypes found among 230 healthy donors, we investigated allele-specific receptor expression and function driven by KIR2DL1 and KIR2DS1 alleles. We found that co-expression of the HLA-C2 ligand diminishes KIR2DL1, but not KIR2DS1, cell surface staining, but does not impact the respective frequencies of KIR2DL1- and KIR2DS1-expressing cells within the NK repertoire. We can distinguish by flow cytometry NK cell populations expressing the most common KIR2DL1-C245 allotypes from those expressing the most common KIR2DL1-R245 allotypes, and we show that the informative differential binding anti-KIR2DL1/S1 clone 1127B is determined by amino acid residue T154. Although both KIR2DL1-C245 and KIR2DL1-R245 subtypes can be co-expressed in the same cell, NK cells preferentially express one or the other. Cells expressing KIR2DL1-C245 exhibited a lower KIR2DL1 cell surface density and lower missing-self reactivity in comparison to cells expressing KIR2DL1-R245. We found no difference, however, in sensitivity to inhibition or cell surface stability between the two KIR2DL1 isoforms, and both demonstrated similar expansion among NKG2C+ KIR2DL1+ NK cells in HCMV-seropositive healthy individuals. In addition to cell surface density of KIR2DL1, copy number of cognate HLA-C2 hierarchically impacted the effector capacity of both KIR2DL1+ cells and the tolerization of KIR2DS1+ NK cells. HLA-C2 tolerization of KIR2DS1+ NK cells could be overridden, however, by education via co-expressed self-specific inhibitory receptors, such as the heterodimer CD94/NKG2A. Our results demonstrate that effector function of NK cells expressing KIR2DL1 or KIR2DS1 is highly influenced by genetic variability and is calibrated by co-expression of additional NK receptors and cognate HLA-C2 ligands. These findings define the molecular conditions under which NK cells are activated or inhibited, potentially informing selection of donors for adoptive NK therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Benoît Le Luduec
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Jeanette E. Boudreau
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Julian C. Freiberg
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Katharine C. Hsu
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
- Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, United States
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11
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Niogret C, Miah SMS, Rota G, Fonta NP, Wang H, Held W, Birchmeier W, Sexl V, Yang W, Vivier E, Ho PC, Brossay L, Guarda G. Shp-2 is critical for ERK and metabolic engagement downstream of IL-15 receptor in NK cells. Nat Commun 2019; 10:1444. [PMID: 30926899 PMCID: PMC6441079 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-09431-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The phosphatase Shp-2 was implicated in NK cell development and functions due to its interaction with NK inhibitory receptors, but its exact role in NK cells is still unclear. Here we show, using mice conditionally deficient for Shp-2 in the NK lineage, that NK cell development and responsiveness are largely unaffected. Instead, we find that Shp-2 serves mainly to enforce NK cell responses to activation by IL-15 and IL-2. Shp-2-deficient NK cells have reduced proliferation and survival when treated with high dose IL-15 or IL-2. Mechanistically, Shp-2 deficiency hampers acute IL-15 stimulation-induced raise in glycolytic and respiration rates, and causes a dramatic defect in ERK activation. Moreover, inhibition of the ERK and mTOR cascades largely phenocopies the defect observed in the absence of Shp-2. Together, our data reveal a critical function of Shp-2 as a molecular nexus bridging acute IL-15 signaling with downstream metabolic burst and NK cell expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlène Niogret
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - S M Shahjahan Miah
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and Graduate Program in Pathobiology, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University Alpert Medical School, Providence, RI, 02912, USA
| | - Giorgia Rota
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas P Fonta
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland.,Università della Svizzera italiana (USI), Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Institute for Research in Biomedicine, 6500, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Haiping Wang
- Department of Oncology UNIL CHUV, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland.,Department of Fundamental Oncology, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Werner Held
- Department of Oncology UNIL CHUV, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Walter Birchmeier
- Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in the Helmholtz Society, 13125, Berlin, Germany
| | - Veronica Sexl
- Department for Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wentian Yang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Rhode Island Hospital and Brown University Alpert Medical School, 1 Hoppin Street, Providence, RI, 02903, USA
| | - Eric Vivier
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, Inserm, CNRS, Avenue de Luminy, 13288, Marseille, France.,Service d'Immunologie, Hôpital de la Timone, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille, 13385, Marseille, France.,Innate Pharma Research Labs., Innate Pharma, 117 Avenue de Luminy, 13276, Marseille, France
| | - Ping-Chih Ho
- Department of Oncology UNIL CHUV, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland.,Department of Fundamental Oncology, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Laurent Brossay
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and Graduate Program in Pathobiology, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University Alpert Medical School, Providence, RI, 02912, USA.
| | - Greta Guarda
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland. .,Università della Svizzera italiana (USI), Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Institute for Research in Biomedicine, 6500, Bellinzona, Switzerland.
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12
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Shi L, Li K, Guo Y, Banerjee A, Wang Q, Lorenz UM, Parlak M, Sullivan LC, Onyema OO, Arefanian S, Stelow EB, Brautigan DL, Bullock TNJ, Brown MG, Krupnick AS. Modulation of NKG2D, NKp46, and Ly49C/I facilitates natural killer cell-mediated control of lung cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:11808-11813. [PMID: 30381460 PMCID: PMC6243255 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1804931115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells play a critical role in controlling malignancies. Susceptibility or resistance to lung cancer, for example, specifically depends on NK cell function. Nevertheless, intrinsic factors that control NK cell-mediated clearance of lung cancer are unknown. Here we report that NK cells exposed to exogenous major histocompatibility class I (MHCI) provide a significant immunologic barrier to the growth and progression of malignancy. Clearance of lung cancer is facilitated by up-regulation of NKG2D, NKp46, and other activating receptors upon exposure to environmental MHCI. Surface expression of the inhibitory receptor Ly49C/I, on the other hand, is down-regulated upon exposure to tumor-bearing tissue. We thus demonstrate that NK cells exhibit dynamic plasticity in surface expression of both activating and inhibitory receptors based on the environmental context. Our data suggest that altering the activation state of NK cells may contribute to immunologic control of lung and possibly other cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Shi
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi 710049, China
- Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Kang Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi 710049, China
- Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Yizhan Guo
- Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Anirban Banerjee
- Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Qing Wang
- Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Ulrike M Lorenz
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Mahmut Parlak
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Lucy C Sullivan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Oscar Okwudiri Onyema
- Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Saeed Arefanian
- Department of Surgery, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 43110
| | - Edward B Stelow
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - David L Brautigan
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Timothy N J Bullock
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Michael G Brown
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Alexander Sasha Krupnick
- Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908;
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
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13
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SLAM family receptors in natural killer cells - Mediators of adhesion, activation and inhibition via cis and trans interactions. Clin Immunol 2018; 204:37-42. [PMID: 30359773 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2018.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
SLAM family receptors are important for the fine-tuning of immune reactions. Their expression is restricted to cells of hematopoietic origin and most SLAM family receptors are their own ligand. Here we review how these receptors are involved in regulating the functions of Natural Killer (NK) cells. We discuss that promoting cellular adhesion may be a main function of SLAM family receptors in NK cells. The homophilic interactions of SLAM family receptors can not only occur in trans between different cells, but also in cis on the surface of the same cell. This cis interaction additionally modulates the function of the receptors and subsequently affects the activities of NK cells. Finally, SLAM-family receptors can also mediate inhibitory signals under certain conditions. These inhibitory signals can contribute to the functional maturation of NK cells during NK cell education. Therefore, SLAM family receptors are critically involved in many aspects of NK cell functionality.
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14
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Rapp M, Wiedemann GM, Sun JC. Memory responses of innate lymphocytes and parallels with T cells. Semin Immunopathol 2018; 40:343-355. [PMID: 29808388 PMCID: PMC6054893 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-018-0686-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are classified as innate immune cells, given their ability to rapidly respond and kill transformed or virally infected cells without prior sensitization. Recently, accumulating evidence suggests that NK cells also exhibit many characteristics similar to cells of the adaptive immune system. Analogous to T cells, NK cells acquire self-tolerance during development, express antigen-specific receptors, undergo clonal-like expansion, and can become long-lived, self-renewing memory cells with potent effector function providing potent protection against reappearing pathogens. In this review, we discuss the requirements for memory NK cell generation and highlight the similarities with the formation of memory T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Rapp
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 408 East 69th Street, ZRC-1462, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Gabriela M Wiedemann
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 408 East 69th Street, ZRC-1462, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Joseph C Sun
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 408 East 69th Street, ZRC-1462, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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15
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Mace EM. Phosphoinositide-3-Kinase Signaling in Human Natural Killer Cells: New Insights from Primary Immunodeficiency. Front Immunol 2018; 9:445. [PMID: 29563913 PMCID: PMC5845875 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human natural killer (NK) cells play a critical role in the control of viral infections and malignancy. Their importance in human health and disease is illustrated by severe viral infections in patients with primary immunodeficiencies that affect NK cell function and/or development. The recent identification of patients with phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)-signaling pathway mutations that can cause primary immunodeficiency provides valuable insight into the role that PI3K signaling plays in human NK cell maturation and lytic function. There is a rich literature that demonstrates a requirement for PI3K in multiple key aspects of NK cell biology, including development/maturation, homing, priming, and function. Here, I briefly review these previous studies and place them in context with recent findings from the study of primary immunodeficiency patients, particularly those with hyperactivating mutations in PI3Kδ signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily M Mace
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Center for Human Immunobiology, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
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16
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Staaf E, Hedde PN, Bagawath Singh S, Piguet J, Gratton E, Johansson S. Educated natural killer cells show dynamic movement of the activating receptor NKp46 and confinement of the inhibitory receptor Ly49A. Sci Signal 2018; 11:11/517/eaai9200. [PMID: 29440510 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aai9200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Educated natural killer (NK) cells have inhibitory receptors specific for self major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules and kill cancer cells more efficiently than do NK cells that do not have such receptors (hyporesponsive NK cells). The mechanism behind this functional empowerment through education has so far not been fully described. In addition, distinctive phenotypic markers of educated NK cells at the single-cell level are lacking. We developed a refined version of the image mean square displacement (iMSD) method (called iMSD carpet analysis) and used it in combination with single-particle tracking to characterize the dynamics of the activating receptor NKp46 and the inhibitory receptor Ly49A on resting educated versus hyporesponsive murine NK cells. Most of the NKp46 and Ly49A molecules were restricted to microdomains; however, individual NKp46 molecules resided in these domains for shorter periods and diffused faster on the surface of educated, compared to hyporesponsive, NK cells. In contrast, the movement of Ly49A was more constrained in educated NK cells compared to hyporesponsive NK cells. Either disrupting the actin cytoskeleton or adding cholesterol to the cells prohibited activating signaling, suggesting that the dynamics of receptor movements within the cell membrane are critical for the proper activation of NK cells. The faster and more dynamic movement of NKp46 in educated NK cells may facilitate a swifter response to interactions with target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Staaf
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Per Niklas Hedde
- Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2715, USA
| | - Sunitha Bagawath Singh
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Joachim Piguet
- Experimental Biomolecular Physics, Department of Applied Physics, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Enrico Gratton
- Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-2715, USA
| | - Sofia Johansson
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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17
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Immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif-dependent functions of an MHC class I-specific NK cell receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E8440-E8447. [PMID: 28923946 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1713064114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells express MHC class I (MHC-I)-specific receptors, such as Ly49A, that inhibit killing of cells expressing self-MHC-I. Self-MHC-I also "licenses" NK cells to become responsive to activating stimuli and regulates the surface level of NK-cell inhibitory receptors. However, the mechanisms of action resulting from these interactions of the Ly49s with their MHC-I ligands, particularly in vivo, have been controversial. Definitive studies could be derived from mice with targeted mutations in inhibitory Ly49s, but there are inherent challenges in specifically altering a single gene within a multigene family. Herein, we generated a knock-in mouse with a targeted mutation in the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) of Ly49A that abolished the inhibitory function of Ly49A in cytotoxicity assays. This mutant Ly49A caused a licensing defect in NK cells, but the surface expression of Ly49A was unaltered. Moreover, NK cells that expressed this mutant Ly49A exhibited an altered inhibitory receptor repertoire. These results demonstrate that Ly49A ITIM signaling is critical for NK-cell effector inhibition, licensing, and receptor repertoire development.
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18
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Nabekura T, Lanier LL. Activating Receptors for Self-MHC Class I Enhance Effector Functions and Memory Differentiation of NK Cells during Mouse Cytomegalovirus Infection. Immunity 2017; 45:74-82. [PMID: 27438766 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2016.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are important in host defense against pathogens, and they can subsequently differentiate into memory NK cells. The Ly49 and KIR gene families in rodents and humans encode both inhibitory and activating receptors for MHC class I. The physiological role of activating KIR or Ly49 receptors that recognize self-MHC class I during immune response to viral infections is unknown. Here, we address how the activating Ly49D receptor impacts the NK cell response to mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection by comparing the activation and differentiation of Ly49D-bearing NK cells in mice lacking or expressing H-2D(d), the cognate MHC class I ligand of Ly49D. After MCMV infection, Ly49D augmented IFN-γ production by MCMV-specific Ly49H(+) NK cells and preferentially promoted the generation of memory Ly49H(+) NK cells. Thus, activating receptors for self-MHC class I modulate the differentiation of MCMV-specific NK cells and are beneficial for host defense against MCMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsukasa Nabekura
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Life Science Center, Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577, Japan
| | - Lewis L Lanier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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19
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Carlsten M, Korde N, Kotecha R, Reger R, Bor S, Kazandjian D, Landgren O, Childs RW. Checkpoint Inhibition of KIR2D with the Monoclonal Antibody IPH2101 Induces Contraction and Hyporesponsiveness of NK Cells in Patients with Myeloma. Clin Cancer Res 2016; 22:5211-5222. [PMID: 27307594 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-16-1108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Immune checkpoint inhibitors have recently revolutionized cancer immunotherapy. On the basis of data showing KIR-ligand mismatched natural killer (NK) cells reduce the risk of leukemia and multiple myeloma relapse following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, investigators have developed a checkpoint inhibition antibody that blocks KIR on NK cells. Although in vitro studies suggest the KIR2D-specific antibody IPH2101 induces KIR-ligand mismatched tumor killing by NK cells, our single-arm phase II clinical trial in patients with smoldering multiple myeloma was prematurely terminated due to lack of clinical efficacy. This study aimed at unveiling the underlying mechanisms behind the lack of clinical efficacy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Treatment-naïve patients received an intravenous infusion of 1 mg/kg IPH2101 every other month for up to a year. Peripheral blood was collected at baseline and 24 hours after first infusion, followed by weekly samples for the first month and monthly samples thereafter. NK cell phenotype and function was analyzed using high-resolution flow cytometry. RESULTS Unexpectedly, infusion of IPH2101 resulted in rapid reduction in both NK cell responsiveness and KIR2D expression on the NK cell surface. In vitro assays revealed KIR2D molecules are removed from the surface of IPH2101-treated NK cells by trogocytosis, with reductions in NK cell function directly correlating with loss of free KIR2D surface molecules. Although IPH2101 marginally augmented the antimyeloma cytotoxicity of remaining KIR2Ddull patient NK cells, the overall response was diminished by significant contraction and reduced function of KIR2D-expressing NK cells. CONCLUSIONS These data raise concerns that the unexpected biological events reported in this study could compromise antibody-based strategies designed at augmenting NK cell tumor killing via checkpoint inhibition. Clin Cancer Res; 22(21); 5211-22. ©2016 AACRSee related commentary by Felices and Miller, p. 5161.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattias Carlsten
- Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Neha Korde
- Metabolism Branch, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Ritesh Kotecha
- Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Robert Reger
- Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Simona Bor
- Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | | | | | - Richard W Childs
- Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland.
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20
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Landtwing V, Raykova A, Pezzino G, Béziat V, Marcenaro E, Graf C, Moretta A, Capaul R, Zbinden A, Ferlazzo G, Malmberg KJ, Chijioke O, Münz C. Cognate HLA absence in trans diminishes human NK cell education. J Clin Invest 2016; 126:3772-3782. [PMID: 27571408 DOI: 10.1172/jci86923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
NK cells are innate lymphocytes with protective functions against viral infections and tumor formation. Human NK cells carry inhibitory killer cell Ig-like receptors (KIRs), which recognize distinct HLAs. NK cells with KIRs for self-HLA molecules acquire superior cytotoxicity against HLA- tumor cells during education for improved missing-self recognition. Here, we reconstituted mice with human hematopoietic cells from donors with homozygous KIR ligands or with a mix of hematopoietic cells from these homozygous donors, allowing assessment of the resulting KIR repertoire and NK cell education. We found that co-reconstitution with 2 KIR ligand-mismatched compartments did not alter the frequency of KIR-expressing NK cells. However, NK cell education was diminished in mice reconstituted with parallel HLA compartments due to a lack of cognate HLA molecules on leukocytes for the corresponding KIRs. This change in NK cell education in mixed human donor-reconstituted mice improved NK cell-mediated immune control of EBV infection, indicating that mixed hematopoietic cell populations could be exploited to improve NK cell reactivity against leukotropic pathogens. Taken together, these findings indicate that leukocytes lacking cognate HLA ligands can disarm KIR+ NK cells in a manner that may decrease HLA- tumor cell recognition but allows for improved NK cell-mediated immune control of a human γ-herpesvirus.
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21
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Metronomic cyclophosphamide activation of anti-tumor immunity: tumor model, mouse host, and drug schedule dependence of gene responses and their upstream regulators. BMC Cancer 2016; 16:623. [PMID: 27515027 PMCID: PMC4982114 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-016-2597-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cyclophosphamide (CPA) can activate immunogenic tumor cell death, which induces immune-based tumor ablation and long-term anti-tumor immunity in a syngeneic C57BL/6 (B6) mouse GL261 glioma model when CPA is given on a 6-day repeating metronomic schedule (CPA/6d). In contrast, we find that two other syngeneic B6 mouse tumors, LLC lung carcinoma and B16F10 melanoma, do not exhibit these drug-induced immune responses despite their intrinsic sensitivity to CPA cytotoxicity. Methods To elucidate underlying mechanisms, we investigated gene expression and molecular pathway changes associated with the disparate immune responsiveness of these tumors to CPA/6d treatment. Results Global transcriptome analysis indicated substantial elevation of basal GL261 immune infiltration and strong CPA/6d activation of GL261 immune stimulatory pathways and their upstream regulators, but without preferential depletion of negative immune regulators compared to LLC and B16F10 tumors. In LLC tumors, where CPA/6d treatment is shown to be anti-angiogenic, CPA/6d suppressed VEGFA target genes and down regulated cell adhesion and leukocyte transendothelial migration genes. In GL261 tumors implanted in adaptive immune-deficient scid mice, where CPA/6d-induced GL261 regression is incomplete and late tumor growth rebound can occur, T cell receptor signaling and certain cytokine-cytokine receptor responses seen in B6 mice were deficient. Extending the CPA treatment interval from 6 to 9 days (CPA/9d) − which results in a strong but transient natural killer cell response followed by early tumor growth rebound − induced fewer cytokines and increased expression of drug metabolism genes. Conclusions These findings elucidate molecular response pathways activated by intermittent metronomic CPA treatment and identify deficiencies that characterize immune-unresponsive tumor models and drug schedules. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-016-2597-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Boudreau JE, Liu XR, Zhao Z, Zhang A, Shultz LD, Greiner DL, Dupont B, Hsu KC. Cell-Extrinsic MHC Class I Molecule Engagement Augments Human NK Cell Education Programmed by Cell-Intrinsic MHC Class I. Immunity 2016; 45:280-91. [PMID: 27496730 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2016.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2016] [Revised: 04/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The effector potential of NK cells is counterbalanced by their sensitivity to inhibition by "self" MHC class I molecules in a process called "education." In humans, interactions between inhibitory killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) and human MHC (HLA) mediate NK cell education. In HLA-B(∗)27:05(+) transgenic mice and in patients undergoing HLA-mismatched hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT), NK cells derived from human CD34(+) stem cells were educated by HLA from both donor hematopoietic cells and host stromal cells. Furthermore, mature human KIR3DL1(+) NK cells gained reactivity after adoptive transfer to HLA-B(∗)27:05(+) mice or bone marrow chimeric mice where HLA-B(∗)27:05 was restricted to either the hematopoietic or stromal compartment. Silencing of HLA in primary NK cells diminished NK cell reactivity, while acquisition of HLA from neighboring cells increased NK cell reactivity. Altogether, these findings reveal roles for cell-extrinsic HLA in driving NK cell reactivity upward, and cell-intrinsic HLA in maintaining NK cell education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanette E Boudreau
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Xiao-Rong Liu
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Zeguo Zhao
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Aaron Zhang
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | | | - Dale L Greiner
- Program in Molecular Medicine Diabetes Center of Excellence, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Bo Dupont
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Katharine C Hsu
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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23
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NK cell education via nonclassical MHC and non-MHC ligands. Cell Mol Immunol 2016; 14:321-330. [PMID: 27264685 PMCID: PMC5380944 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2016.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cell education, a process for achieving functional maturation and self-tolerance, has been previously defined by the interaction between self-major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules and their specific inhibitory receptors. Over the past several years, growing evidence has highlighted the important roles of nonclassical MHC-I and non-MHC-I molecules in NK cell education. Herein, we review the current knowledge of NK cell education, with a particular focus on nonclassical MHC-I- and non-MHC-I-dependent education, and compare them with the classical MHC-I-dependent education theory. In addition, we update and extend this theory by presenting the 'Confining Model', discussing cis and trans characteristics, reassessing quantity and quality control, and elucidating the redundancy of NK cell education in tumor and virus infection.
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24
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Forbes CA, Scalzo AA, Degli-Esposti MA, Coudert JD. Ly49C Impairs NK Cell Memory in Mouse Cytomegalovirus Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 197:128-40. [PMID: 27233959 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
NK cells possess inhibitory receptors that are responsible for self-MHC class I recognition; beyond their inhibitory function, accumulating evidence indicates that such receptors confer NK cell functional competence through an unclear process termed "licensing." Ly49C is the main self-specific inhibitory Ly49 receptor in H-2(b) C57BL/6 (B6) mice. We used B6 Ly49C-transgenic and B6 β2 microglobulin (β2m)-knockout Ly49C-transgenic mice to investigate the impact of licensing through this inhibitory receptor in precursor and mature NK cells. We found that self-specific inhibitory receptors affected NK cell precursor survival and proliferation at particular developmental stages in an MHC class I-dependent manner. The presence of Ly49C impacted the NK cell repertoire in a β2m-dependent manner, with reduced Ly49A(+), Ly49G2(+), and Ly49D(+) subsets, an increased DNAM-1(+) subset, and higher NKG2D expression. Licensed NK cells displayed a skewed distribution of the maturation stages, which was characterized by differential CD27 and CD11b expression, toward the mature phenotypes. We found that Ly49C-mediated licensing induced a split effect on NK cell functions, with increased cytokine-production capabilities following engagement of various activating receptors while cytotoxicity remained unchanged. Analysis of licensed NK cell functions in vivo, in a system of mouse CMV infection, indicated that licensing did not play a major role in the NK cell antiviral response during acute infection, but it strongly impaired the generation and/or persistence of memory NK cells. This study unravels multifaceted effects of licensing on NK cell populations and their functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Forbes
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia; and
| | - Anthony A Scalzo
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia; and
| | - Mariapia A Degli-Esposti
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia; and Centre for Ophthalmology and Vision Science, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Jerome D Coudert
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia; and Centre for Ophthalmology and Vision Science, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
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25
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Claus M, Wingert S, Watzl C. Modulation of natural killer cell functions by interactions between 2B4 and CD48 in cis and in trans. Open Biol 2016; 6:rsob.160010. [PMID: 27249817 PMCID: PMC4892432 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.160010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
SLAM-related receptors (SRRs) are important modulators of immune cell function. While most SRRs are homophilic, 2B4 (CD244) interacts with CD48, a GPI-anchored protein expressed on many haematopoietic cells. Here we show that natural killer (NK) cell-expressed 2B4 not only binds in trans to CD48 on neighbouring cells but also interacts in cis with CD48 on the same cell. 2B4 uses the same binding site to interact with CD48 in cis and in trans and structural flexibility of 2B4 is necessary for the cis interaction. Furthermore, the cis interaction is sufficient to induce basal phosphorylation of 2B4. However, cis interaction reduces the ability of 2B4 to bind CD48 in trans. As a consequence, stimulation-dependent phosphorylation of 2B4 upon binding to CD48 positive target cells is reduced. Interfering with the cis interaction therefore enhanced the lysis of CD48-expressing tumour cells. These data show that the density of 2B4 and CD48 on both the NK cell and the potential target cell modulates NK cell activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maren Claus
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo) Dortmund, Germany
| | - Sabine Wingert
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo) Dortmund, Germany
| | - Carsten Watzl
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo) Dortmund, Germany
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26
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Goodridge JP, Önfelt B, Malmberg KJ. Newtonian cell interactions shape natural killer cell education. Immunol Rev 2016; 267:197-213. [PMID: 26284479 PMCID: PMC4832384 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Newton's third law of motion states that for every action on a physical object there is an equal and opposite reaction. The dynamic change in functional potential of natural killer (NK) cells during education bears many features of such classical mechanics. Cumulative physical interactions between cells, under a constant influence of homeostatic drivers of differentiation, lead to a reactive spectrum that ultimately shapes the functionality of each NK cell. Inhibitory signaling from an array of self‐specific receptors appear not only to suppress self‐reactivity but also aid in the persistence of effector functions over time, thereby allowing the cell to gradually build up a functional potential. Conversely, the frequent non‐cytolytic interactions between normal cells in the absence of such inhibitory signaling result in continuous stimulation of the cells and attenuation of effector function. Although an innate cell, the degree to which the fate of the NK cell is predetermined versus its ability to adapt to its own environment can be revealed through a Newtonian view of NK cell education, one which is both chronological and dynamic. As such, the development of NK cell functional diversity is the product of qualitatively different physical interactions with host cells, rather than simply the sum of their signals or an imprint based on intrinsically different transcriptional programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodie P Goodridge
- The KG Jebsen Center for Cancer Immunotherapy, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Cancer Immunology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Björn Önfelt
- Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Applied Physics, KTH-Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Karl-Johan Malmberg
- The KG Jebsen Center for Cancer Immunotherapy, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Cancer Immunology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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27
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Kadri N, Thanh TL, Höglund P. Selection, tuning, and adaptation in mouse NK cell education. Immunol Rev 2016; 267:167-77. [PMID: 26284477 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells recognize transformed cells with an array of germline-encoded inhibitory and activating receptors. Inhibitory Ly49 receptors bind major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules, providing a mechanism by which NK cells maintain self-tolerance yet eliminate cells expressing reduced levels of MHC-I. Additionally, MHC-I molecules are required for NK cell education, a process in which NK cells acquire responsiveness. In this review, we discuss three facets of MHC class I-dependent education of mouse NK cells: skewing of the inhibitory receptor repertoire, induction of functional responsiveness, and tuning in response to changes in MHC-I expression. We discuss prevailing models for education such as licensing and disarming and propose a model for positive selection of 'useful' NK cell subsets. Furthermore, we argue that both repertoire skewing and functional NK cell education may be altered in mature NK cells subject to changes in MHC-I input and suggest that this process may provide increased dynamics to the NK cell system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadir Kadri
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Thuy Luu Thanh
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Petter Höglund
- Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine (HERM), Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Clinical Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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28
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Tu MM, Mahmoud AB, Makrigiannis AP. Licensed and Unlicensed NK Cells: Differential Roles in Cancer and Viral Control. Front Immunol 2016; 7:166. [PMID: 27199990 PMCID: PMC4852173 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are known for their well characterized ability to control viral infections and eliminate tumor cells. Through their repertoire of activating and inhibitory receptors, NK cells are able to survey different potential target cells for various surface markers, such as MHC-I – which signals to the NK cell that the target is healthy – as well as stress ligands or viral proteins, which alert the NK cell to the aberrant state of the target and initiate a response. According to the “licensing” hypothesis, interactions between self-specific MHC-I receptors – Ly49 in mice and KIR in humans – and self-MHC-I molecules during NK cell development is crucial for NK cell functionality. However, there also exists a large proportion of NK cells in mice and humans, which lack self-specific MHC-I receptors and are consequentially “unlicensed.” While the licensed NK cell subset plays a major role in the control of MHC-I-deficient tumors, this review will go on to highlight the important role of the unlicensed NK cell subset in the control of MHC-I-expressing tumors, as well as in viral control. Unlike the licensed NK cells, unlicensed NK cells seem to benefit from the lack of self-specific inhibitory receptors, which could otherwise be exploited by some aberrant cells for immunoevasion by upregulating the expression of ligands or mimic ligands for these receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan M Tu
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, ON , Canada
| | - Ahmad Bakur Mahmoud
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada; College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Madinah Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Andrew P Makrigiannis
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, ON , Canada
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29
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A hematopoietic cell-driven mechanism involving SLAMF6 receptor, SAP adaptors and SHP-1 phosphatase regulates NK cell education. Nat Immunol 2016; 17:387-96. [PMID: 26878112 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Activation of natural killer (NK) cells by hematopoietic target cells is controlled by the SLAM family of receptors and by the associated SAP family of adaptors. Here we found that SLAM receptors also enhanced NK cell activation by nonhematopoietic target cells, which lack ligands for SLAM receptors. This function was mediated by SLAMF6, a homotypic SLAM receptor found on NK cells and other hematopoietic cells, and was regulated by SAP adaptors, which uncoupled SLAM receptors from phosphatase SHP-1 and diminished the effect of SLAMF6 on NK cell responsiveness toward nonhematopoietic cells. Thus, in addition to their role in NK cell activation by hematopoietic cells, the SLAM-SAP pathways influence responsiveness toward nonhematopoietic targets by a process akin to NK cell 'education'.
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30
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Bagawath-Singh S, Staaf E, Stoppelenburg AJ, Spielmann T, Kambayashi T, Widengren J, Johansson S. Cytokines Induce Faster Membrane Diffusion of MHC Class I and the Ly49A Receptor in a Subpopulation of Natural Killer Cells. Front Immunol 2016; 7:16. [PMID: 26870035 PMCID: PMC4740373 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines have the potential to drastically augment immune cell activity. Apart from altering the expression of a multitude of proteins, cytokines also affect immune cell dynamics. However, how cytokines affect the molecular dynamics within the cell membrane of immune cells has not been addressed previously. Molecular movement is a vital component of all biological processes, and the rate of motion is, thus, an inherent determining factor for the pace of such processes. Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic lymphocytes, which belong to the innate immune system. By fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, we investigated the influence of cytokine stimulation on the membrane density and molecular dynamics of the inhibitory receptor Ly49A and its ligand, the major histocompatibility complex class I allele H-2Dd, in freshly isolated murine NK cells. H-2Dd was densely expressed and diffused slowly in resting NK cells. Ly49A was expressed at a lower density and diffused faster. The diffusion rate in resting cells was not altered by disrupting the actin cytoskeleton. A short-term stimulation with interleukin-2 or interferon-α + β did not change the surface density of moving H-2Dd or Ly49A, despite a slight upregulation at the cellular level of H-2Dd by interferon-α + β, and of Ly49A by IL-2. However, the molecular diffusion rates of both H-2Dd and Ly49A increased significantly. A multivariate analysis revealed that the increased diffusion was especially marked in a subpopulation of NK cells, where the diffusion rate was increased around fourfold compared to resting NK cells. After IL-2 stimulation, this subpopulation of NK cells also displayed lower density of Ly49A and higher brightness per entity, indicating that Ly49A may homo-cluster to a larger extent in these cells. A faster diffusion of inhibitory receptors could enable a faster accumulation of these molecules at the immune synapse with a target cell, eventually leading to a more efficient NK cell response. It has previously been assumed that cytokines regulate immune cells primarily via alterations of protein expression levels or posttranslational modifications. These findings suggest that cytokines may also modulate immune cell efficiency by increasing the molecular dynamics early on in the response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunitha Bagawath-Singh
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Elina Staaf
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Arie Jan Stoppelenburg
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Thiemo Spielmann
- Experimental Biomolecular Physics, Department of Applied Physics, Royal Institute of Technology , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Taku Kambayashi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jerker Widengren
- Experimental Biomolecular Physics, Department of Applied Physics, Royal Institute of Technology , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Sofia Johansson
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
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31
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Alhajjat AM, Strong BS, Lee AE, Turner LE, Wadhwani RK, Ortaldo JR, Heusel JW, Shaaban AF. Prenatal Allospecific NK Cell Tolerance Hinges on Instructive Allorecognition through the Activating Receptor during Development. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:1506-16. [PMID: 26136432 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about how the prenatal interaction between NK cells and alloantigens shapes the developing NK cell repertoire toward tolerance or immunity. Specifically, the effect on NK cell education arising from developmental corecognition of alloantigens by activating and inhibitory receptors with shared specificity is uncharacterized. Using a murine prenatal transplantation model, we examined the manner in which this seemingly conflicting input affects NK cell licensing and repertoire formation in mixed hematopoietic chimeras. We found that prenatal NK cell tolerance arose from the elimination of phenotypically hostile NK cells that express an allospecific activating receptor without coexpressing any allospecific inhibitory receptors. Importantly, the checkpoint for the system appeared to occur centrally within the bone marrow during the final stage of NK cell maturation and hinged on the instructive recognition of allogeneic ligand by the activating receptor rather than through the inhibitory receptor as classically proposed. Residual nondeleted hostile NK cells expressing only the activating receptor exhibited an immature, anergic phenotype, but retained the capacity to upregulate inhibitory receptor expression in peripheral sites. However, the potential for this adaptive change to occur was lost in developmentally mature chimeras. Collectively, these findings illuminate the intrinsic process in which developmental allorecognition through the activating receptor regulates the emergence of durable NK cell tolerance and establishes a new paradigm to fundamentally guide future investigations of prenatal NK cell-allospecific education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir M Alhajjat
- Department of Surgery, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Beverly S Strong
- Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229
| | - Amanda E Lee
- Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229
| | - Lucas E Turner
- Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229
| | - Ram K Wadhwani
- Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229
| | - John R Ortaldo
- Experimental Therapeutics Section, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Jonathan W Heusel
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110; and Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Aimen F Shaaban
- Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229;
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32
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Carrillo-Bustamante P, Kesmir C, de Boer RJ. Can Selective MHC Downregulation Explain the Specificity and Genetic Diversity of NK Cell Receptors? Front Immunol 2015; 6:311. [PMID: 26136746 PMCID: PMC4468891 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells express inhibiting receptors (iNKRs), which specifically bind MHC-I molecules on the surface of healthy cells. When the expression of MHC-I on the cell surface decreases, which might occur during certain viral infections and cancer, iNKRs lose inhibiting signals and the infected cells become target for NK cell activation (missing-self detection). Although the detection of MHC-I deficient cells can be achieved by conserved receptor-ligand interactions, several iNKRs are encoded by gene families with a remarkable genetic diversity, containing many haplotypes varying in gene content and allelic polymorphism. So far, the biological function of this expansion within the NKR cluster has remained poorly understood. Here, we investigate whether the evolution of diverse iNKRs genes can be driven by a specific viral immunoevasive mechanism: selective MHC downregulation. Several viruses, including EBV, CMV, and HIV, decrease the expression of MHC-I to escape from T cell responses. This downregulation does not always affect all MHC loci in the same way, as viruses target particular MHC molecules. To study the selection pressure of selective MHC downregulation on iNKRs, we have developed an agent-based model simulating an evolutionary scenario of hosts infected with herpes-like viruses, which are able to selectively downregulate the expression of MHC-I molecules on the cell surface. We show that iNKRs evolve specificity and, depending on the similarity of MHC alleles within each locus and the differences between the loci, they can specialize to a particular MHC-I locus. The easier it is to classify an MHC allele to its locus, the lower the required diversity of the NKRs. Thus, the diversification of the iNKR cluster depends on the locus specific MHC structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Carrillo-Bustamante
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University , Utrecht , Netherlands
| | - Can Kesmir
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University , Utrecht , Netherlands
| | - Rob J de Boer
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University , Utrecht , Netherlands
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33
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Lampe K, Endale M, Cashman S, Fang H, Mattner J, Hildeman D, Hoebe K. Slp-76 is a critical determinant of NK-cell mediated recognition of missing-self targets. Eur J Immunol 2015; 45:2072-83. [PMID: 25929249 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201445352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Absence of MHC class I expression is an important mechanism by which NK cells recognize a variety of target cells, yet the pathways underlying "missing-self" recognition, including the involvement of activating receptors, remain poorly understood. Using ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis in mice, we identified a germline mutant, designated Ace, with a marked defect in NK cell mediated recognition and elimination of "missing-self" targets. The causative mutation was linked to chromosome 11 and identified as a missense mutation (Thr428Ile) in the SH2 domain of Slp-76-a critical adapter molecule downstream of ITAM-containing surface receptors. The Slp-76 Ace mutation behaved as a hypomorphic allele-while no major defects were observed in conventional T-cell development/function, a marked defect in NK cell mediated elimination of β2-microglobulin (β2M) deficient target cells was observed. Further studies revealed Slp-76 to control NK-cell receptor expression and maturation; however, activation of Slp-76(ace/ace) NK cells through ITAM-containing NK-cell receptors or allogeneic/tumor target cells appeared largely unaffected. Imagestream analysis of the NK-β2M(-/-) target cell synapse revealed a specific defect in actin recruitment to the conjugate synapse in Slp-76(ace/ace) NK cells. Overall these studies establish Slp-76 as a critical determinant of NK-cell development and NK cell mediated elimination of missing-self target cells in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Lampe
- Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Mehari Endale
- Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Siobhan Cashman
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Hao Fang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Jochen Mattner
- Mikrobiologisches Institut - Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - David Hildeman
- Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Kasper Hoebe
- Division of Immunobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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34
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Carrillo-Bustamante P, Keşmir C, de Boer RJ. A Coevolutionary Arms Race between Hosts and Viruses Drives Polymorphism and Polygenicity of NK Cell Receptors. Mol Biol Evol 2015; 32:2149-60. [PMID: 25911231 PMCID: PMC4833080 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msv096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer cell receptors (NKRs) monitor the expression of major histocompatibility class I (MHC-I) and stress molecules to detect unhealthy tissue, such as infected or tumor cells. The NKR gene family shows a remarkable genetic diversity, containing several genes encoding receptors with activating and inhibiting signaling, and varying in gene content and allelic polymorphism. The expansion of the NKR genes is species-specific, with different species evolving alternative expanded NKR genes, which encode structurally different proteins, yet perform comparable functions. So far, the biological function of this expansion within the NKR cluster has remained poorly understood. To study the evolution of NKRs, we have developed an agent-based model implementing a coevolutionary scenario between hosts and herpes-like viruses that are able to evade the immune response by downregulating the expression of MHC-I on the cell surface. We show that hosts evolve specific inhibitory NKRs, specialized to particular MHC-I alleles in the population. Viruses in our simulations readily evolve proteins mimicking the MHC molecules of their host, even in the absence of MHC-I downregulation. As a result, the NKR locus becomes polygenic and polymorphic, encoding both specific inhibiting and activating receptors to optimally protect the hosts from coevolving viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Carrillo-Bustamante
- Theoretical Biology & Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Can Keşmir
- Theoretical Biology & Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Rob J de Boer
- Theoretical Biology & Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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35
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Alhajjat AM, Lee AE, Strong BS, Shaaban AF. NK cell tolerance as the final endorsement of prenatal tolerance after in utero hematopoietic cellular transplantation. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:51. [PMID: 25852555 PMCID: PMC4364176 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary benefits of in utero hematopoietic cellular transplantation (IUHCT) arise from transplanting curative cells prior to the immunologic maturation of the fetus. However, this approach has been routinely successful only in the treatment of congenital immunodeficiency diseases that include an inherent NK cell deficiency despite the existence of normal maternal immunity in either setting. These observations raise the possibility that fetal NK cells function as an early barrier to allogeneic IUHCT. Herein, we summarize the findings of previous studies of prenatal NK cell allospecific tolerance in mice and in humans. Cumulatively, this new information reveals the complexity of the fetal immune response in the setting of rejection or tolerance and illustrates the role for fetal NK cells in the final endorsement of allospecific prenatal tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir M Alhajjat
- Department of Surgery, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA USA
| | - Amanda E Lee
- Center for Fetal Cellular and Molecular Therapy and The Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Beverly S Strong
- Center for Fetal Cellular and Molecular Therapy and The Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Aimen F Shaaban
- Center for Fetal Cellular and Molecular Therapy and The Department of Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH USA
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Thomas LM. Current perspectives on natural killer cell education and tolerance: emerging roles for inhibitory receptors. Immunotargets Ther 2015; 4:45-53. [PMID: 27471711 PMCID: PMC4918248 DOI: 10.2147/itt.s61498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are regulated through the coordinated functions of activating and inhibitory receptors. These receptors can act during the initial engagement of an NK cell with a target cell, or in subsequent NK cell engagements to maintain tolerance. Notably, each individual possesses a sizable minority-population of NK cells that are devoid of inhibitory receptors that recognize the surrounding MHC class I (ie, self-MHC). Since these NK cells cannot perform conventional inhibition, they are rendered less responsive through the process of NK cell education (also known as licensing) in order to reduce the likelihood of auto-reactivity. This review will delineate current views on NK cell education, clarify various misconceptions about NK cell education, and, lastly, discuss the relevance of NK cell education in anti-cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Michael Thomas
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
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37
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Forbes CA, Coudert JD. Mechanisms regulating NK cell activation during viral infection. Future Virol 2015. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl.14.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT NK cells constitute a population of lymphocytes involved in innate immune functions. They play a critical role in antiviral immune surveillance. Viruses have evolved with their host species for millions of years, each exerting a selective pressure upon the other. As a corollary, the pathways used by the immune system that are critical to control viral infection can be revealed by defining the role of viral gene products that are nonessential for virus replication. We relate here the battery of resources available to NK cells to recognize and eliminate viruses and reciprocally the immune evasion mechanisms developed by viruses to prevent NK cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Forbes
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, 2 Verdun St, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Jerome D Coudert
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, 2 Verdun St, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
- Centre for Ophthalmology & Vision Science, M517, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
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38
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Brusilovsky M, Radinsky O, Cohen L, Yossef R, Shemesh A, Braiman A, Mandelboim O, Campbell KS, Porgador A. Regulation of natural cytotoxicity receptors by heparan sulfate proteoglycans in -cis: A lesson from NKp44. Eur J Immunol 2015; 45:1180-91. [PMID: 25546090 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201445177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Revised: 12/21/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
NKp44 (NCR2) is a distinct member of natural cytotoxicity receptors (NCRs) family that can induce cytokine production and cytolytic activity in human NK cells. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are differentially expressed in various normal and cancerous tissues. HSPGs were reported to serve as ligands/co-ligands for NKp44 and other NCRs. However, HSPG expression is not restricted to either group and can be found also in NK cells. Our current study reveals that NKp44 function can be modulated through interactions with HSPGs on NK cells themselves in -cis rather than on target cells in -trans. The intimate interaction of NKp44 and the NK cell-associated HSPG syndecan-4 (SDC4) in -cis can directly regulate membrane distribution of NKp44 and constitutively dampens the triggering of the receptor. We further demonstrate, that the disruption of NKp44 and SDC4 interaction releases the receptor to engage with its ligands in -trans and therefore enhances NKp44 activation potential and NK cell functional response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Brusilovsky
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
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39
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Bodduluru LN, Kasala ER, Madhana RMR, Sriram CS. Natural killer cells: the journey from puzzles in biology to treatment of cancer. Cancer Lett 2014; 357:454-67. [PMID: 25511743 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2014.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2014] [Revised: 12/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Natural Killer (NK) cells are innate immune effectors that are primarily involved in immunosurveillance to spontaneously eliminate malignantly transformed and virally infected cells without prior sensitization. NK cells trigger targeted attack through release of cytotoxic granules, and secrete various cytokines and chemokines to promote subsequent adaptive immune responses. NK cells selectively attack target cells with diminished major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I expression. This "Missing-self" recognition by NK cells at first puzzled researchers in the early 1990s, and the mystery was solved with the discovery of germ line encoded killer immunoglobulin receptors that recognize MHC-I molecules. This review summarizes the biology of NK cells detailing the phenotypes, receptors and functions; interactions of NK cells with dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages and T cells. Further we discuss the various strategies to modulate NK cell activity and the practice of NK cells in cancer immunotherapy employing NK cell lines, autologous, allogeneic and genetically engineered cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lakshmi Narendra Bodduluru
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Guwahati, Assam 781032, India.
| | - Eshvendar Reddy Kasala
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Guwahati, Assam 781032, India
| | - Rajaram Mohan Rao Madhana
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Guwahati, Assam 781032, India
| | - Chandra Shaker Sriram
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Guwahati, Assam 781032, India
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40
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SHP-1-mediated inhibitory signals promote responsiveness and anti-tumour functions of natural killer cells. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5108. [PMID: 25355530 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic innate lymphoid cells that are involved in immune defense. NK cell reactivity is controlled in part by MHC class I recognition by inhibitory receptors, but the underlying molecular mechanisms remain undefined. Using a mouse model of conditional deletion in NK cells, we show here that the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 is essential for the inhibitory function of NK cell MHC class I receptors. In the absence of SHP-1, NK cells are hyporesponsive to tumour cells in vitro and their early Ca(2+) signals are compromised. Mice without SHP-1 in NK cells are unable to reject MHC class I-deficient transplants and to control tumours in vivo. Thus, the inhibitory activity of SHP-1 is needed for setting the threshold of NK cell reactivity.
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Wei H, Nash WT, Makrigiannis AP, Brown MG. Impaired NK-cell education diminishes resistance to murine CMV infection. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:3273-82. [PMID: 25187217 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201444800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Revised: 07/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Ly49G2 (G2+) NK cells mediate murine (M)CMV resistance in MHC D(k) -expressing mice. Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) studies revealed that G2+ NK cell-mediated MCMV resistance requires D(k) in both hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cells. As a Ly49G2 ligand, D(k) in both cell lineages may contribute to lysis of virus-infected cells. Alternatively, cellular differences in self-MHC D(k) may have affected NK-cell education, and consequently NK cell-mediated viral clearance. We investigated the D(k) -licensing effect on BM-derived NK cells in BMT recipients by analyzing cytokines, cytotoxicity and MCMV resistance. In BMT recipients with lineage-restricted D(k) , G2+ NK-cell reactivity and cytotoxicity was diminished in comparison to BMT recipients with self-MHC in all cells. Reduced G2+ NK-mediated MCMV resistance in BMT recipients with lineage-restricted self-MHC indicates that licensing of G2+ NK cells is related to NK-cell reactivity and viral control. Titrating donor BM with self-MHC-bearing hematopoietic cells, as well as adoptive transfer of mature G2+ NK cells into BMT recipients with self-MHC in non-hematopoietic cells only, enhanced NK-cell licensing and rescued MCMV resistance. This disparate self-MHC NK-cell education model would suggest that inadequately licensed NK cells corresponded to inefficient viral sensing and clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hairong Wei
- Department of Medicine, Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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42
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Watzl C, Urlaub D, Fasbender F, Claus M. Natural killer cell regulation - beyond the receptors. F1000PRIME REPORTS 2014; 6:87. [PMID: 25374665 PMCID: PMC4191275 DOI: 10.12703/p6-87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes that are important for early and effective immune responses against infections and cancer. In the last 40 years, many receptors, their corresponding ligands and signaling pathways that regulate NK cell functions have been identified. However, we now know that additional processes, such as NK cell education, differentiation and also the formation of NK cell memory, have a great impact on the reactivity of these cells. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about these modulatory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Watzl
- IfADo - Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors Ardeystrasse 67, 44139 Dortmund Germany
| | - Doris Urlaub
- IfADo - Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors Ardeystrasse 67, 44139 Dortmund Germany
| | - Frank Fasbender
- IfADo - Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors Ardeystrasse 67, 44139 Dortmund Germany
| | - Maren Claus
- IfADo - Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors Ardeystrasse 67, 44139 Dortmund Germany
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43
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Bessoles S, Grandclément C, Alari-Pahissa E, Gehrig J, Jeevan-Raj B, Held W. Adaptations of Natural Killer Cells to Self-MHC Class I. Front Immunol 2014; 5:349. [PMID: 25101089 PMCID: PMC4106420 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural Killer (NK) cells use germ line encoded receptors to detect diseased host cells. Despite the invariant recognition structures, NK cells have a significant ability to adapt to their surroundings, such as the presence or absence of MHC class I molecules. It has been assumed that this adaptation occurs during NK cell development, but recent findings show that mature NK cells can also adapt to the presence or absence of MHC class I molecules. Here, we summarize how NK cells adjust to changes in the expression of MHC class I molecules. We propose an extension of existing models, in which MHC class I recognition during NK cell development sequentially instructs and maintains NK cell function. The elucidation of the molecular basis of the two effects may identify ways to improve the fitness of NK cells and to prevent the loss of NK cell function due to persistent alterations in their environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Bessoles
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Camille Grandclément
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Elisenda Alari-Pahissa
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Jasmine Gehrig
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Beena Jeevan-Raj
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Werner Held
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
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44
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Forbes CA, Scalzo AA, Degli-Esposti MA, Coudert JD. Ly49C-dependent control of MCMV Infection by NK cells is cis-regulated by MHC Class I molecules. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004161. [PMID: 24873973 PMCID: PMC4038614 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural Killer (NK) cells are crucial in early resistance to murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection. In B6 mice, the activating Ly49H receptor recognizes the viral m157 glycoprotein on infected cells. We previously identified a mutant strain (MCMVG1F) whose variant m157 also binds the inhibitory Ly49C receptor. Here we show that simultaneous binding of m157 to the two receptors hampers Ly49H-dependent NK cell activation as Ly49C-mediated inhibition destabilizes NK cell conjugation with their targets and prevents the cytoskeleton reorganization that precedes killing. In B6 mice, as most Ly49H+ NK cells do not co-express Ly49C, the overall NK cell response remains able to control MCMVm157G1F infection. However, in B6 Ly49C transgenic mice where all NK cells express the inhibitory receptor, MCMV infection results in altered NK cell activation associated with increased viral replication. Ly49C-mediated inhibition also regulates Ly49H-independent NK cell activation. Most interestingly, MHC class I regulates Ly49C function through cis-interactions that mask the receptor and restricts m157 binding. B6 Ly49C Tg, β2m ko mice, whose Ly49C receptors are unmasked due to MHC class I deficient expression, are highly susceptible to MCMVm157G1F and are unable to control a low-dose infection. Our study provides novel insights into the mechanisms that regulate NK cell activation during viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A. Forbes
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Anthony A. Scalzo
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Mariapia A. Degli-Esposti
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- Centre for Ophthalmology and Vision Science, M517, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jerome D. Coudert
- Centre for Experimental Immunology, Lions Eye Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- Centre for Ophthalmology and Vision Science, M517, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
- * E-mail:
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45
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Luetke-Eversloh M, Cicek BB, Siracusa F, Thom JT, Hamann A, Frischbutter S, Baumgrass R, Chang HD, Thiel A, Dong J, Romagnani C. NK cells gain higher IFN-γ competence during terminal differentiation. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:2074-84. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201344072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Merlin Luetke-Eversloh
- Innate Immunity; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Basak B. Cicek
- Innate Immunity; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Francesco Siracusa
- Cell Biology; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Jenny T. Thom
- Innate Immunity; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Alf Hamann
- Experimental Rheumatology; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Stefan Frischbutter
- Signal Transduction; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Ria Baumgrass
- Signal Transduction; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Hyun-Dong Chang
- Cell Biology; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Andreas Thiel
- Regenerative Immunology and Aging; Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies, Charité University Medicine; Berlin Germany
| | - Jun Dong
- Cell Biology; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Chiara Romagnani
- Innate Immunity; Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum, A Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
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46
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Rahim MMA, Tu MM, Mahmoud AB, Wight A, Abou-Samra E, Lima PDA, Makrigiannis AP. Ly49 receptors: innate and adaptive immune paradigms. Front Immunol 2014; 5:145. [PMID: 24765094 PMCID: PMC3980100 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Ly49 receptors are type II C-type lectin-like membrane glycoproteins encoded by a family of highly polymorphic and polygenic genes within the mouse natural killer (NK) gene complex. This gene family is designated Klra, and includes genes that encode both inhibitory and activating Ly49 receptors in mice. Ly49 receptors recognize class I major histocompatibility complex-I (MHC-I) and MHC-I-like proteins on normal as well as altered cells. Their functional homologs in humans are the killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors, which recognize HLA class I molecules as ligands. Classically, Ly49 receptors are described as being expressed on both the developing and mature NK cells. The inhibitory Ly49 receptors are involved in NK cell education, a process in which NK cells acquire function and tolerance toward cells that express “self-MHC-I.” On the other hand, the activating Ly49 receptors recognize altered cells expressing activating ligands. New evidence shows a broader Ly49 expression pattern on both innate and adaptive immune cells. Ly49 receptors have been described on multiple NK cell subsets, such as uterine NK and memory NK cells, as well as NKT cells, dendritic cells, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and cells of the adaptive immune system, such as activated T cells and regulatory CD8+ T cells. In this review, we discuss the expression pattern and proposed functions of Ly49 receptors on various immune cells and their contribution to immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mir Munir A Rahim
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, ON , Canada
| | - Megan M Tu
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, ON , Canada
| | - Ahmad Bakur Mahmoud
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, ON , Canada ; College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University , Madinah Munawwarah , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Andrew Wight
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, ON , Canada
| | - Elias Abou-Samra
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, ON , Canada
| | - Patricia D A Lima
- Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University , Kingston, ON , Canada
| | - Andrew P Makrigiannis
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, ON , Canada
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47
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Shifrin N, Raulet DH, Ardolino M. NK cell self tolerance, responsiveness and missing self recognition. Semin Immunol 2014; 26:138-44. [PMID: 24629893 PMCID: PMC3984600 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2014.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells represent a first line of defense against pathogens and tumor cells. The activation of NK cells is regulated by the integration of signals deriving from activating and inhibitory receptors expressed on their surface. However, different NK cells respond differently to the same stimulus, be it target cells or agents that crosslink activating receptors. The processes that determine the level of NK cell responsiveness have been referred to collectively as NK cell education. NK cell education plays an important role in steady state conditions, where potentially auto-reactive NK cells are rendered tolerant to the surrounding environment. According to the "tuning" concept, the responsiveness of each NK cell is quantitatively adjusted to ensure self tolerance while at the same time ensuring useful reactivity against potential threats. MHC-specific inhibitory receptors displayed by NK cells play a major role in tuning NK cell responsiveness, but recent studies indicate that signaling from activating receptors is also important, suggesting that the critical determinant is an integrated signal from both types of receptors. An important and still unresolved question is whether NK cell education involves interactions with a specific cell population in the environment. Whether hematopoietic and/or non-hematopoietic cells play a role is still under debate. Recent results demonstrated that NK cell tuning exhibits plasticity in steady state conditions, meaning that it can be re-set if the MHC environment changes. Other evidence suggests, however, that inflammatory conditions accompanying infections may favor high responsiveness, indicating that inflammatory agents can over-ride the natural tendency of NK cells to adjust to the steady state environment. These findings raise many questions such as whether viruses and tumor cells manipulate NK cell responsiveness to evade immune-recognition. As knowledge of the underlying processes grows, the possibility of modulating NK cell responsiveness for therapeutic purposes is becoming increasingly attractive, and is now under serious investigation in clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya Shifrin
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Cancer Research Laboratory, Division of Immunology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - David H Raulet
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Cancer Research Laboratory, Division of Immunology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
| | - Michele Ardolino
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Cancer Research Laboratory, Division of Immunology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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48
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Li Y, Mariuzza RA. Structural basis for recognition of cellular and viral ligands by NK cell receptors. Front Immunol 2014; 5:123. [PMID: 24723923 PMCID: PMC3972465 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are key components of innate immune responses to tumors and viral infections. NK cell function is regulated by NK cell receptors that recognize both cellular and viral ligands, including major histocompatibility complex (MHC), MHC-like, and non-MHC molecules. These receptors include Ly49s, killer immunoglobulin-like receptors, leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors, and NKG2A/CD94, which bind MHC class I (MHC-I) molecules, and NKG2D, which binds MHC-I paralogs such as the stress-induced proteins MICA and ULBP. In addition, certain viruses have evolved MHC-like immunoevasins, such as UL18 and m157 from cytomegalovirus, that act as decoy ligands for NK receptors. A growing number of NK receptor–ligand interaction pairs involving non-MHC molecules have also been identified, including NKp30–B7-H6, killer cell lectin-like receptor G1–cadherin, and NKp80–AICL. Here, we describe crystal structures determined to date of NK cell receptors bound to MHC, MHC-related, and non-MHC ligands. Collectively, these structures reveal the diverse solutions that NK receptors have developed to recognize these molecules, thereby enabling the regulation of NK cytolytic activity by both host and viral ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yili Li
- W. M. Keck Laboratory for Structural Biology, Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland , Rockville, MD , USA ; Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland , College Park, MD , USA
| | - Roy A Mariuzza
- W. M. Keck Laboratory for Structural Biology, Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland , Rockville, MD , USA ; Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland , College Park, MD , USA
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49
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Carrillo-Bustamante P, Keşmir C, de Boer RJ. Quantifying the Protection of Activating and Inhibiting NK Cell Receptors during Infection with a CMV-Like Virus. Front Immunol 2014; 5:20. [PMID: 24523722 PMCID: PMC3906586 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The responsiveness of natural killer (NK) cells is controlled by balancing signals from activating and inhibitory receptors. The most important ligands of inhibitory NK cell receptors are the highly polymorphic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules, which allow NK cells to screen the cellular health of target cells. Although these inhibitory receptor–ligand interactions have been well characterized, the ligands for most activating receptors are still unknown. The mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) represents a helpful model to study NK cell-driven immune responses. Many studies have demonstrated that CMV infection can be controlled by NK cells via their activating receptors, but the exact contribution of the different signaling potential (i.e., activating vs. inhibiting) remains puzzling. In this study, we have developed a probabilistic model, which predicts the optimal specificity of inhibitory and activating NK cell receptors needed to offer the best protection against a CMV-like virus. We confirm our analytical predictions with an agent-based model of an evolving host population. Our analysis quantifies the degree of protection of each receptor type, revealing that mixed haplotypes (i.e., haplotypes composed of activating and inhibiting receptors) are most protective against CMV-like viruses, and that the protective effect depends on the number of MHC loci per individual.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Carrillo-Bustamante
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University , Utrecht , Netherlands
| | - Can Keşmir
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University , Utrecht , Netherlands
| | - Rob J de Boer
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University , Utrecht , Netherlands
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50
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Abstract
The functions of Natural Killer (NK) cells are regulated by a highly redundant set of germline-encoded surface receptors that can inhibit or activate NK cell activities. NK cells can be activated by cytokines or through the interaction with transformed or infected cells. This typically results in the production of cytokines, chemokines, and the induction of cellular cytotoxicity. However, the reactivity of NK cells is modulated on various levels and shaped by processes such as development, education, priming, exposure to antigens and cytokines, and the formation of memory-like phenotypes. Here, I will summarize our current understanding of these processes and describe how they influence NK cell reactivity on a molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Watzl
- Leibniz Research Center for Working Environment and Human Factors, IfADo, Dortmund, Germany.
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