The influence of parents, older siblings, and non-parental care on infant development at nine months of age

Associations between Agility, the Relative Age Effect, Siblings, and Digit Ratio (D2:D4) in Children and Adolescents

BACKGROUND

This study aims to analyze the influence of relative age effects, siblings, and digit ratio on the agility of children and adolescents.

METHODS

The study included 283 children (9.54 ± 1.36 years) and 296 adolescents (14.68 ± 1.36 years) from four different schools. The analyzed variables included anthropometric data, the presence of siblings, relative age effect, and results from the 10 × 5 m shuttle run test.

RESULTS

The findings indicated no significant association between agility and either the 2D:4D ratio or the relative age effect in both children and adolescents (p > 0.05). Additionally, having siblings did not have a notable impact on agility. Multiple regression analysis confirmed that relative age did not influence this lack of association (quarter of birth: p = 0.345, β = 0.039; siblings: p = 0.100, β = -0.069). However, boys showed higher performance than girls in the 10 × 5 m shuttle run test, and higher body mass index was related to lower agility.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings contribute to existing knowledge on the relative effects of age and provide valuable information for physical education teachers on the influence of the 2D:4D ratio and the presence of siblings on the physical fitness of children and adolescents.

It takes a village: A multi-brain approach to studying multigenerational family communication

Grandparents play a critical role in child rearing across the globe. Yet, there is a shortage of neurobiological research examining the relationship between grandparents and their grandchildren. We employ multi-brain neurocomputational models to simulate how changes in neurophysiological processes in both development and healthy aging affect multigenerational inter-brain coupling - a neural marker that has been linked to a range of socio-emotional and cognitive outcomes. The simulations suggest that grandparent-child interactions may be paired with higher inter-brain coupling than parent-child interactions, raising the possibility that the former may be more advantageous under certain conditions. Critically, this enhancement of inter-brain coupling for grandparent-child interactions is more pronounced in tri-generational interactions that also include a parent, which may speak to findings that grandparent involvement in childrearing is most beneficial if the parent is also an active household member. Together, these findings underscore that a better understanding of the neurobiological basis of cross-generational interactions is vital, and that such knowledge can be helpful in guiding interventions that consider the whole family. We advocate for a community neuroscience approach in developmental social neuroscience to capture the diversity of child-caregiver relationships in real-world settings.

Influence of different caregiving styles on fundamental movement skills among children

Purpose

This study investigated the influence of parenting and grandparenting caregiving styles on fundamental motor skills (FMS) of preschool children.

Method

A total of 1,326 preschool children (698 boys, 628 girls) aged 4-6 years were recruited from the kindergartens of Jinhua City, China. Locomotor skills (LM), ball skills (BS), and total fundamental movement skills (TS) of children were assessed by the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd edition (TGMD-3).

Results

There were 978 children in parenting and 348 children in grandparenting caregiving styles. The LM, BS and TS scores of children were considerably (p < 0.001) increased with age (irrespective of sex or caregiving style). For the sex comparisons, BS scores of boys were significantly higher than girls (p < 0.001), while LM and TS scores were not different between boys and girls. For the caregiving style comparison, parenting is superior to grandparenting in developing of children's FMS. Parenting boys of 4-, 5-, and 6-years old showed better BS compared to age-matched parenting girls, whereas boys of 5-years old in grandparenting only showed better BS compared to same-age grandparenting girls (p < 0.05). Furthermore, parenting boys of 6-years reported higher LM (p < 0.01), BS (p < 0.001), and TS (p < 0.001) scores compared to grandparenting boys, but girls' FMS at all ages were not significantly different between the caregiving styles.

Conclusion

Parenting caregiving style is positively associated with proper development of FMS among children. Girl children with poor FMS in grandparenting may need a special care or intervention programs to promote their FMS.

Motor development of first born compared to later born children in the first two years of life - A replication

Purpose

The motor development of firstborns compared to children having an older sibling in the first two years of life was examined.

Method

The data of the study come from an ongoing research project with citizen participation, which is investigating the development of motor milestones in the first and second years of life. Parents report online their children's developmental progress using a development calendar. 18 motor skills from birth until children manage walking alone are recorded, 14 relate to gross motor skills and four to hand motor skills.

Results

Children with siblings achieved higher values at birth in terms of Apgar-score, height, weight, BMI and parental satisfaction with the health and development of the child compared to firstborns. However, no differences could be found at the ages of 10-12 months and 14 months. Firstborns reached five fine motor and manual dexterity milestones earlier than children with siblings. In contrast, when mastering 13 gross motor milestones, no differences could be found between firstborns and children with siblings.

Conclusion

Motor development at an early age is considered to be largely genetically controlled, analogous to physical development. However, the faster development of the fine motor skills of the firstborns could be related to the fact that parents interact more intensively with their firstborn than with later born children and - unlike gross motor skills - in fine motor skills not only genetic factors but also learning processes are effective from a very early age.

Parental Knowledge and Perceptions on Prevention of Sudden Unexpected Infant Death and Infant Care

(1) Background: The study's purpose was to explore the knowledge, perceptions, and confidence of mothers about infant care to reduce the risk of sudden unexpected infant death. (2) Methods: A purposeful sampling method was used to recruit 15 first-time mothers from Georgia with infants under 1 year of age. The researchers utilized the Socio-ecological model to report the results. Participants also provided recommendations on how to improve infant care and reduce the risk of SUID. (3) Results: The confidence level of infant care among most participants was low but increased over time. Mothers' knowledge level about the prevention of SUID was high, but poor emotional health could hurt their parental abilities. Most participants recognized medical providers as the main source of reliable information. However, a lack of emotional and physical support was reported by mothers. (4) Conclusions: Results suggested that a more holistic approach to infant care is needed. The healthcare system and communities should provide more physical, social, and mental support to first-time mothers, a consolidated approach to care before and after birth, and easy access to services at all stages of the process to reduce the risk of SUID.

Associations between sociodemographic and behavioural parameters and child development depending on age and sex: a cross-sectional analysis

OBJECTIVES

To explore environmental and individual factors that are associated with child development and to investigate whether the strength of these associations differs according to the age of the children.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

This study was part of the LIFE Child study, a large cohort study conducted in Leipzig, Germany.

PARTICIPANTS

778 children aged between 0.5 and 6 years (48.6% girls, mean age=2.67 years).

OUTCOME MEASURES

The outcomes were cognitive development, language development, body and hand motor skills, social-emotional development, and tracing skills, measured with a standardised development test. We analysed the associations between development and gestational age, socioeconomic status (SES), sex, behavioural difficulties, siblings, sleep duration, breastfeeding duration and overweight/obesity. We also tested for interactions between these variables and child age or sex.

RESULTS

Higher gestational age (b ranging between 0.12 and 0.26) and higher SES (b ranging between 0.08 and 0.21) were associated with better outcomes in almost all developmental domains (all p<0.019). Children with older siblings had improved body and hand motor skills compared with children without older siblings (both b=0.55, all p<0.029). Boys had poorer scores than girls in body and hand motor skills and tracing (b=-0.45, -0.68 and -1.5, all p<0.019). Children with behavioural difficulties had significantly poorer outcomes in most developmental domains. Some of the associations with SES and sex were stronger in older than in younger children. Associations between gestational age and motor development were weaker in older children. We did not find significant associations between child development and sleep duration, breastfeeding duration or overweight/obesity.

CONCLUSION

Some factors had a protective, others an adverse effect on development of children under 6 years of age. The effect of SES and sex increased, while the effect of gestational age decreased with age.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02550236.

Being an adult sibling of an individual with autism spectrum disorder may be a predictor of loneliness and depression – Preliminary findings from a cross-sectional study

Background

The aim of this study is to compare depression and loneliness among adult siblings of people on the autism spectrum, adult siblings of normotypic individuals, and adults raised alone (only child). In recent years, an increasing interest in the perspective of siblings of children diagnosed with autism has been observed, with studies among this population particularly concerned with the developmental trajectories of children and adolescents at “high risk” for ASD, rarely focusing on their mental well-being.

Methods

The respondents filled out: the survey on sociodemographic data designed by the authors, Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI, measure of depression), and De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (DJGLS, assessment of loneliness).

Results

A rise in BDI and an increase in the DJGLS score were predicted by having a sibling diagnosed with ASD. Those effects were independent of subjects’ sex, educational status, place of residence, or a number of siblings.

Conclusion

The results underline a fundamental need for the development of mental hygiene programs for families where children with autism spectrum are accompanied by healthy siblings.

Achievement of Developmental Milestones Recorded in Real Time: A Mobile App-Based Study

OBJECTIVE

To clarify the characteristics of milestone achievement of Japanese infants using data assessed and recorded in real time via a Web-based app by caregivers.

STUDY DESIGN

Between 2014 and 2019, the achievement of developmental milestones of 16 627 Japanese infants were recorded via the mobile app Papatto Ikuji along with pertinent information including sex, birth date, anthropometric measurements, and information on feeding. The milestones consisted of 20 items belonging to 4 domains: personal-social, fine motor-adaptative, language, and gross motor. The distribution of age at milestone achievement was compared with 4 conventional normative data. Subgroup analyses according to sex, season of birth, and feeding methods were performed with restricted mean survival time analysis.

RESULTS

Age distributions of milestone achievement were generally similar in the app-based and conventional data. The exception was "Smile responsively," for which the age at achievement seemed higher in the app-based data. Subgroup analyses showed female-dominant sex differences in the achievement of person-social and language milestones. The results also showed seasonality in achievement of gross motor milestones, with earlier achievement in infants born in winter compared with those born in summer.

CONCLUSIONS

We describe mobile app-based data on developmental milestone achievements that were recorded in real time. The app-based data were generally comparable with conventional normative data, suggesting that its potential to assess the development of children in real time. This could be used complementarily with the current well-child visits at scheduled time points.

Secular trends in early motor development between 1980 and 2010 in Japan

OBJECTIVE

Recent changes in birth characteristics in Japan may have a potential influence on children's developments. Therefore, we investigated secular trends in gross motor milestones.

DESIGN

Data were collected from an official Japanese nationwide serial cross-sectional survey conducted every 10 years since 1960. 22 320 participants aged 2-18 months were identified from the four surveys from 1980 to 2010.

OUTCOMES

We assessed whether or not a child achieved four gross motor milestones including rolling over (rolling), sitting without support (sitting), standing with support (standing) and walking alone (walking). The target age was defined as the age when the attainment rate ranged from >5% to >95% of the total. Multivariate logistic regression models were fitted.

RESULTS

The final cohort included 20 570 children. The target ages were determined as follows: 3-6 months for rolling; 5-9 months for sitting; 6-11 months for standing; and 9-15 months for walking. The attainment rates of sitting, standing and walking in 1990 were higher than those in 2010, even after adjusting for child characteristics (sitting: adjusted OR (aOR)=2.07 (95% CI 1.62 to 2.65); standing: aOR=1.63 (95% CI 1.32 to 2.02); and walking: aOR=1.61 (95% CI 1.34 to 1.95)).

CONCLUSIONS

The proportion of children who attained three motor milestones (sitting, standing and walking) by set target ages decreased between 1990 and 2010. The contribution of birth characteristics including a decrease in gestational age and fetal growth, as well as changes in other child characteristics, failed to explain why this decrease occurred.

Predictors of persistent and changing developmental problems of preterm children

BACKGROUND

Accurate prediction of persistent and emerging developmental problems in preterm-born children may lead to targeted interventions.

AIMS

To determine whether specific perinatal and social factors were associated with persistent, emerging, and resolving developmental problems of early-preterm (EPs) and moderately-and-late-preterm children (MLPs) from before to after school entry.

STUDY DESIGN

Observational longitudinal cohort study, part of the LOLLIPOP cohort-study.

SUBJECTS

341 EPs and 565 MLPs.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Developmental problems using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire at ages 4 and 5. We collected data on perinatal and social factors from medical records. Using logistic regression analyses we assessed associations between 48 factors and persistent, emerging, and resolving problems.

RESULTS

Of EPs, 8.7% had persistent and 5.1% emerging problems; this was 4.3% and 1.9% for MLPs, respectively. Predictors for persistent problems included chronic mental illness of the mother, odds ratio (95% confidence interval) 8.01 (1.85-34.60), male sex 4.96 (2.28-10.82), being born small-for-gestational age (SGA) 2.39 (1.15-4.99), and multiparity 3.56 (1.87-6.76). Predictors for emerging problems included MLP birth with prolonged premature rupture of membranes (PPROM) 5.01 (1.38-18.14). Including all predictors in a single prediction model, the explained variance (Nagelkerke R²) was 21.9%, whereas this was 3.0% with only EP/MLP birth as predictor.

CONCLUSIONS

Only few perinatal and social factors had associations with persistent and emerging developmental problems for both EPs and MLPs. For children with specific neonatal conditions such as SGA, and PPROM in MLPs, problems may persist. Insight in risk factors largely improved the prediction of developmental problems among preterm children.

How do grandparents influence child health and development? A systematic review

Grandparents are often a key source of care provision for their grandchildren, yet they are sidelined in caregiving research and policy decisions. We conducted a global, systematic review of the literature to examine the scope and quality of studies to date (PROSPERO database CRD42019133894). We screened 12,699 abstracts across 7 databases, and identified 206 studies that examined how grandparents influence child health and development. Indicators of grandparent involvement were contact, caregiving behaviors, and financial support. Our review focused on two research questions: how do grandparents influence child health and development outcomes, and what range of child outcomes is reported globally? We examined study design, sample characteristics, key findings, and outcomes pertaining to grandchildren's physical health, socio-emotional and behavioral health, and cognitive and educational development.  Our search captured studies featuring grandparent custodial care (n = 35), multigenerational care (n = 154), and both types of care (n = 17). We found substantial heterogeneity in the data provided on co-residence, caregiving roles, resources invested, outcomes, and mechanisms through which "grandparent effects" are manifested. We identified two important issues, related to operationalizing indicators of grandparent involvement and conceptualizing potential mechanisms, leading to gaps in the evidence base. Currently, our understanding of the pathways through which grandparents exert their influence is constrained by limited data on what grandparents actually do and insufficient attention given to interpersonal and structural contexts. We present a conceptual framework to explicitly measure and theorize pathways of care, with a view to inform research design and policy implementation. We underscore the need for more robust data on three indicators of caregiver involvement-contact, behavior, and support-and for careful description of structural and interpersonal contexts in caregiving research.

A multivariate discrete failure time model for the analysis of infant motor development

We develop a multivariate discrete failure time model for the analysis of infant motor development. We use the model to jointly evaluate the time (in months) to achievement of three well-established motor milestones: sitting up, crawling, and walking. The model includes a subject-specific latent factor that reflects underlying heterogeneity in the population and accounts for within-subject dependence across the milestones. The factor loadings and covariate effects are allowed to vary flexibly across milestones, and the milestones are permitted to have unique at-risk intervals corresponding to different developmental windows. We adopt a Bayesian inferential approach and develop a convenient data-augmented Gibbs sampler for posterior computation. We conduct simulation studies to illustrate key features of the model and use the model to analyze data from the Nurture study, a birth cohort examining infant health and development during the first year of life.

How are social-emotional and behavioral competences and problems at age 1 year associated with infant motor development? A general population study

Based on limitations in previous research evidence, we concluded that more research is needed for deeper understanding of how social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) outcomes among infant-toddler-aged children in the general population are associated with early motor development. In this study, we investigated associations between early competencies and problems, as measured by the Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA), and the timing of achievement of the main gross and fine motor milestones usually attained during the first year of life in a general population context. The study sample consisted of 515 infants (mean age 12.9 [SD 0.9] months) and their parents (514 mothers, 434 fathers), who were recruited in child health centers in Northern Finland. The infants were divided into two groups, based on their BITSEA screen status, and motor milestone achievement ages were compared across BITSEA screen status No Concern and Of-Concern infants. An Of-Concern screen status on the maternal and paternal Competence scale and Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) item cluster was associated with later infant achievement ages for gross motor milestones. By contrast, infants who were screened to be in the Of-Concern range on the maternal Problem scale achieved gross motor milestones earlier than infants with the corresponding No Concern screen status. No significant associations were found between the paternal Problem scale screen status and infant motor development. In further analyses, the strongest associations were found between an Of-Concern screen status on the paternal Competence scale and ASD item cluster and infant motor development. The findings indicate that the inclusion of infant motor developmental information may assist early identification and the clinical interpretation of parental reports of early SEB problems. Clinical implications of the current findings are discussed in the paper.

Do child healthcare professionals and parents recognize social-emotional and behavioral problems in 1-year-old infants?

Growing evidence supports the existence of clinically significant social-emotional/behavioral (SEB) problems among as young as 1-year-old infants. However, a substantial proportion of early SEB problems remain unidentified during contacts with child healthcare professionals. In this study, child healthcare nurse (CHCN; N = 1008) and parental (N = 518) reports about SEB worries were gathered, along with the maternal and paternal Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA) ratings, for 12-month-old infants randomly recruited through Finnish child health centers. Only 1.4-1.8 % of CHCNs, 3.9 % of mothers, and 3.2 % of fathers reported of being worried about the assessed child's SEB development. When the CHCNs' and parental reports were combined, 7.7 % (33/428) of the infants assessed each by all three adults had one (7.0 %), two (0.7 %) or three (0 %) worry reports. Even the combination of the CHCN's and parental worry reports identified only 7.0-13.8 % of the infants with the maternal and/or paternal BITSEA Problem or Competence rating in the of-concern range. Identified associations across the three informants' worry reports, parental BITSEA ratings and sociodemographic factors are discussed in the paper. Routine and frequent use of developmentally appropriate screening measures, such as the BITSEA, might enhance identification and intervening of early SEB problems in preventive child healthcare by guiding both professionals and parents to pay more attention to substantial aspects of young children's SEB development and encouraging them to discuss possible problems and worries.

Predictors of motor developmental milestones during the first year of life

Studies suggest that both pre- and postnatal factors are predictors of age of attaining milestones in infancy. However, no studies evaluate the comparative strength of these predictors and the amount of the variance in development they explain. This study aimed to conduct a systematic evaluation of a broad selection of possible predictors of age at milestone attainment and to identify factors that explain significant inter-individual variance. Mothers of 5765 children of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort (1959-61) recorded 12 developmental milestones prospectively during the child's first year of life. Information on possible predictors was collected during pregnancy and at follow-up and was categorized into the domains: Family background, Pregnancy and delivery, Postnatal influences, and Postnatal growth. The domain Pregnancy and delivery contributed most of the explained variance in Overall mean of milestones (14.4%), with especially gestational age (β = -0.15; p ≤ 0.001) and birth weight (β = -0.16; p ≤ 0.001) being important predictors.

CONCLUSION

Several individual factors, especially gestational age, birth weight, breastfeeding, having lived in a full-time institution, and weight and head increase in the first year, were significantly associated with milestone attainment in the first year of life. Variables within the domain of Pregnancy and delivery explained the largest proportion of variance in milestone attainment compared to the other domains. What is known: • Younger age at attainment of motor developmental milestones positively predicts cognitive outcomes in adulthood. • Both pre- and postnatal factors have been associated with age of attaining milestones in infancy. What is new: • First study to provide a systematic evaluation of a broad selection of predictors of infant milestone attainment. • Variables within the domain of Pregnancy and delivery, especially gestational age and birth weight, explained the largest proportion of variance in milestone attainment. • The variance explained by the predictors decreased time-dependently with later milestones.

The Influence of Different Caregivers on Infant Growth and Development in China

OBJECTIVE

An increasing number of parents in China ask grandparents or babysitters to care for their children. Modern parents are often the only child in their family because of China's One-Child Policy and thus may lack interaction with siblings. Accordingly, the present study aimed to explore whether different caregivers affect the physical and development of infants in China.

METHODS

In total, 2,514 infants were enrolled in our study. We assessed their weight-for-age, supine length-for-age, weight-for-length, occipital-frontal circumference, and Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST) results and recorded their general parental information and their primary caregivers.

RESULTS

The weights and lengths of 12-month-old infants under the care of babysitters were significantly lower than those of infants under the care of parents or grandparents (P < 0.05). Additionally, 12-month-old infants under the care of babysitters had the lowest DDST pass rate (75%) among the three groups (χ² = 11.819, P = 0.012), especially for the fine motor-adaptive and language domains. Compared to 12-month-old infants under the care of parents and babysitters, infants under the care of grandparents were more likely to be overweight or obese (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The study showed that caregivers had a dominant role in the physical and cognitive development of the infants. Specifically, compared with infants raised by grandparents and parents, 12-month-old infants under the care of babysitters had partially suppressed lengths and weights and lagged cognitively. The 12-month-old infants under the care of grandparents were more overweight than those cared for by parents and babysitters.

The role of older siblings in infant motor development

Previous research has suggested that infant motor skills may be affected by older siblings but has not considered whether this is due to specific characteristics of the older sibling or of the quality of the sibling relationship. The current study used a longitudinal diary method to record infant motor milestones from 23 infants with older siblings along with parent reports and standardized assessments of motor skills. Parent reports of the older siblings' motor skills and the sibling relationship were also collected until the infants were 18months old. The motor skills, age, and sex of the older siblings were not significantly related to any measure of infant motor development. A significant correlation was revealed between perceived agonism between siblings and infant fine motor skills at 18months, suggesting the importance of considering reciprocal effects of motor development on sibling relationships. Overall, the suggestion that older siblings may provide a good model of motor skills for infants is not supported by the current data. In the future, it will be important to assess the dynamic interactions between different factors in predicting infant motor development, allowing early identification of motor difficulties, which could affect other areas of cognitive development and health.