Incidence of and risk factors for sudden cardiac death in children with dilated cardiomyopathy: a report from the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry

Abnormal left atrial strain and left atrial stiffness index are associated with adverse outcomes in children with cardiomyopathies: a pilot study

Conventional diastolic dysfunction parameters seem to be imperfect when applied to the pediatric cardiomyopathy population. The aim of this pilot study was to search for novel echocardiographic parameters associated with adverse outcomes in children with the most common cardiomyopathies. Fifty-six patients with pediatric cardiomyopathies (28 with dilated, 21 with hypertrophic, 7 with left ventricular non-compaction cardiomyopathy) and 28 healthy subjects were included in the study. Left atrial reservoir (LASr), conduit (LAScd) and contraction (LASct) strain, left atrial stiffness index (LASI), as well as conventional diastolic dysfunction parameters were measured using echocardiography. Adverse outcomes were defined as heart failure (including heart transplant) and arrhythmic endpoints. Patients with adverse outcomes presented with significantly lower LASr (16.68% ± 8.64% vs. 33.97% ± 9.99%, p-value < 0.001), lower LAScd (- 10.37% ± 5.83% vs. - 25.50% ± 9.24%, p-value < 0.001) and higher values of LASI (0.69 [IQR 0.34; 1.11] vs. 0.21 [IQR 0.16; 0.31], p-value < 0.001). LASr < 20%, LAScd ≥ - 12%, and LASI ≥ 0.26 were all associated with reduced survival. LASr, LAScd and LASI seem to be promising parameters in predicting adverse outcomes in the most common pediatric cardiomyopathies. Left atrial strain parameters and LASI are helpful in differentiating healthy control subjects from children with hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathies.

Electrophysiologic and cardiovascular manifestations of Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies

There have been significant advances in the diagnosis and management of the hereditary muscular disorders Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy (DMD and BMD). Cardiac electrophysiologic and cardiovascular involvement has long been important in the surveillance, care, and prognosis of patients with both BMD and DMD and is the leading cause of mortality in patients with DMD. With improved long-term prognosis, rhythm disorders and progressive cardiomyopathy with resultant heart failure are increasingly common. This review aimed to provide an overview to electrophysiologists and cardiologists of the cardiac electrophysiologic phenotypes and genetics of BMD and DMD and to highlight the recent discoveries that have advanced clinical course and management. A systematic review was performed of the diagnosis and management of DMD and BMD. The Cochrane Library, PubMed, MEDLINE, Europe PubMed Central, AMED, and Embase databases were accessed for available evidence. The research reported in this paper adhered to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Evidence from randomized controlled trials and studies cited in expert consensus and practice guidelines are examined. Advanced imaging techniques and a spectrum of rhythm disorders associated with the progressive cardiomyopathy are presented. Early initiation of heart failure therapies, the role of cardiac implantable devices, and novel gene therapies approved for use with the potential to alter the disease course are discussed. When profound cardiac and cardiac electrophysiologic involvement is diagnosed and treated earlier, outcomes for DMD and BMD patients may be improved.

Pediatric dilated cardiomyopathy: a review of current clinical approaches and pathogenesis

Pediatric dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a rare, yet life-threatening cardiovascular condition characterized by systolic dysfunction with biventricular dilatation and reduced myocardial contractility. Therapeutic options are limited with nearly 40% of children undergoing heart transplant or death within 2 years of diagnosis. Pediatric patients are currently diagnosed based on correlating the clinical picture with echocardiographic findings. Patient age, etiology of disease, and parameters of cardiac function significantly impact prognosis. Treatments for pediatric DCM aim to ameliorate symptoms, reduce progression of disease, and prevent life-threatening arrhythmias. Many therapeutic agents with known efficacy in adults lack the same evidence in children. Unlike adult DCM, the pathogenesis of pediatric DCM is not well understood as approximately two thirds of cases are classified as idiopathic disease. Children experience unique gene expression changes and molecular pathway activation in response to DCM. Studies have pointed to a significant genetic component in pediatric DCM, with variants in genes related to sarcomere and cytoskeleton structure implicated. In this regard, pediatric DCM can be considered pediatric manifestations of inherited cardiomyopathy syndromes. Yet exciting recent studies in infantile DCM suggest that this subset has a distinct etiology involving defective postnatal cardiac maturation, such as the failure of programmed centrosome breakdown in cardiomyocytes. Improved knowledge of pathogenesis is central to developing child-specific treatment approaches. This review aims to discuss the established biological pathogenesis of pediatric DCM, current clinical guidelines, and promising therapeutic avenues, highlighting differences from adult disease. The overarching goal is to unravel the complexities surrounding this condition to facilitate the advancement of novel therapeutic interventions and improve prognosis and overall quality of life for pediatric patients affected by DCM.

Dynamic LVEF Decline and Serum NT-proBNP and Uric Acid Levels before Heart Transplantation are Independent Predictors of Adverse Outcomes in Young Adult Patients with Dilated Cardiomyopathy

Background

The present study investigated the predictors of adverse outcomes in young adult patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) who underwent heart transplantation (HTx).

Methods

Twenty-four young adult patients (aged 18-45 years) with DCM who underwent HTx in our hospital from January 2012 to December 2022 were included in this retrospective analysis. Pre- and post-HTx data were collected for echocardiography, N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), and uric acid (UA). Data collected at the time of DCM diagnosis were designated as baseline data. Post-HTx assessments were conducted at 1 week and 3, 6, 12, and 36 months post-HTx. The primary endpoint was defined as any adverse event, including left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) < 50% (n = 3), 50% increase in right or left ventricular diameter (n = 12), or death (n = 2). Patients were categorized into a non-adverse-event group (n = 12) or an adverse-event group (n = 12).

Results

Baseline NT-proBNP (p = 0.014) and UA (p = 0.012) were significantly higher in the adverse-event group than in the non-adverse-event group. Baseline NT-proBNP > 7390 pg/mL (relative risk (RR) = 7.412, p = 0.046), UA > 542 µmol/L (RR = 8.838, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) = 1.541-50.694, p = 0.014), and sustained reduction in LVEF ( ≥ 3%) over a 2-year pharmacological treatment prior to HTx (RR = 3.252, p = 0.046) were significantly associated with an increased risk of adverse events post-HTx.

Conclusions

In young adult DCM patients post-HTx, heightened baseline levels of NT-proBNP and UA levels and a sustained reduction in LVEF over time prior to undergoing an HTx are significantly associated with an increased risk of adverse events post-HTx. Future studies are needed to observe whether individualized monitoring strategies could reduce the incidence of adverse events following HTx in these patients.

Innovation in surgical treatment of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy in children

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is the second most common cardiomyopathy affecting children and adolescents and is the main cause of sudden death of young athletes. The natural prognosis of children with severe hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy is not optimistic, and it is not uncommon for children with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy who do not respond to medication. Surgical treatment is often the only solution. Conventional surgical methods in the past include classic or modified extended Morrow operation, classic or modified Konno operation, and Ross-Konno operation. In recent years, with the development of minimally invasive surgery, various minimally invasive surgical methods have emerged endlessly. Because the incision of minimally invasive cardiac surgery is significantly smaller than that of traditional surgery, it causes less trauma, recovers quickly after surgery, and has the advantage of no difference in surgical effect compared with traditional median sternotomy. Tally endoscopic transmitral myectomy, RTM, minimally right thoracotomy, and other surgical methods have achieved encouraging results in adults and some older children with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy. The appearance of transapical beating-heart septectomy has brought the treatment of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy from the era of cardiopulmonary bypass and cardiac arrest to a new era of minimally invasive beating-heart surgery. In the past, there were few articles about the treatment of children with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy. This article reviewed the new progress and prognosis of surgical treatment of children with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy at home and abroad.

2024 Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics: A Report of US and Global Data From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

The American Heart Association (AHA), in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, annually reports the most up-to-date statistics related to heart disease, stroke, and cardiovascular risk factors, including core health behaviors (smoking, physical activity, nutrition, sleep, and obesity) and health factors (cholesterol, blood pressure, glucose control, and metabolic syndrome) that contribute to cardiovascular health. The AHA Heart Disease and Stroke Statistical Update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions (including stroke, brain health, complications of pregnancy, kidney disease, congenital heart disease, rhythm disorders, sudden cardiac arrest, subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, cardiomyopathy, heart failure, valvular disease, venous thromboembolism, and peripheral artery disease) and the associated outcomes (including quality of care, procedures, and economic costs).

METHODS

The AHA, through its Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee, continuously monitors and evaluates sources of data on heart disease and stroke in the United States and globally to provide the most current information available in the annual Statistical Update with review of published literature through the year before writing. The 2024 AHA Statistical Update is the product of a full year's worth of effort in 2023 by dedicated volunteer clinicians and scientists, committed government professionals, and AHA staff members. The AHA strives to further understand and help heal health problems inflicted by structural racism, a public health crisis that can significantly damage physical and mental health and perpetuate disparities in access to health care, education, income, housing, and several other factors vital to healthy lives. This year's edition includes additional global data, as well as data on the monitoring and benefits of cardiovascular health in the population, with an enhanced focus on health equity across several key domains.

RESULTS

Each of the chapters in the Statistical Update focuses on a different topic related to heart disease and stroke statistics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Statistical Update represents a critical resource for the lay public, policymakers, media professionals, clinicians, health care administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.

Progressive Left Ventricular Remodeling for Predicting Mortality in Children With Dilated Cardiomyopathy: The Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry

BACKGROUND

Pediatric dilated cardiomyopathy often leads to death or cardiac transplantation. We sought to determine whether changes in left ventricular (LV) end-diastolic dimension (LVEDD), LV end-diastolic posterior wall thickness, and LV fractional shortening (LVFS) over time may help predict adverse outcomes.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We studied children up to 18 years old with dilated cardiomyopathy, enrolled between 1990 and 2009 in the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry. Changes in LVFS, LVEDD, LV end-diastolic posterior wall thickness, and the LV end-diastolic posterior wall thickness:LVEDD ratio between baseline and follow-up echocardiograms acquired ≈1 year after diagnosis were determined for children who, at the 1-year follow-up had died, received a heart transplant, or were alive and transplant-free. Within 1 year after diagnosis, 40 (5.0%) of the 794 eligible children had died, 117 (14.7%) had undergone cardiac transplantation, and 585 (73.7%) had survived without transplantation. At diagnosis, survivors had higher median LVFS and lower median LVEDD Z scores. Median LVFS and LVEDD Z scores improved among survivors (Z score changes of +2.6 and -1.1, respectively) but remained stable or worsened in the other 2 groups. The LV end-diastolic posterior wall thickness:LVEDD ratio increased in survivors only, suggesting beneficial reverse LV remodeling. The risk for death or cardiac transplantation up to 7 years later was lower when LVFS was improved at 1 year (hazard ratio [HR], 0.83; P=0.004) but was higher in those with progressive LV dilation (HR, 1.45; P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Progressive deterioration in LV contractile function and increasing LV dilation are associated with both early and continuing mortality in children with dilated cardiomyopathy. Serial echocardiographic monitoring of these children is therefore indicated.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT00005391.

Inherited Arrhythmias in the Pediatric Population: An Updated Overview

Pediatric cardiomyopathies (CMs) and electrical diseases constitute a heterogeneous spectrum of disorders distinguished by structural and electrical abnormalities in the heart muscle, attributed to a genetic variant. They rank among the main causes of morbidity and mortality in the pediatric population, with an annual incidence of 1.1-1.5 per 100,000 in children under the age of 18. The most common conditions are dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). Despite great enthusiasm for research in this field, studies in this population are still limited, and the management and treatment often follow adult recommendations, which have significantly more data on treatment benefits. Although adult and pediatric cardiac diseases share similar morphological and clinical manifestations, their outcomes significantly differ. This review summarizes the latest evidence on genetics, clinical characteristics, management, and updated outcomes of primary pediatric CMs and electrical diseases, including DCM, HCM, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC), Brugada syndrome (BrS), catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), long QT syndrome (LQTS), and short QT syndrome (SQTS).

Iron Deficiency in Chronic Pediatric Heart Failure: Overall Assessment and Outcomes in Dilated Cardiomyopathy

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the frequency of iron status assessment in pediatric heart failure and the prevalence and adverse effects of absolute iron deficiency in dilated cardiomyopathy-induced heart failure.

STUDY DESIGN

We retrospectively reviewed records of children with chronic heart failure at our center between 2010 and 2020. In children with dilated cardiomyopathy, we analyzed baseline cardiac function, hemoglobin level, and subsequent risk of composite adverse events (CAE), including death, heart transplant, ventricular assist device (VAD) placement, and transplant registry listing. Absolute iron deficiency and iron sufficiency were defined as transferrin saturations <20% and ≥30%, respectively; and indeterminant iron status as 20%-29%.

RESULTS

Of 799 patients with chronic heart failure, 471 (59%) had no iron-related laboratory measurements. Of 68 children with dilated cardiomyopathy, baseline transferrin saturation, and quantitative left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), 33 (49%) and 14 (21%) were iron deficient and sufficient, respectively, and 21 (31%) indeterminant. LVEF was reduced to 23.6 ± 12.1% from 32.9 ± 16.8% in iron deficiency and sufficiency, respectively (P = .04), without a significant difference in hemoglobin. After stratification by New York Heart Association classification, in advanced class IV, hemoglobin was reduced to 10.9 ± 1.3 g/dL vs 12.7 ± 2.0 g/dL in iron deficiency and sufficiency, respectively (P = .01), without a significant difference in LVEF.

CONCLUSIONS

In this single-center study, iron deficiency was not monitored in most children with chronic heart failure. In pediatric dilated cardiomyopathy-induced heart failure, absolute iron deficiency was prevalent and associated with clinically consequential and possibly correctable decreases in cardiac function and hemoglobin concentration.

Cardiomyopathies in children: An overview

Paediatric cardiomyopathies form a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by structural and electrical abnormalities of the heart muscle, commonly due to a gene variant of the myocardial cell structure. Mostly inherited as a dominant or occasionally recessive trait, they might be part of a syndromic disorder of underlying metabolic or neuromuscular defects or combine early developing extracardiac abnormalities (i.e., Naxos disease). The annual incidence of 1 per 100,000 children appears higher during the first two years of life. Dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy phenotypes share an incidence of 60% and 25%, respectively. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC), restrictive cardiomyopathy, and left ventricular noncompaction are less commonly diagnosed. Adverse events such as severe heart failure, heart transplantation, or death usually appear early after the initial presentation. In ARVC patients, high-intensity aerobic exercise has been associated with worse clinical outcomes and increased penetrance in at-risk genotype-positive relatives. Acute myocarditis in children has an incidence of 1.4-2.1 cases/per 100,000 children per year, with a 6-14% mortality rate during the acute phase. A genetic defect is considered responsible for the progression to dilated cardiomyopathy phenotype. Similarly, a dilated or arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy phenotype might emerge with an episode of acute myocarditis in childhood or adolescence. This review provides an overview of childhood cardiomyopathies focusing on clinical presentation, outcome, and pathology.

Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2023 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

The American Heart Association, in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, annually reports the most up-to-date statistics related to heart disease, stroke, and cardiovascular risk factors, including core health behaviors (smoking, physical activity, diet, and weight) and health factors (cholesterol, blood pressure, and glucose control) that contribute to cardiovascular health. The Statistical Update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions (including stroke, congenital heart disease, rhythm disorders, subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, heart failure, valvular disease, venous disease, and peripheral artery disease) and the associated outcomes (including quality of care, procedures, and economic costs).

METHODS

The American Heart Association, through its Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee, continuously monitors and evaluates sources of data on heart disease and stroke in the United States to provide the most current information available in the annual Statistical Update with review of published literature through the year before writing. The 2023 Statistical Update is the product of a full year's worth of effort in 2022 by dedicated volunteer clinicians and scientists, committed government professionals, and American Heart Association staff members. The American Heart Association strives to further understand and help heal health problems inflicted by structural racism, a public health crisis that can significantly damage physical and mental health and perpetuate disparities in access to health care, education, income, housing, and several other factors vital to healthy lives. This year's edition includes additional COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) publications, as well as data on the monitoring and benefits of cardiovascular health in the population, with an enhanced focus on health equity across several key domains.

RESULTS

Each of the chapters in the Statistical Update focuses on a different topic related to heart disease and stroke statistics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Statistical Update represents a critical resource for the lay public, policymakers, media professionals, clinicians, health care administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.

2022 HRS expert consensus statement on evaluation and management of arrhythmic risk in neuromuscular disorders

This international multidisciplinary document is intended to guide electrophysiologists, cardiologists, other clinicians, and health care professionals in caring for patients with arrhythmic complications of neuromuscular disorders (NMDs). The document presents an overview of arrhythmias in NMDs followed by detailed sections on specific disorders: Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Becker muscular dystrophy, and limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2; myotonic dystrophy type 1 and type 2; Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy and limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 1B; facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy; and mitochondrial myopathies, including Friedreich ataxia and Kearns-Sayre syndrome, with an emphasis on managing arrhythmic cardiac manifestations. End-of-life management of arrhythmias in patients with NMDs is also covered. The document sections were drafted by the writing committee members according to their area of expertise. The recommendations represent the consensus opinion of the expert writing group, graded by class of recommendation and level of evidence utilizing defined criteria. The recommendations were made available for public comment; the document underwent review by the Heart Rhythm Society Scientific and Clinical Documents Committee and external review and endorsement by the partner and collaborating societies. Changes were incorporated based on these reviews. By using a breadth of accumulated available evidence, the document is designed to provide practical and actionable clinical information and recommendations for the diagnosis and management of arrhythmias and thus improve the care of patients with NMDs.

Pediatric and adult dilated cardiomyopathy are distinguished by distinct biomarker profiles

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence suggests that pediatric and adult dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) represent distinct diseases. Few diagnostic tools exist for pediatric cardiologists to assess clinical status and prognosis. We hypothesized that pediatric DCM would have a unique biomarker profile compared to adult DCM and controls.

METHODS

We utilized a DNA aptamer array (SOMAScan) to compare biomarker profiles between pediatric and adult DCM. We simultaneously measured 1310 plasma proteins and peptides from 39 healthy children (mean age 3 years, interquartile range (IQR) 1-14), 39 ambulatory subjects with pediatric DCM (mean age 2.7 years, IQR 1-13), and 40 ambulatory adults with DCM (mean age 53 years, IQR 46-63).

RESULTS

Pediatric and adult DCM patients displayed distinct biomarker profiles, despite similar clinical characteristics. We identified 20 plasma peptides and proteins that were increased in pediatric DCM compared to age- and sex-matched controls. Unbiased multidimensionality reduction analysis suggested previously unrecognized heterogeneity among pediatric DCM subjects. Biomarker profile analysis identified four subgroups of pediatric DCM with distinguishing clinical characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support the emerging concept that pediatric and adult DCM are distinct disease entities, signify the need to develop pediatric-specific biomarkers for disease prognostication, and challenge the paradigm that pediatric DCM should be viewed as a single disease.

IMPACT

Pediatric and adult DCM patients displayed distinct biomarker profiles, despite similar clinical characteristics and outcomes. Our findings suggest that pediatric DCM may be a heterogeneous disease with various sub-phenotypes, including differing biomarker profiles and clinical findings. These data provide prerequisite information for future prospective studies that validate the identified pediatric DCM biomarkers, address their diagnostic accuracy and prognostic significance, and explore the full extent of heterogeneity amongst pediatric DCM patients.

Clinical Characteristics and Follow-Up of Pediatric-Onset Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this study was to describe characteristics, cascade screening results, and predictors of adverse outcome in pediatric-onset arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC).

BACKGROUND

Although ARVC is increasingly recognized in children, pediatric ARVC cohorts remain underrepresented in the literature.

METHODS

This study included 12 probands with pediatric-onset ARVC (aged <18 years at diagnosis) and 68 pediatric relatives (aged <18 years at first evaluation) referred for cascade screening. ARVC diagnosis was based on 2010 Task Force Criteria. Clinical presentation, diagnostic testing, and outcomes (sustained ventricular tachycardia [VT]; heart failure) were ascertained. Predictors of adverse outcome were determined by using univariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

Pediatric-onset ARVC was diagnosed in 12 probands and 12 (18%) relatives at a median age of 16.6 years (interquartile range: 13.8-17.4 years), whereas 12 (18%) relatives reached ARVC diagnosis as adults (median age, 22.0 years; interquartile range: 20.0-26.7 years). Sudden cardiac death/arrest was the first disease manifestation in 3 (25%) probands and 3 (4%) relatives. In patients without ARVC diagnosis at presentation (n = 61), electrocardiogram and Holter monitoring abnormalities occurred before development of imaging Task Force Criteria (7.3 ± 5.0 years vs 8.4 ± 5.0 years). Clinical course was characterized by sustained VT (91%) and heart failure (36%) in probands, which were rare in relatives (2% and 0%, respectively). Male sex (P < 0.01), T-wave inversion V₁-V₃ (P < 0.01), premature ventricular complexes/runs (P ≤ 0.01), and decrease in biventricular ejection fraction (P ≤ 0.01) were associated with VT occurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric ARVC carries high arrhythmic risk, especially in probands. Disease progression is particularly observed on electrocardiogram or Holter monitoring. Arrhythmic events are associated with male sex, T-wave inversions, premature ventricular complexes/runs, and reduced biventricular ejection fraction.

Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2022 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

The American Heart Association, in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, annually reports the most up-to-date statistics related to heart disease, stroke, and cardiovascular risk factors, including core health behaviors (smoking, physical activity, diet, and weight) and health factors (cholesterol, blood pressure, and glucose control) that contribute to cardiovascular health. The Statistical Update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions (including stroke, congenital heart disease, rhythm disorders, subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, heart failure, valvular disease, venous disease, and peripheral artery disease) and the associated outcomes (including quality of care, procedures, and economic costs).

METHODS

The American Heart Association, through its Statistics Committee, continuously monitors and evaluates sources of data on heart disease and stroke in the United States to provide the most current information available in the annual Statistical Update. The 2022 Statistical Update is the product of a full year's worth of effort by dedicated volunteer clinicians and scientists, committed government professionals, and American Heart Association staff members. This year's edition includes data on the monitoring and benefits of cardiovascular health in the population and an enhanced focus on social determinants of health, adverse pregnancy outcomes, vascular contributions to brain health, and the global burden of cardiovascular disease and healthy life expectancy.

RESULTS

Each of the chapters in the Statistical Update focuses on a different topic related to heart disease and stroke statistics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Statistical Update represents a critical resource for the lay public, policymakers, media professionals, clinicians, health care administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.

The genetic architecture of pediatric cardiomyopathy

To understand the genetic contribution to primary pediatric cardiomyopathy, we performed exome sequencing in a large cohort of 528 children with cardiomyopathy. Using clinical interpretation guidelines and targeting genes implicated in cardiomyopathy, we identified a genetic cause in 32% of affected individuals. Cardiomyopathy sub-phenotypes differed by ancestry, age at diagnosis, and family history. Infants < 1 year were less likely to have a molecular diagnosis (p < 0.001). Using a discovery set of 1,703 candidate genes and informatic tools, we identified rare and damaging variants in 56% of affected individuals. We see an excess burden of damaging variants in affected individuals as compared to two independent control sets, 1000 Genomes Project (p < 0.001) and SPARK parental controls (p < 1 × 10^-16). Cardiomyopathy variant burden remained enriched when stratified by ancestry, variant type, and sub-phenotype, emphasizing the importance of understanding the contribution of these factors to genetic architecture. Enrichment in this discovery candidate gene set suggests multigenic mechanisms underlie sub-phenotype-specific causes and presentations of cardiomyopathy. These results identify important information about the genetic architecture of pediatric cardiomyopathy and support recommendations for clinical genetic testing in children while illustrating differences in genetic architecture by age, ancestry, and sub-phenotype and providing rationale for larger studies to investigate multigenic contributions.

ICD Outcome in Pediatric Cardiomyopathies

Background: Pediatric patients with cardiomyopathies are at risk of malignant arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death (SCD). An ICD may prevent SCD. The aim of this study was to evaluate ICD implantation outcomes, and to compare transvenous and subcutaneous ICDs (S-ICDs) implanted in pediatric patients with cardiomyopathies. Methods: The study is single center and retrospective, and includes pediatric patients with cardiomyopathies who required ICD implantation (2010–2021). Outcomes were recorded for appropriate/inappropriate ICD therapy and surgical complications. Transvenous ICD and S-ICD were compared. Data are presented as median values (25th–75th centiles). Results: Forty-four patients with cardiomyopathies (hypertrophic 39%, arrhythmogenic 32%, dilated 27%, and restrictive 2%) underwent transvenous (52%) and S-ICD (48%) implantation at 14 (12–17) years of age, mostly for primary prevention (73%). The follow-up period was 29 (14–60) months. Appropriate ICD therapies were delivered in 25% of patients, without defibrillation failures. Lower age at implantation and secondary prevention were significant risk factors for malignant ventricular arrhythmias that required appropriate ICD therapies. ICD-related complications were surgical complications (18%) and inappropriate shocks (7%). No significant differences in outcomes were recorded, either when comparing transvenous and S-ICD or comparing the different cardiomyopathies. Conclusions: In pediatric patients with cardiomyopathy, ICD therapy is effective, with a low rate of inappropriate shocks. Neither ICD type (transvenous and S-ICDs) nor the cardiomyopathies subgroup revealed divergent outcomes.

Predictive value of electrocardiographic markers in children with dilated cardiomyopathy

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) refers to a heterogeneous group of cardiomyopathies characterized by ventricular dilatation and myocardial systolic dysfunction, which can lead to serious consequences such as malign arrhythmia, sudden death, heart failure, and thromboembolism. With its economical, non-invasive, simple and reproducible advantages, electrocardiogram (ECG) has become an important indicator for assessing the prognosis of cardiovascular diseases. In recent years, more and more studies of electrocardiography on DCM have been carried out, but there is still a lack of a comprehensive summary of its prognostic value. This article reviews the prognostic value of electrocardiographic markers in children with DCM.

T1 mapping and conditional survival in paediatric dilated cardiomyopathy with advanced heart failure

Myocardial fibrosis is associated with adverse events in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Cardiac MRI with late gadolinium enhancement can detect myocardial fibrosis. We evaluated the conditional survival of children and adolescents based on native T1 mapping (combined proton signal from myocytes and interstitium prior to contrast administration by the measurement of myocardial and blood relaxation time) as a means to assess myocardial fibrosis. This retrospective case-cohort over a 3-year period included all consecutive patients (aged ≤ 21 years) with advanced heart failure from dilated cardiomyopathy (echocardiographic left ventricular ejection fraction ≤ 45% and NYHA class ≥ 2) who underwent cardiac MRI.Conditional survival (follow-up ≥ 6 months after cardiac MRI) was assessed to include NYHA functional class and time to event (death or heart transplantation). A total of 57 patients (mean age 11.7 ± 6.1 years; 58% male) had a median NYHA Class III (31/57) and median left ventricular ejection fraction 25% (20-38%). Survival data were available in 82% patients (46/57) and the crude mortality rate was 24% (11/46) and one patient (2%) underwent heart transplantation. The median native T1 was elevated at 1351 ms (95% CI 1332, 1394) and it showed no difference between the groups who survived to those who died. Performing a multilevel regression analysis on prognosis failed to predict 6-month conditional survival.

Changes of serum uric acid and its clinical correlation in children with dilated cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is the most common type of childhood cardiomyopathy and uric acid (UA) is considered closely associated with cardiovascular disease. There are few reports about the relationship between serum UA level and DCM in children, and the present study aimed to analyze the changes and clinical correlation of the two.

METHODS

The clinical data of 49 children under 16 years old and who were hospitalized with DCM, and 44 healthy children who underwent physical examination in the same period at Tianjin Children's Hospital from June 2015 to November 2019 were analyzed retrospectively.

RESULTS

The 49 children in the case group included 17 males and 32 females, aged from 2 to 172 months. The case group were divided into New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class I (n=2), class II (n=17), class III (n=11), and class IV (n=19). The 44 healthy children selected as the control group included 20 males and 24 females aged from 2 to 161 months. The serum UA level was detected, and an ultrasonic cardiogram was conducted in each child. The serum UA level, left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD), left ventricular end-systolic diameter (LVESD), and left atrial diameter (LAD) of the case group were higher than that of the control group, while the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and left ventricular fractional shortening (LVFS) were lower than that of the control group, and significant statistical differences were seen between the two groups (P<0.01). The serum UA level, LVEDD, LVESD, and LAD of NYHAIII-IV class patients were higher than that of the NYHAI-II class, but LVEF and LVFS were lower than that of the NYHA I-II class, and there were significant statistical differences between the two groups (P<0.01). Statistical correlations were seen between the serum UA level and NYHA functional class, LVEDD, LVESD, LAD, LVEF, and LVFS (rs=0.599, 0.567, 0.579, 0.475, -0.333, -0.341, respectively, P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated serum UA levels exist in children with DCM and correlate with NYHA functional class and ultrasonic values. Change in serum UA levels may be used as a biomarker reflecting the severity of DCM in children.

2021 PACES expert consensus statement on the indications and management of cardiovascular implantable electronic devices in pediatric patients

In view of the increasing complexity of both cardiovascular implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) and patients in the current era, practice guidelines, by necessity, have become increasingly specific. This document is an expert consensus statement that has been developed to update and further delineate indications and management of CIEDs in pediatric patients, defined as ≤21 years of age, and is intended to focus primarily on the indications for CIEDs in the setting of specific disease categories. The document also highlights variations between previously published adult and pediatric CIED recommendations and provides rationale for underlying important differences. The document addresses some of the deterrents to CIED access in low- and middle-income countries and strategies to circumvent them. The document sections were divided up and drafted by the writing committee members according to their expertise. The recommendations represent the consensus opinion of the entire writing committee, graded by class of recommendation and level of evidence. Several questions addressed in this document either do not lend themselves to clinical trials or are rare disease entities, and in these instances recommendations are based on consensus expert opinion. Furthermore, specific recommendations, even when supported by substantial data, do not replace the need for clinical judgment and patient-specific decision-making. The recommendations were opened for public comment to Pediatric and Congenital Electrophysiology Society (PACES) members and underwent external review by the scientific and clinical document committee of the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), the science advisory and coordinating committee of the American Heart Association (AHA), the American College of Cardiology (ACC), and the Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC). The document received endorsement by all the collaborators and the Asia Pacific Heart Rhythm Society (APHRS), the Indian Heart Rhythm Society (IHRS), and the Latin American Heart Rhythm Society (LAHRS). This document is expected to provide support for clinicians and patients to allow for appropriate CIED use, appropriate CIED management, and appropriate CIED follow-up in pediatric patients.

2021 PACES expert consensus statement on the indications and management of cardiovascular implantable electronic devices in pediatric patients: Executive summary

Guidelines for the implantation of cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) have evolved since publication of the initial ACC/AHA pacemaker guidelines in 1984 [1]. CIEDs have evolved to include novel forms of cardiac pacing, the development of implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) and the introduction of devices for long term monitoring of heart rhythm and other physiologic parameters. In view of the increasing complexity of both devices and patients, practice guidelines, by necessity, have become increasingly specific. In 2018, the ACC/AHA/HRS published Guidelines on the Evaluation and Management of Patients with Bradycardia and Cardiac Conduction Delay [2], which were specific recommendations for patients >18 years of age. This age-specific threshold was established in view of the differing indications for CIEDs in young patients as well as size-specific technology factors. Therefore, the following document was developed to update and further delineate indications for the use and management of CIEDs in pediatric patients, defined as ≤21 years of age, with recognition that there is often overlap in the care of patents between 18 and 21 years of age. This document is an abbreviated expert consensus statement (ECS) intended to focus primarily on the indications for CIEDs in the setting of specific disease/diagnostic categories. This document will also provide guidance regarding the management of lead systems and follow-up evaluation for pediatric patients with CIEDs. The recommendations are presented in an abbreviated modular format, with each section including the complete table of recommendations along with a brief synopsis of supportive text and select references to provide some context for the recommendations. This document is not intended to provide an exhaustive discussion of the basis for each of the recommendations, which are further addressed in the comprehensive PACES-CIED document [3], with further data easily accessible in electronic searches or textbooks.

2021 PACES Expert Consensus Statement on the Indications and Management of Cardiovascular Implantable Electronic Devices in Pediatric Patients: Developed in collaboration with and endorsed by the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), the American College of Cardiology (ACC), the American Heart Association (AHA), and the Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC) Endorsed by the Asia Pacific Heart Rhythm Society (APHRS), the Indian Heart Rhythm Society (IHRS), and the Latin American Heart Rhythm Society (LAHRS)

In view of the increasing complexity of both cardiovascular implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) and patients in the current era, practice guidelines, by necessity, have become increasingly specific. This document is an expert consensus statement that has been developed to update and further delineate indications and management of CIEDs in pediatric patients, defined as ≤21 years of age, and is intended to focus primarily on the indications for CIEDs in the setting of specific disease categories. The document also highlights variations between previously published adult and pediatric CIED recommendations and provides rationale for underlying important differences. The document addresses some of the deterrents to CIED access in low- and middle-income countries and strategies to circumvent them. The document sections were divided up and drafted by the writing committee members according to their expertise. The recommendations represent the consensus opinion of the entire writing committee, graded by class of recommendation and level of evidence. Several questions addressed in this document either do not lend themselves to clinical trials or are rare disease entities, and in these instances recommendations are based on consensus expert opinion. Furthermore, specific recommendations, even when supported by substantial data, do not replace the need for clinical judgment and patient-specific decision-making. The recommendations were opened for public comment to Pediatric and Congenital Electrophysiology Society (PACES) members and underwent external review by the scientific and clinical document committee of the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), the science advisory and coordinating committee of the American Heart Association (AHA), the American College of Cardiology (ACC), and the Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC). The document received endorsement by all the collaborators and the Asia Pacific Heart Rhythm Society (APHRS), the Indian Heart Rhythm Society (IHRS), and the Latin American Heart Rhythm Society (LAHRS). This document is expected to provide support for clinicians and patients to allow for appropriate CIED use, appropriate CIED management, and appropriate CIED follow-up in pediatric patients.

2021 PACES expert consensus statement on the indications and management of cardiovascular implantable electronic devices in pediatric patients

In view of the increasing complexity of both cardiovascular implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) and patients in the current era, practice guidelines, by necessity, have become increasingly specific. This document is an expert consensus statement that has been developed to update and further delineate indications and management of CIEDs in pediatric patients, defined as ≤21 years of age, and is intended to focus primarily on the indications for CIEDs in the setting of specific disease categories. The document also highlights variations between previously published adult and pediatric CIED recommendations and provides rationale for underlying important differences. The document addresses some of the deterrents to CIED access in low- and middle-income countries and strategies to circumvent them. The document sections were divided up and drafted by the writing committee members according to their expertise. The recommendations represent the consensus opinion of the entire writing committee, graded by class of recommendation and level of evidence. Several questions addressed in this document either do not lend themselves to clinical trials or are rare disease entities, and in these instances recommendations are based on consensus expert opinion. Furthermore, specific recommendations, even when supported by substantial data, do not replace the need for clinical judgment and patient-specific decision-making. The recommendations were opened for public comment to Pediatric and Congenital Electrophysiology Society (PACES) members and underwent external review by the scientific and clinical document committee of the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), the science advisory and coordinating committee of the American Heart Association (AHA), the American College of Cardiology (ACC), and the Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC). The document received endorsement by all the collaborators and the Asia Pacific Heart Rhythm Society (APHRS), the Indian Heart Rhythm Society (IHRS), and the Latin American Heart Rhythm Society (LAHRS). This document is expected to provide support for clinicians and patients to allow for appropriate CIED use, appropriate CIED management, and appropriate CIED follow-up in pediatric patients.

2021 PACES Expert Consensus Statement on the Indications and Management of Cardiovascular Implantable Electronic Devices in Pediatric Patients

In view of the increasing complexity of both cardiovascular implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) and patients in the current era, practice guidelines, by necessity, have become increasingly specific. This document is an expert consensus statement that has been developed to update and further delineate indications and management of CIEDs in pediatric patients, defined as ≤21 years of age, and is intended to focus primarily on the indications for CIEDs in the setting of specific disease categories. The document also highlights variations between previously published adult and pediatric CIED recommendations and provides rationale for underlying important differences. The document addresses some of the deterrents to CIED access in low- and middle-income countries and strategies to circumvent them. The document sections were divided up and drafted by the writing committee members according to their expertise. The recommendations represent the consensus opinion of the entire writing committee, graded by class of recommendation and level of evidence. Several questions addressed in this document either do not lend themselves to clinical trials or are rare disease entities, and in these instances recommendations are based on consenus expert opinion. Furthermore, specific recommendations, even when supported by substantial data, do not replace the need for clinical judgment and patient-specific decision-making. The recommendations were opened for public comment to Pediatric and Congenital Electrophysiology Society (PACES) members and underwent external review by the scientific and clinical document committee of the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), the science advisory and coordinating committee of the American Heart Association (AHA), the American College of Cardiology, (ACC) and the Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC). The document received endorsement by all the collaborators and the Asia Pacific Heart Rhythm Society (APHRS), the Indian Heart Rhythm Society (IHRS), and the Latin American Heart Rhythm Society (LAHRS). This document is expected to provide support for clinicians and patients to allow for appropriate CIED use, appropriate CIED management, and appropriate follow-up in pediatric patients.

Identification of genes associated with sudden cardiac death: a network- and pathway-based approach

Background

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) accounts for a large proportion of the total deaths across different age groups. Although numerous candidate genes related to SCD have been identified by genetic association studies and genome wide association studies (GWAS), the molecular mechanisms underlying SCD are still unclear, and the biological functions and interactions of these genes remain obscure. To clarify this issue, we performed a comprehensive and systematic analysis of SCD-related genes by a network and pathway-based approach.

Methods

By screening the publications deposited in the PubMed and Gene-Cloud Biotechnology Information (GCBI) databases, we collected the genes genetically associated with SCD, which were referred to as the SCD-related gene set (SCDgset). To analyze the biological processes and biochemical pathways of the SCD-related genes, functional analysis was performed. To explore interlinks and interactions of the enriched pathways, pathway crosstalk analysis was implemented. To construct SCD-specific molecular networks, Markov cluster algorithm and Steiner minimal tree algorithm were employed.

Results

We collected 257 genes that were reported to be associated with SCD and summarized them in the SCDgset. Most of the biological processes and biochemical pathways were related to heart diseases, while some of the biological functions may be noncardiac causes of SCD. The enriched pathways could be roughly grouped into two modules. One module was related to calcium signaling pathway and the other was related to MAPK pathway. Moreover, two different SCD-specific molecular networks were inferred, and 23 novel genes potentially associated with SCD were also identified.

Conclusions

In summary, by means of a network and pathway-based methodology, we explored the pathogenetic mechanism underlying SCD. Our results provide valuable information in understanding the pathogenesis of SCD and include novel biomarkers for diagnosing potential patients with heart diseases; these may help in reducing the corresponding risks and even aid in preventing SCD.

Management of rhythm disorders in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Is sudden death a cardiac or pulmonary problem?

Dystrophin deficiency results in the cardiomyopathy of variable onset and deficiency. Myocardial scarring commonly results in cardiac dysfunction, with both atrial and ventricular dysrhythmias. Heart failure, rather than arrhythmia burden, remains the strongest cardiac predictor of mortality in this patient population. Current data suggest the overall rate of sudden cardiac death in pediatric dilated cardiomyopathy is significantly lower than in adults. Specifically, in the Duchenne cardiomyopathy population, sudden death from an arrhythmic cause appears to be rare, even in patients with previously diagnosed arrhythmias. Despite this, recommendations for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) placement in patients with Duchenne cardiomyopathy has traditionally been extrapolated from adult heart failure recommendations based on decreased left ventricular ejection fraction <35%. Early involvement of the cardiologist in the care for patients with dystrophin-deficient cardiomyopathy is recommended for this reason. The indications for ICD placement to prevent sudden death in patients with Duchenne cardiomyopathy are not well defined. There is little evidence to suggest that placement meaningfully prolongs life in this population, and should be carefully considered in accordance with the care goals of the patient and his family.

Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2021 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

The American Heart Association, in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, annually reports the most up-to-date statistics related to heart disease, stroke, and cardiovascular risk factors, including core health behaviors (smoking, physical activity, diet, and weight) and health factors (cholesterol, blood pressure, and glucose control) that contribute to cardiovascular health. The Statistical Update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions (including stroke, congenital heart disease, rhythm disorders, subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, heart failure, valvular disease, venous disease, and peripheral artery disease) and the associated outcomes (including quality of care, procedures, and economic costs).

METHODS

The American Heart Association, through its Statistics Committee, continuously monitors and evaluates sources of data on heart disease and stroke in the United States to provide the most current information available in the annual Statistical Update. The 2021 Statistical Update is the product of a full year's worth of effort by dedicated volunteer clinicians and scientists, committed government professionals, and American Heart Association staff members. This year's edition includes data on the monitoring and benefits of cardiovascular health in the population, an enhanced focus on social determinants of health, adverse pregnancy outcomes, vascular contributions to brain health, the global burden of cardiovascular disease, and further evidence-based approaches to changing behaviors related to cardiovascular disease.

RESULTS

Each of the 27 chapters in the Statistical Update focuses on a different topic related to heart disease and stroke statistics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Statistical Update represents a critical resource for the lay public, policy makers, media professionals, clinicians, health care administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.

Predicting outcome in children with dilated cardiomyopathy: the use of repeated measurements of risk factors for outcome

Aims

We aimed to determine whether in children with dilated cardiomyopathy repeated measurement of known risk factors for death or heart transplantation (HTx) during disease progression can identify children at the highest risk for adverse outcome.

Methods and results

Of 137 children we included in a prospective cohort, 36 (26%) reached the study endpoint (SE: all‐cause death or HTx), 15 (11%) died at a median of 0.09 years [inter‐quartile range (IQR) 0.03–0.7] after diagnosis, and 21 (15%) underwent HTx at a median of 2.9 years [IQR 0.8–6.1] after diagnosis. Median follow‐up was 2.1 years [IQR 0.8–4.3]. Twenty‐three children recovered at a median of 0.6 years [IQR 0.5–1.4] after diagnosis, and 78 children had ongoing disease at the end of the study. Children who reached the SE could be distinguished from those who did not, based on the temporal evolution of four risk factors: stunting of length growth (−0.42 vs. −0.02 length Z‐score per year, P < 0.001), less decrease in N‐terminal pro‐B‐type natriuretic peptide (NT‐proBNP) (−0.26 vs. −1.06 2log pg/mL/year, P < 0.01), no decrease in left ventricular internal diastolic dimension (LVIDd; 0.24 vs. −0.60 Boston Z‐score per year, P < 0.01), and increase in New York University Pediatric Heart Failure Index (NYU PHFI; 0.49 vs. −1.16 per year, P < 0.001). When we compared children who reached the SE with those with ongoing disease (leaving out the children who recovered), we found similar results, although the effects were smaller. In univariate analysis, NT‐proBNP, length Z‐score, LVIDd Z‐score, global longitudinal strain (%), NYU PHFI, and age >6 years at presentation (all P < 0.001) were predictive of adverse outcome. In multivariate analysis, NT‐proBNP appeared the only independent predictor for adverse outcome, a two‐fold higher NT‐proBNP was associated with a 2.8 times higher risk of the SE (hazard ratio 2.78, 95% confidence interval 1.81–3.94, P < 0.001).

Conclusions

The evolution over time of NT‐proBNP, LVIDd, length growth, and NYU PHFI identified a subgroup of children with dilated cardiomyopathy at high risk for adverse outcome. In this sample, with a limited number of endpoints, NT‐proBNP was the strongest independent predictor for adverse outcome.

Differential Expression Profiles and Functional Analysis of Long Non-coding RNAs in Children With Dilated Cardiomyopathy

Aim: To evaluate the expression profile of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in different left ventricular function of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) in children and explore their possible functions. Methods: The lncRNA microarray experiment was used to determine the differential expression profile of lncRNA in three children with DCM and three healthy volunteers. The functional analysis and the construction of the lncRNA-mRNA interaction network were carried out to study the biological functions. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis was used to verify the microarray data. Results: There were 369 up-regulated lncRNAs identified in the DCM patients (fold change >2, P < 0.05), and 505 down-regulated lncRNAs. Based on target gene prediction and co-expression network construction, 9 differentially expressed lncRNAs were selected for the PCR to verify the accuracy of the microarray data, of which 5 were up-regulated and 4 were down-regulated, and finally proved that 7 of them were consistent with the trend of microarray data results. Four of these lncRNAs had significant differences between the patients with poor cardiac function and patients with improved left ventricle function. Conclusion: LncRNAs may play an important role in pediatric DCM and may provide a new perspective for the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of this disease.

Higher Serum Lysophosphatidic Acids Predict Left Ventricular Reverse Remodeling in Pediatric Dilated Cardiomyopathy

Background: The prognosis of pediatric dilated cardiomyopathy (PDCM) is highly variable, ranging from death to cardiac function recovery. Left ventricular reverse remodeling (LVRR) represents a favorable prognosis in PDCM. Disturbance of lipid metabolism is associated with the change of cardiac function, but no studies have examined lipidomics data and LVRR. Methods: Discovery analyses were based on 540 targeted lipids in an observational, prospective China-AOCC (An Integrative-Omics Study of Cardiomyopathy Patients for Diagnosis and Prognosis in China) study. The OPLS-DA and random forest (RF) analysis were used to screen the candidate lipids. Associations of the candidate lipids were examined in Cox proportional hazards regression models. Furthermore, we developed a risk score comprising the significant lipids, with each attributed a score of 1 when the concentration was above the median. All significant findings were replicated in a validation set of the China-AOCC study. Results: There were 59 patients in the discovery set and 24 patients in the validation set. LVRR was observed in 27 patients (32.5%). After adjusting for age, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), and left ventricular end-diastolic dimension (LVEDD) z-score, lysophosphatidic acids (LysoPA) 16:0, LysoPA 18:2, LysoPA 18:1, and LysoPA 18:0 were significantly associated with LVRR in the discovery set, and hazard ratios (HRs) were 2.793 (95% CI, 1.545-5.048), 2.812 (95% CI, 1.542-5.128), 2.831 (95% CI, 1.555-5.154), and 2.782 (95% CI, 1.548-5.002), respectively. We developed a LysoPA score comprising the four LysoPA. When the LysoPA score reached 4, LVRR was more likely to be observed in both sets. The AUC increased with the addition of the LysoPA score to the LVEDD z-score (from 0.693 to 0.875 in the discovery set, from 0.708 to 0.854 in the validation set) for prediction of LVRR. Conclusions: Serum LysoPA can predict LVRR in PDCM patients. When the LysoPA score was combined with the LVEDD z-score, it may help in ascertaining the prognosis and monitoring effects of anti-heart failure pharmacotherapy.

Overview of Cardiomyopathies in Childhood

Paediatric cardiomyopathies are a heterogenous group of rare disorders, characterised by mechanical and electrical abnormalities of the heart muscle. The overall annual incidence of childhood cardiomyopathies is estimated at about 1 per 100,000 children and is significantly higher during the first 2 years of life. Dilated cardiomyopathies account for approximately half of the cases. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathies form the second largest group, followed by the less common left ventricular non-compaction and restrictive phenotypes. Infectious, metabolic, genetic, and syndromic conditions account for the majority of cases. Congestive heart failure is the typical manifestation in children with dilated cardiomyopathy, whereas presenting symptoms are more variable in other phenotypes. The natural history is largely influenced by the type of cardiomyopathy and its underlying aetiology. Results from a national population-based study revealed 10-year transplant-free survival rates of 80, 62, and 48% for hypertrophic, dilated and left ventricular non-compaction cardiomyopathies, respectively. Long-term survival rates of children with a restrictive phenotype have largely been obscured by early listing for heart transplantation. In general, the majority of adverse events, including death and heart transplantation, occur during the first 2 years after the initial presentation. This review provides an overview of childhood cardiomyopathies with a focus on epidemiology, natural history, and outcomes.

Cardiomyopathies in children: classification, diagnosis and treatment

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiomyopathies are rare in the pediatric population, but significantly impact on morbidity and mortality. The present review aims to provide an overview of cardiomyopathies in children and some practical guidelines for their prognostic stratification and management.

RECENT FINDINGS

Pediatric cardiomyopathies may present as isolated cardiac muscle disease or in the context of complex clinical syndromes. The etiologic characterization represents an important step in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiomyopathies because of its impact on prognosis and on therapeutic measures. Indeed, replacement therapy is nowadays widely available and changes the natural history of the disease. More complex is the management of isolated cardiomyopathies, which lack specific therapies, mainly aimed at symptomatic relief. In this context, heart transplantation shows excellent outcomes in children, but wait-list mortality is still very high. Device therapy for sudden cardiac death prevention and the use of mechanical assist devices are becoming more common in the clinical practice and may help to reduce mortality.

SUMMARY

Providing insight into pediatric cardiomyopathies classification helps in the prognostication and management of such diseases. Recent years witnessed a significant improvement in mortality, but future research is still needed to improve quality of life and life expectations in the pediatric population.

Epinephrine soaked tampons induced transient acute dilated cardiomyopathy during FESS procedure

Background

Epinephrine, in all modes of use, may pose a wide range of cardiotoxic events, ranging from sinus tachycardia to heart failure, life threatening arrhythmias, and even death. Because of daily and extensive use of epinephrine, these unusual and rare events tend to be forgotten by physicians. We present a case of dilated cardiomyopathy that developed following routine use of epinephrine-impregnated tampons during function endoscopic sinus (FESS) surgery.

Case presentation

A healthy, 24-year-old man with no family history of heart disease has undergone elective surgery under general anesthesia to repair the paranasal sinuses using endoscopic approach. During surgery, soon after being treated with 1: 1000 diluted epinephrine-soaked tampons, an hypertensive crisis was noticed followed by pulseless electrical activity. An extensive examination led to the diagnosis of non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. After several days of heart failure medical therapy, complete resolution of all structural and functional changes was achieved.

Conclusion

In our case, we present an unusual and rare event of acute dilated cardiomyopathy following the use of epinephrine-soaked tampons during elective FESS surgery. A prompt response was observed after several days of heart failure treatment. Awareness of the epinephrine cardiotoxic potential even in the form of soaked tampons is essential for proper diagnosis and prompt treatment.

Beyond genomics-technological advances improving the molecular characterization and precision treatment of heart failure

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a major cause of heart failure and cardiovascular mortality. In the past 20 years, there has been an overwhelming focus on developing therapeutics that target common downstream disease pathways thought to be involved in all forms of heart failure independent of the initial etiology. While this strategy is effective at the population level, individual responses vary tremendously and only approximately one third of patients receive benefit from modern heart failure treatments. In this perspective, we propose that DCM should be considered as a collection of diseases with a common phenotype of left ventricular dilation and systolic dysfunction rather than a single disease entity, and that mechanism-based classification of disease subtypes will revolutionize our understanding and clinical approach towards DCM. We discuss how these efforts are central to realizing the potential of precision medicine and how they are empowered by the development of new tools that allow investigators to strategically employ genomic and transcriptomic information. Finally, we outline an investigational strategy to (1) define DCM at the patient level, (2) develop new tools to model and mechanistically dissect subtypes of human heart failure, and (3) harness these insights for the development of precision therapeutics.

Biallelic variants in PPP1R13L cause paediatric dilated cardiomyopathy

Childhood dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a leading cause of heart failure requiring cardiac transplantation and approximately 5% of cases result in sudden death. Knowledge of the underlying genetic cause can aid prognostication and clinical management and enables accurate recurrence risk counselling for the family. Here we used genomic sequencing to identify the causative genetic variant(s) in families with children affected by severe DCM. In an international collaborative effort facilitated by GeneMatcher, biallelic variants in PPP1R13L were identified in seven children with severe DCM from five unrelated families following exome or genome sequencing and inheritance-based variant filtering. PPP1R13L encodes inhibitor of apoptosis-stimulating protein of p53 protein (iASPP). In addition to roles in apoptosis, iASPP acts as a regulator of desmosomes and has been implicated in inflammatory pathways. DCM presented early (mean: 2 years 10 months; range: 3 months-9 years) and was progressive, resulting in death (n = 3) or transplant (n = 3), with one child currently awaiting transplant. Genomic sequencing technologies are valuable for the identification of novel and emerging candidate genes. Biallelic variants in PPP1R13L were previously reported in a single consanguineous family with paediatric DCM. The identification here of a further five families now provides sufficient evidence to support a robust gene-disease association between PPP1R13L and severe paediatric DCM. The PPP1R13L gene should be included in panel-based genetic testing for paediatric DCM.

[Arrhythmias and Sudden Death Risk in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy]

The risk of sudden death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is related to the presence of ventricular arrhythmias in most cases. Finding the best schemes to assess the probability of arrhythmic complications will remain a challenge for modern Cardiology. Meanwhile, the multifactorial approach is the best strategy to avoid the unnecessary implantation of devices such as the implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Although the electrocardiogram remains an excellent diagnostic tool, even before echocardiographic expression, it does not have a clear role as a risk factor. However, the identification of associated arrhythmias such as preexcitation or long QT and variants of presentation as apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, allows identifying patients with high probability of sudden death. During the last few years, cardiac resonance and quantification of intramyocardial fibrosis (the basic mechanism of ventricular arrhythmias) have gained an important role in the evaluation of these patients.In particular, pediatric patients must have an individualized approach due to the poor prognosis at early ages and the uncertain role of different tools for risk assessment and treatment.

Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2020 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

The American Heart Association, in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, annually reports on the most up-to-date statistics related to heart disease, stroke, and cardiovascular risk factors, including core health behaviors (smoking, physical activity, diet, and weight) and health factors (cholesterol, blood pressure, and glucose control) that contribute to cardiovascular health. The Statistical Update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions (including stroke, congenital heart disease, rhythm disorders, subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, heart failure, valvular disease, venous disease, and peripheral artery disease) and the associated outcomes (including quality of care, procedures, and economic costs).

METHODS

The American Heart Association, through its Statistics Committee, continuously monitors and evaluates sources of data on heart disease and stroke in the United States to provide the most current information available in the annual Statistical Update. The 2020 Statistical Update is the product of a full year's worth of effort by dedicated volunteer clinicians and scientists, committed government professionals, and American Heart Association staff members. This year's edition includes data on the monitoring and benefits of cardiovascular health in the population, metrics to assess and monitor healthy diets, an enhanced focus on social determinants of health, a focus on the global burden of cardiovascular disease, and further evidence-based approaches to changing behaviors, implementation strategies, and implications of the American Heart Association's 2020 Impact Goals.

RESULTS

Each of the 26 chapters in the Statistical Update focuses on a different topic related to heart disease and stroke statistics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Statistical Update represents a critical resource for the lay public, policy makers, media professionals, clinicians, healthcare administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.

A predictive analytics framework for identifying patients at risk of developing multiple medical complications caused by chronic diseases

Chronic diseases often cause several medical complications. This paper aims to predict multiple complications among patients with a chronic disease. The literature uses single-task learning algorithms to predict complications independently and assumes no correlation among complications of chronic diseases. We propose two methods (independent prediction of complications with single-task learning and concurrent prediction of complications with multi-task learning) and show that medical complications of chronic diseases can be correlated. We use a case study and compare the performance of these two methods by predicting complications of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy on 106 predictors in 1078 electronic medical records from April 2009-April 2017, inclusive. The methods are implemented using logistic regression, artificial neural networks, decision trees, and support vector machines. The results show multi-task learning with logistic regression improves the performance of predictions in terms of both discrimination and calibration.

Cardiac Biomarkers in Pediatric Cardiomyopathy: Study Design and Recruitment Results from the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry

Background

Cardiomyopathies are a rare cause of pediatric heart disease, but they are one of the leading causes of heart failure admissions, sudden death, and need for heart transplant in childhood. Reports from the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry (PCMR) have shown that almost 40% of children presenting with symptomatic cardiomyopathy either die or undergo heart transplant within 2 years of presentation. Little is known regarding circulating biomarkers as predictors of outcome in pediatric cardiomyopathy.

Study Design

The Cardiac Biomarkers in Pediatric Cardiomyopathy (PCM Biomarkers) study is a multi-center prospective study conducted by the PCMR investigators to identify serum biomarkers for predicting outcome in children with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). Patients less than 21 years of age with either DCM or HCM were eligible. Those with DCM were enrolled into cohorts based on time from cardiomyopathy diagnosis: categorized as new onset or chronic. Clinical endpoints included sudden death and progressive heart failure.

Results

There were 288 children diagnosed at a mean age of 7.2±6.3 years who enrolled in the PCM Biomarkers Study at a median time from diagnosis to enrollment of 1.9 years. There were 80 children enrolled in the new onset DCM cohort, defined as diagnosis at or 12 months prior to enrollment. The median age at diagnosis for the new onset DCM was 1.7 years and median time from diagnosis to enrollment was 0.1 years. There were 141 children enrolled with either chronic DCM or chronic HCM, defined as children ≥2 years from diagnosis to enrollment. Among children with chronic cardiomyopathy, median age at diagnosis was 3.4 years and median time from diagnosis to enrollment was 4.8 years.

Conclusion

The PCM Biomarkers study is evaluating the predictive value of serum biomarkers to aid in the prognosis and management of children with DCM and HCM. The results will provide valuable information where data are lacking in children.

Clinical Trial Registration NCT01873976

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01873976?term=PCM+Biomarker&rank=1.

Wearable cardioverter-defibrillators in pediatric cardiomyopathy: A cost-utility analysis

BACKGROUND

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is the most common cardiomyopathy in children. Patients with severe cardiac dysfunction are thought to be at risk of sudden cardiac arrest (SCA). After diagnosis, a period of medical optimization is recommended before permanent implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) implantation. Wearable cardioverter-defibrillators (WCDs) provide an option for arrhythmia protection as an outpatient during this optimization.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine the strategy that optimizes cost and survival during medical optimization of a patient with DCM before ICD placement.

METHODS

A Markov state transition model was constructed for the 3 clinical approaches to compare costs, clinical outcomes, and quality of life: (1) "Inpatient," (2) "Home-WCD," and (3) "Home-No WCD." Transitional probabilities, costs, and utility metrics were extracted from the existing literature. Cost-effectiveness was assessed comparing each paradigm's incremental cost-effectiveness ratio against a societal willingness-to-pay threshold of $50,000 per quality-adjusted life year.

RESULTS

The cost-utility analysis illustrated that Home-WCD met the willingness-to-pay threshold with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $20,103 per quality-adjusted life year and 4 mortalities prevented per 100 patients as compared with Home-No WCD. One-way sensitivity analyses demonstrated that Home-No WCD became the most cost-effective solution when the probability of SCA fell below 0.2% per week, the probability of SCA survival with a WCD fell below 9.8%, or the probability of SCA survival with Home-No WCD quadrupled from base-case assumptions.

CONCLUSION

Based on the existing literature probabilities of SCA in pediatric patients with DCM undergoing medical optimization before ICD implantation, sending a patient home with a WCD may be a cost-effective strategy.