The Beneficial Effect of Farm Milk Consumption on Asthma, Allergies, and Infections: From Meta-Analysis of Evidence to Clinical Trial

The microbiome: an integral player in immune homeostasis and inflammation in the respiratory tract

The last decade of microbiome research has highlighted its fundamental role in systemic immune and metabolic homeostasis. The microbiome plays a prominent role during gestation and into early life, when maternal lifestyle factors shape immune development of the newborn. Breast milk further shapes gut colonization, supporting the development of tolerance to commensal bacteria and harmless antigens while preventing outgrowth of pathogens. Environmental microbial and lifestyle factors that disrupt this process can dysregulate immune homeostasis, predisposing infants to atopic disease and childhood asthma. In health, the low-biomass lung microbiome, together with inhaled environmental microbial constituents, establishes the immunological set point that is necessary to maintain pulmonary immune defense. However, in disease perturbations to immunological and physiological processes allow the upper respiratory tract to act as a reservoir of pathogenic bacteria, which can colonize the diseased lung and cause severe inflammation. Studying these host-microbe interactions in respiratory diseases holds great promise to stratify patients for suitable treatment regimens and biomarker discovery to predict disease progression. Preclinical studies show that commensal gut microbes are in a constant flux of cell division and death, releasing microbial constituents, metabolic by-products, and vesicles that shape the immune system and can protect against respiratory diseases. The next major advances may come from testing and utilizing these microbial factors for clinical benefit and exploiting the predictive power of the microbiome by employing multiomics analysis approaches.

A review of dairy food intake for improving health among black infants, toddlers, and young children in the US

Adequate nutrition is paramount for proper growth and musculoskeletal, neurocognitive, and immunological development in infants, toddlers, and young children. Among breastfeeding mother-child dyads, this critical window of development, is impacted by both maternal and offspring dietary patterns. For mothers, their dietary patterns impact not only their own health and well-being, but also the nutrition of their breast milk - which is recommended as the sole source of food for the first 6 months of their infant's life, and as a complementary source of nutrition until at least 2 years of age. For infants and toddlers, the breast milk, formulas, and first foods they consume can have both short-term and long-term effects on their health and well-being - with important impacts on their taste perception, microbiome composition, and immune function. According to dietary intake data in the US, infants and young children meet a greater number of nutrient requirements than older children and adults, yet numerous disparities among socially disadvantaged racial/ethnic groups still provide significant challenges to achieving adequate nutrition during these early life stages. For example, Black children are at greater risk for disparities in breastfeeding, age-inappropriate complementary feeding patterns, nutrient inadequacies, food insecurity, and obesity relative to most other racial/ethnic groups in the US. For infants who do not receive adequate breast milk, which includes a disproportionate number of Black infants, dairy-based infant formulas are considered the next best option for meeting nutritional needs. Fermented dairy foods (e.g., yogurt, cheese) can serve as ideal first foods for complementary feeding, and cow's milk is recommended for introduction during the transitional feeding period to help meet the nutrient demands during this phase of rapid growth and development. Low dairy intake may put children at risk for multiple nutrient inadequacies and health disparities - some of which may have lifelong consequences on physical and mental health. A burgeoning body of research shows that in addition to breast milk, cow's milk and other dairy foods may play critical roles in supporting physical growth, neurodevelopment, immune function, and a healthy gut microbiome in early life. However, most of this research so far has been conducted in White populations and can only be extrapolated to Black infants, toddlers, and young children. Therefore, to better understand and support the health and development of this population, greater research and education efforts on the role of milk and dairy products are urgently needed. This review presents the current evidence on health disparities faced by Black children in the US from birth to four years of age, and the role that dairy foods can play in supporting the normal growth and development of this vulnerable population.

Dietary Intervention with Whey Protein Concentrate Does Not Affect Toll-like Receptor Responses and Gene Expression Patterns in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells of Healthy Volunteers

Bovine milk contains bioactive proteins, carbohydrates, and phospholipids with immunomodulatory properties impacting human immunity, potentially contributing to resistance to infections and allergies through diverse mechanisms. One such mechanism is the enhancing of the innate immune response to secondary pathogen-related stimuli, termed innate immune training. Although in vitro studies demonstrate that milk immunoglobulin G (IgG) can train human monocytes, evidence for in vivo immune training is limited. To explore the potential of bovine IgG for inducing innate immune training in vivo, this human study utilized an IgG-rich whey protein concentrate (WPC). Healthy male volunteers were assigned to a high dose WPC, low dose WPC, or placebo group. Blood was collected pre- and post-two weeks of WPC consumption. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated and stimulated with TLR ligands, evaluating IL-6 and TNF-α production by monocytes, myeloid DCs, and plasmacytoid DCs. Additionally, RNA was isolated for differential gene expression (DGE) analysis. Results indicated that the two-week WPC intervention did not influence the ex vivo response of studied cells to TLR agonists. Furthermore, PBMC gene expression patterns showed no significant differences between the placebo and high dose WPC groups. The data suggests that oral WPC ingestion did not enhance immune responses in young, healthy male participants.

Advancing Understanding of Childhood Asthma: Lessons Learned from Birth Cohort Studies

Asthma and allergies are some of the most common chronic disorders affecting children, the prevalence of which has been increasing in countries and regions undergoing rapid development like China. To curb the rising tide of allergies and safeguard the health of future generations, it is of critical importance to understand how asthma inception is influenced by factors acting at different life stages. Birth cohorts represent a powerful tool to investigate the temporal sequence of exposures along the natural course of asthma. We examined recent evidence on birth cohort studies of asthma and allergic diseases and evaluated their strengths and weaknesses. Essential elements for a successful birth cohort are proposed to further elucidate asthma etiology and pathogenies. Initiating new cohorts in understudied populations with the application of advanced analytical approaches will be needed. Moreover, fostering collaborative networks using standardized methodologies should be prioritized to enable integration of findings across diverse cohorts. There remains an urgent and unmet need to further translate the seminal findings from asthma birth cohort studies into targeted primary prevention strategies to eradicate the disease.

Prevention Is Better than Cure: Impact of Allergen Immunotherapy on the Progression of Airway Disease

Allergen immunotherapy is highly effective for seasonal pollinosis. Three years of treatment results in long-term efficacy. This disease modification is accompanied by downregulation of allergen-specific Th2 responses and the induction of persistent specific IgG- and IgA-associated IgE-blocking activity. In children with seasonal rhinitis, both subcutaneous and sublingual pollen immunotherapy have been shown to reduce the development of asthma symptoms and asthma medication requirements. House dust mite tablet allergen immunotherapy has been shown to be effective for perennial mite-driven rhinitis in adults and children and may suppress asthma exacerbations, whereas its long-term efficacy has yet to be explored. The success of primary prevention of peanut allergy in childhood by introduction of peanut into the diet during infancy provides a strong rationale to explore whether primary prevention of inhalant allergies and asthma may also be possible. House dust mite allergy is a major risk factor for developing asthma. Preliminary data in at-risk children suggest that sublingual house dust mite immunotherapy initiated during infancy could reduce the onset of multiple allergen sensitizations and prevent the development of asthma at age 6 years. This possibility should now be explored in an adequately powered, prospectively randomized controlled trial.

From preschool wheezing to asthma: Environmental determinants

Wheezing is common among preschool children, representing a group of highly heterogeneous conditions with varying natural history. Several phenotypes of wheezing have been proposed to facilitate the identification of young children who are at risk of subsequent development of asthma. Epidemiological and immunological studies across different populations have revealed the key role of environmental factors in influencing the progression from preschool wheezing to childhood asthma. Significant risk factors include severe respiratory infections, allergic sensitization, and exposure to tobacco smoke. In contrast, a farming/rural environment has been linked to asthma protection in both human and animal studies. Early and intense exposures to microorganisms and microbial metabolites have been demonstrated to alter host immune responses to allergens and viruses, thereby driving the trajectory away from wheezing illness and asthma. Ongoing clinical trials of candidate microbes and microbial products have shown promise in shaping the immune function to reduce episodes of viral-induced wheezing. Moreover, restoring immune training may be especially important for young children who had reduced microbial exposure due to pandemic restrictions. A comprehensive understanding of the role of modifiable environmental factors will pave the way for developing targeted prevention strategies for preschool wheezing and asthma.

Environmental Risk Factors, Protective Factors, and Biomarkers for Allergic Rhinitis: A Systematic Umbrella Review of the Evidence

Many potential environmental risk factors, protective factors, and biomarkers of AR have been published, but so far, the strength and consistency of their evidence are unclear. We conducted a comprehensive review of environmental risk, protective factors, and biomarkers for AR to establish the evidence hierarchy. We systematically searched Embase, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science electronic database from inception to December 31, 2022. We calculated summary effect estimate (odds ratio (OR), relative risk (RR), hazard ratio (HR), and standardized mean difference (SMD)), 95% confidence interval, random effects p value, I2 statistic, 95% prediction interval, small study effects, and excess significance biases, and stratification of the level of evidence. Methodological quality was assessed by AMSTAR 2 (A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews 2). We retrieved 4478 articles, of which 43 met the inclusion criteria. The 43 eligible articles identified 31 potential environmental risk factors (10,806,206 total population, two study not reported), 11 potential environmental protective factors (823,883 total population), and 34 potential biomarkers (158,716 total population) for meta-analyses. The credibility of evidence was convincing (class I) for tic disorders (OR = 2.89, 95% CI 2.11-3.95); and highly suggestive (class II) for early-life antibiotic use (OR = 3.73, 95% CI 3.06-4.55), exposure to indoor dampness (OR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.27-1.75), acetaminophen exposure (OR = 1.54, 95% CI 1.41-1.69), childhood acid suppressant use (OR = 1.40, 95% CI 1.23-1.59), exposure to indoor mold (OR = 1.66, 95% CI 1.26-2.18), coronavirus disease 2019 (OR = 0.11, 95% CI 0.06-0.22), and prolonged breastfeeding (OR = 0.72, 95% CI 0.65-0.79). This study is registered in PROSPERO (CRD42022384320).

Dietary Approaches from Moms, Farms, and Nature to Overcome Chronic Diseases and the Pharmacracy

Chronic diseases, previously called noncommunicable diseases, are the leading cause of global death and were recently estimated by the World Health Organization to account for 74% of all deaths [...].

From Amish farm dust to bacterial lysates: The long and winding road to protection from allergic disease

Allergic diseases typically begin in early life and can impose a heavy burden on children and their families. Effective preventive measures are currently unavailable but may be ushered in by studies on the "farm effect", the strong protection from asthma and allergy found in children born and raised on traditional farms. Two decades of epidemiologic and immunologic research have demonstrated that this protection is provided by early and intense exposure to farm-associated microbes that target primarily innate immune pathways. Farm exposure also promotes timely maturation of the gut microbiome, which mediates a proportion of the protection conferred by the farm effect. Current research seeks to identify allergy-protective compounds from traditional farm environments, but standardization and regulation of such substances will likely prove challenging. On the other hand, studies in mouse models show that administration of standardized, pharmacological-grade lysates of human airway bacteria abrogates allergic lung inflammation by acting on multiple innate immune targets, including the airway epithelium/IL-33/ILC2 axis and dendritic cells whose Myd88/Trif-dependent tolerogenic reprogramming is sufficient for asthma protection in adoptive transfer models. To the extent that these bacterial lysates mimic the protective effects of natural exposure to microbe-rich environments, these agents might provide an effective tool for prevention of allergic disease.

The Concept of One Health for Allergic Diseases and Asthma

The worldwide prevalence of allergic disease is rising as a result of complex gene-environment interactions that shape the immune system and host response. Climate change and loss of biodiversity are existential threats to humans, animals, plants, and ecosystems. While there is significant progress in the development of targeted therapeutic options to treat allergies and asthma, these approaches are inadequate to meet the challenges faced by climate change. The exposomic approach is needed with the recognition of the bidirectional effect between human beings and the environment. All stakeholders need to work together toward mitigating the effects of climate change and promoting a One Health concept in order to decrease the burden of asthma and allergy and to improve immune health. Healthcare professionals should strive to incorporate One Health counseling, environmental health precepts, and advocacy into their practice.

Continuous Rather Than Solely Early Farm Exposure Protects From Hay Fever Development

BACKGROUND

An important window of opportunity for early-life exposures has been proposed for the development of atopic eczema and asthma.

OBJECTIVE

However, it is unknown whether hay fever with a peak incidence around late school age to adolescence is similarly determined very early in life.

METHODS

In the Protection against Allergy-Study in Rural Environments (PASTURE) birth cohort potentially relevant exposures such as farm milk consumption and exposure to animal sheds were assessed at multiple time points from infancy to age 10.5 years and classified by repeated measure latent class analyses (n = 769). Fecal samples at ages 2 and 12 months were sequenced by 16S rRNA. Hay fever was defined by parent-reported symptoms and/or physician's diagnosis of hay fever in the last 12 months using questionnaires at 10.5 years.

RESULTS

Farm children had half the risk of hay fever at 10.5 years (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.50; 95% CI 0.31-0.79) than that of nonfarm children. Whereas early life events such as gut microbiome richness at 12 months (aOR 0.66; 95% CI 0.46-0.96) and exposure to animal sheds in the first 3 years of life (aOR 0.26; 95% CI 0.06-1.15) were determinants of hay fever, the continuous consumption of farm milk from infancy up to school age was necessary to exert the protective effect (aOR 0.35; 95% CI 0.17-0.72).

CONCLUSIONS

While early life events determine the risk of subsequent hay fever, continuous exposure is necessary to achieve protection. These findings argue against the notion that only early life exposures set long-lasting trajectories.

Advances in the Study of Probiotics for Immunomodulation and Intervention in Food Allergy

Food allergies are a serious food safety and public health issue. Soybean, dairy, aquatic, poultry, and nut products are common allergens inducing allergic reactions and adverse symptoms such as atopic dermatitis, allergic eczema, allergic asthma, and allergic rhinitis. Probiotics are assumed as an essential ingredient in maintaining intestinal microorganisms' composition. They have unique physiological roles and therapeutic effects in maintaining the mucosal barrier, immune function, and gastrointestinal tract, inhibiting the invasion of pathogenic bacteria, and preventing diarrhea and food allergies. Multiple pieces of evidence reveal a significant disruptive effect of probiotics on food allergy pathology and progression mechanisms. Thus, this review describes the allergenic proteins as an entry point and briefly describes the application of probiotics in allergenic foods. Then, the role of probiotics in preventing and curing allergic diseases by regulating human immunity through intestinal flora and intestinal barrier, modulating host immune active cells, and improving host amino acid metabolism are described in detail. The anti-allergic role of probiotics in the function and metabolism of the gastrointestinal tract has been comprehensively explored to furnish insights for relieving food allergy symptoms and preventing food allergy.

Lack of iron, zinc, and vitamins as a contributor to the etiology of atopic diseases

Micronutritional deficiencies are common in atopic children suffering from atopic dermatitis, food allergy, rhinitis, and asthma. A lack of iron, in particular, may impact immune activation with prolonged deficiencies of iron, zinc, vitamin A, and vitamin D associated with a Th2 signature, maturation of macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), and the generation of IgE antibodies. In contrast, the sufficiency of these micronutrients establishes immune resilience, promotion of regulatory cells, and tolerance induction. As micronutritional deficiencies mimic an infection, the body's innate response is to limit access to these nutrients and also impede their dietary uptake. Here, we summarize our current understanding of the physiological function of iron, zinc, and vitamins A and D in relation to immune cells and the clinical consequences of deficiencies in these important nutrients, especially in the perinatal period. Improved dietary uptake of iron is achieved by vitamin C, vitamin A, and whey compounds, whereas zinc bioavailability improves through citrates and proteins. The addition of oil is essential for the dietary uptake of beta-carotene and vitamin D. As for vitamin D, the major source comes via sun exposure and only a small amount is consumed via diet, which should be factored into clinical nutritional studies. We summarize the prevalence of micronutritional deficiencies of iron, zinc, and vitamins in the pediatric population as well as nutritional intervention studies on atopic diseases with whole food, food components, and micronutrients. Dietary uptake via the lymphatic route seems promising and is associated with a lower atopy risk and symptom amelioration. This review provides useful information for clinical studies and concludes/emphasizes that a healthy, varied diet containing dairy products, fish, nuts, fruits, and vegetables as well as supplementing foods or supplementation with micronutrients as needed is essential to combat the atopic march.

The Flourishing Camel Milk Market and Concerns about Animal Welfare and Legislation

The worldwide dromedary milk production has increased sharply since the beginning of this century due to prolonged shelf life, improved food-safety and perceived health benefits. Scientific confirmation of health claims will expand the market of dromedary milk further. As a result, more and more dromedaries will be bred for one purpose only: the highest possible milk production. However, intensive dromedary farming systems have consequences for animal welfare and may lead to genetic changes. Tighter regulations will be implemented to restrict commercialization of raw milk. Protocols controlling welfare of dromedaries and gene databases of milk-dromedaries will prevent negative consequences of intensive farming. In countries where dromedaries have only recently been introduced as production animal, legislators have limited expertise on this species. This is exemplified by an assessment on behalf of the Dutch government, recommending prohibiting keeping this species from 2024 onwards because the dromedary was deemed to be insufficiently domesticated. Implementation of this recommendation in Dutch law would have devastating effects on existing dromedary farms and could also pave the way for adopting similar measures in other European countries. In this paper it is shown that the Dutch assessment lacks scientific rigor. Awareness of breeders and legislators for the increasing knowledge about dromedaries and their products would strengthen the position of dromedaries as one of the most adapted and sustainable animals.

Diagnosis and Rationale for Action against Cow's Milk Allergy (DRACMA) Guidelines update - III - Cow's milk allergens and mechanisms triggering immune activation

Background

The immunopathogenesis of cow's milk protein allergy (CMPA) is based on different mechanisms related to immune recognition of protein epitopes, which are affected by industrial processing.

Purpose

The purpose of this WAO DRACMA paper is to: (i) give a comprehensive overview of milk protein allergens, (ii) to review their immunogenicity and allergenicity in the context of industrial processing, and (iii) to review the milk-related immune mechanisms triggering IgE-mediated immediate type hypersensitivity reactions, mixed reactions and non-IgE mediated hypersensitivities.

Results

The main cow’s milk allergens – α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, serum albumin, caseins, bovine serum albumins, and others – may determine allergic reactions through a range of mechanisms. All marketed milk and milk products have undergone industrial processing that involves heating, filtration, and defatting. Milk processing results in structural changes of immunomodulatory proteins, leads to a loss of lipophilic compounds in the matrix, and hence to a higher allergenicity of industrially processed milk products. Thereby, the tolerogenic capacity of raw farm milk, associated with the whey proteins α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin and their lipophilic ligands, is lost.

Conclusion

The spectrum of immunopathogenic mechanisms underlying cow's milk allergy (CMA) is wide. Unprocessed, fresh cow's milk, like human breast milk, contains various tolerogenic factors that are impaired by industrial processing. Further studies focusing on the immunological consequences of milk processing are warranted to understand on a molecular basis to what extent processing procedures make single milk compounds into allergens.

The Environmental Microbiome, Allergic Disease, and Asthma

The environmental microbiome represents the entirety of the microbes and their metabolites that we encounter in our environments. A growing body of evidence supports the role of the environmental microbiome in risk for and severity of allergic diseases and asthma. The environmental microbiome represents a ubiquitous, lifelong exposure to non-self antigens. During the critical window between birth and 1 year of life, interactions between our early immune system and the environmental microbiome have 2 consequences: our individual microbiome is populated by environmental microbes, and our immune system is trained regarding which antigens to tolerate. During this time, a diversity of exposures appears largely protective, dramatically decreasing the risk of developing allergic diseases and asthma. As we grow older, our interactions with the environmental microbiome change. While it continues to exert influence over the composition of the human microbiome, the environmental microbiome becomes increasingly a source for antigenic stimulation and infection. The same microbial exposure protective against disease development may exacerbate disease severity. Although much has been learned about the importance of the environmental microbiome in allergic disease, much more remains to be understood about these complicated interactions between our environment, our microbiome, our immune system, and disease.

Current progress of emerging technologies in human and animals' milk processing: Retention of immune-active components and microbial safety

Human milk and commercial dairy products play a vital role in humans, as they can provide almost all essential nutrients and immune-active components for the development of children. However, how to retain more native immune-active components of milk during processing remains a big question for the dairy industry. Nonthermal technologies for milk processing are gaining increasing interest in both academic and industrial fields, as it is known that thermal processing may negatively affect the quality of milk products. Thermosensitive components, such as lactoferrin, immunoglobulins (Igs), growth factors, and hormones, are highly important for the healthy development of newborns. In addition to product quality, thermal processing also causes environmental problems, such as high energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This review summarizes the recent advances of UV-C, ultrasonication (US), high-pressure processing (HPP), and other emerging technologies for milk processing from the perspective of immune-active components retention and microbial safety, focusing on human, bovine, goat, camel, sheep, and donkey milk. Also, the detailed application, including the instrumental design, technical parameters, and obtained results, are discussed. Finally, future prospects and current limitations of nonthermal techniques as applied in milk processing are discussed. This review thereby describes the current state-of-the-art in nonthermal milk processing techniques and will inspire the development of such techniques for in-practice applications in milk processing.

Babies, Bugs, and Barriers: Dietary Modulation of Intestinal Barrier Function in Early Life

The intestinal barrier is essential in early life to prevent infection, inflammation, and food allergies. It consists of microbiota, a mucus layer, an epithelial layer, and the immune system. Microbial metabolites, the mucus, antimicrobial peptides, and secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) protect the intestinal mucosa against infection. The complex interplay between these functionalities of the intestinal barrier is crucial in early life by supporting homeostasis, development of the intestinal immune system, and long-term gut health. Exclusive breastfeeding is highly recommended during the first 6 months. When breastfeeding is not possible, milk-based infant formulas are the only safe alternative. Breast milk contains many bioactive components that help to establish the intestinal microbiota and influence the development of the intestinal epithelium and the immune system. Importantly, breastfeeding lowers the risk for intestinal and respiratory tract infections. Here we review all aspects of intestinal barrier function and the nutritional components that impact its functionality in early life, such as micronutrients, bioactive milk proteins, milk lipids, and human milk oligosaccharides. These components are present in breast milk and can be added to milk-based infant formulas to support gut health and immunity. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Nutrition, Volume 42 is August 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Drivers and hazards of consumption of unpasteurised bovine milk and milk products in high-income countries

Introduction

The consumption of dairy products contributes to health, nutrition, and livelihoods globally. However, dairy products do not come without microbiological food safety risks for consumers. Despite this risk, common hygiene measures in high-income countries, particularly pasteurisation, ensures that milk is safe, and is indeed frequently mandated by law. Nevertheless, over the past two decades, there has been a global increase in the number of consumers in high-income developed countries actively seeking out unpasteurised milk in liquid and product forms for perceived nutritional and health benefits, and improved taste. The often-anecdotal claims upon which consumers make such choices are not all supported by scientific evidence; however, some recent research studies have investigated (and in some cases demonstrated) the positive impact of unpasteurised milk consumption on the prevalence of asthma, atopy, rectal cancer and respiratory illness.

Methods

To investigate the significance of unpasteurised milk and milk product consumption for human health in high-income countries, outbreak data between the years 2000 and 2018 were obtained for the United States of America, Canada, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Japan, New Zealand and Australia, which were then categorized into three World Health Organisation subregions: AMR A, EUR A and WPR A. Outbreak dynamic variables such as pathogens, the place of consumption, numbers of outbreaks and deaths per million capita, the average number of cases per outbreak and regulations were described and analysed using R Studio. To provide an overview of unpasteurised milk-related disease outbreaks, a rapid evidence review was also undertaken to establish an overview of what is known in the current literature about hazards and drivers of consumption.

Results

Foodborne outbreaks associated with unpasteurised dairy consumption have risen in high-income countries over the period 2000 to 2018, with Campylobacter spp. being the most common aetiological agent responsible, followed by Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. The most common places of consumption are on farms or in households, indicating individuals choose to drink unpasteurised milk, rather than a widespread distribution of the product, for example, at social events and in schools. Further study is needed to better understand contributing factors, such as cultural differences in the consumption of dairy products.

Conclusion

There are several observable health benefits linked to consuming raw milk, but outbreaks associated with unpasteurised milk and milk products are on the rise. It cannot be definitively concluded whether the benefits outweigh the risks, and ultimately the decision lies with the individual consumer. Nevertheless, many countries have regulations in place to protect consumer health, acknowledging the definite risks to human health that unpasteurised dairy foods may pose, particularly from microbial hazards.

Ingestion, Immunity, and Infection: Nutrition and Viral Respiratory Tract Infections

Respiratory infections place a heavy burden on the health care system, particularly in the winter months. Individuals with a vulnerable immune system, such as very young children and the elderly, and those with an immune deficiency, are at increased risk of contracting a respiratory infection. Most respiratory infections are relatively mild and affect the upper respiratory tract only, but other infections can be more serious. These can lead to pneumonia and be life-threatening in vulnerable groups. Rather than focus entirely on treating the symptoms of infectious disease, optimizing immune responsiveness to the pathogens causing these infections may help steer towards a more favorable outcome. Nutrition may have a role in such prevention through different immune supporting mechanisms. Nutrition contributes to the normal functioning of the immune system, with various nutrients acting as energy sources and building blocks during the immune response. Many micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) act as regulators of molecular responses of immune cells to infection. It is well described that chronic undernutrition as well as specific micronutrient deficiencies impair many aspects of the immune response and make individuals more susceptible to infectious diseases, especially in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. In addition, other dietary components such as proteins, pre-, pro- and synbiotics, and also animal- and plant-derived bioactive components can further support the immune system. Both the innate and adaptive defense systems contribute to active antiviral respiratory tract immunity. The initial response to viral airway infections is through recognition by the innate immune system of viral components leading to activation of adaptive immune cells in the form of cytotoxic T cells, the production of neutralizing antibodies and the induction of memory T and B cell responses. The aim of this review is to describe the effects of a range different dietary components on anti-infective innate as well as adaptive immune responses and to propose mechanisms by which they may interact with the immune system in the respiratory tract.

Primary Prevention of Pediatric Asthma through Nutritional Interventions

Asthma is the most common chronic non-communicable disease in children, the pathogenesis of which involves several factors. The increasing burden of asthma worldwide has emphasized the need to identify the modifiable factors associated with the development of the disease. Recent research has focused on the relationship between dietary factors during the first 1000 days of life (including pregnancy)—when the immune system is particularly vulnerable to exogenous interferences—and allergic outcomes in children. Specific nutrients have been analyzed as potential targets for the prevention of childhood wheeze and asthma. Recent randomized controlled trials show that vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy, using higher doses than currently recommended, may be protective against early childhood wheezing but not school-age asthma. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation during pregnancy and infancy may be associated with a reduced risk of childhood wheeze, although the evidence is conflicting. Data from observational studies suggest that some dietary patterns during pregnancy and infancy might also influence the risk of childhood asthma. However, the quality of the available evidence is insufficient to allow recommendations regarding dietary changes for the prevention of pediatric asthma. This review outlines the available high-quality evidence on the role of prenatal and perinatal nutritional interventions for the primary prevention of asthma in children and attempts to address unmet areas for future research in pediatric asthma prevention.

Consumption of differently processed milk products and the risk of asthma in children

BACKGROUND

Consumption of unprocessed cow's milk has been associated with a lower risk of childhood asthma and/or atopy. Not much is known about differently processed milk products. We aimed to study the association between the consumption of differently processed milk products and asthma risk in a Finnish birth cohort.

METHODS

We included 3053 children from the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) Nutrition Study. Asthma and its subtypes were assessed at the age of 5 years, and food consumption by food records, at the age of 3 and 6 months and 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 years. We used conventional and processing (heat treatment and homogenization)-based classifications for milk products. The data were analyzed using a joint model for longitudinal and time-to-event data.

RESULTS

At the age of 5 years, 184 (6.0%) children had asthma, of whom 101 (54.9%) were atopic, 75 (40.8%) were nonatopic, and eight (4.3%) could not be categorized. Consumption of infant formulas [adjusted hazard ratio (95% confidence intervals) 1.15 (1.07, 1.23), p < .001] and strongly heat-treated milk products [1.06 (1.01, 1.10), p = .01] was associated with the risk of all asthma. Consumption of all cow's milk products [1.09 (1.03, 1.15), p = .003], nonfermented milk products [1.08 (1.02, 1.14), p = .008], infant formulas [1.23 (1.13, 1.34), p < .001], and strongly heat-treated milk products [1.08 (1.02, 1.15), p = .006] was associated with nonatopic asthma risk. All these associations remained statistically significant after multiple testing correction.

CONCLUSIONS

High consumption of infant formula and other strongly heat-treated milk products may be associated with the development of asthma.

Nourishing the Human Holobiont to Reduce the Risk of Non-Communicable Diseases: A Cow’s Milk Evidence Map Example

The microbiome revolution brought the realization that diet, health, and safety for humans in reality means diet, health, and safety for the human holobiont/superorganism. Eating healthier means much more than just feeding human cells. Our diet must also nourish the combination of our microbiome and our connected physiological systems (e.g., the microimmunosome). For this reason, there has been an interest in returning to ancestral “complete” unprocessed foods enriched in microbes, including raw milks. To contribute to this inevitable “nourishing the holobiont” trend, we introduce a systematic risk–benefit analysis tool (evidence mapping), which facilitates transdisciplinary state-of-the-science decisions that transcend single scientific disciplines. Our prior paper developed an evidence map (a type of risk–benefit mind map) for raw vs. processed/pasteurized human breast milk. In the present paper, we follow with a comprehensive evidence map and narrative for raw/natural vs. processed/pasteurized cow’s milk. Importantly, the evidence maps incorporate clinical data for both infectious and non-communicable diseases and allow the impact of modern agricultural, food management, and medical and veterinary monitoring outcomes to be captured. Additionally, we focus on the impact of raw milks (as “complete” foods) on the microimmunosome, the microbiome-systems biology unit that significantly determines risk of the world’s number one cause of human death, non-communicable diseases.

Characterization of the molecular properties and allergenicity (IgE-binding capacity) of β-lactoglobulin by heat treatment using asymmetric-flow field-flow fractionation and ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time of flight mass chromatography

In this study, the heat product (90 °C, 10 min) of β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) was analyzed by asymmetric-flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) to observe the effect of heat treatment. The changes in molar mass (M) and molar size induced by heat treatment were characterized by AF4, and changes in molar shape were observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results showed that β-LG dissociated and aggregated into four fractions with different M values, sizes, and shapes after heat treatment. The vast aggregations with the highest allergenicity (IgE-binding capacity) might enhance the allergenicity of β-LG. However, the number of characterized epitope peptides was decreased due to heat treatment. The above results provide some references for related studies of β-LG and its allergenicity. Further separation and characterization of the high-allergenicity fractions and peptides will help to eliminate allergens in dairy products and reduce the occurrence of allergic reactions.

The role of allergen-specific IgE, IgG and IgA in allergic disease

Immunoglobulin E (IgE)‐mediated allergy is the most common hypersensitivity disease affecting more than 30% of the population. Exposure to even minute quantities of allergens can lead to the production of IgE antibodies in atopic individuals. This is termed allergic sensitization, which occurs mainly in early childhood. Allergen‐specific IgE then binds to the high (FcεRI) and low‐affinity receptors (FcεRII, also called CD23) for IgE on effector cells and antigen‐presenting cells. Subsequent and repeated allergen exposure increases allergen‐specific IgE levels and, by receptor cross‐linking, triggers immediate release of inflammatory mediators from mast cells and basophils whereas IgE‐facilitated allergen presentation perpetuates T cell–mediated allergic inflammation. Due to engagement of receptors which are highly selective for IgE, even tiny amounts of allergens can induce massive inflammation. Naturally occurring allergen‐specific IgG and IgA antibodies usually recognize different epitopes on allergens compared with IgE and do not efficiently interfere with allergen‐induced inflammation. However, IgG and IgA antibodies to these important IgE epitopes can be induced by allergen‐specific immunotherapy or by passive immunization. These will lead to competition with IgE for binding with the allergen and prevent allergic responses. Similarly, anti‐IgE treatment does the same by preventing IgE from binding to its receptor on mast cells and basophils. Here, we review the complex interplay of allergen‐specific IgE, IgG and IgA and the corresponding cell receptors in allergic diseases and its relevance for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of allergy.

Allergic diseases in infancy: I - Epidemiology and current interpretation

Objective

Among non-communicable diseases, the prevalence of allergic diseases has increased significantly in the new millennium. The increase of allergic diseases is linked to the changing environment of infants.

Methods

This narrative review summarizes the discussions and conclusions from the 8^th Human Milk Workshop. Information from the fields of pediatrics, epidemiology, biology, microbiology, and immunology are summarized to establish a framework describing potential avenues for the prevention of allergic diseases in the future.

Results

Several environmental circumstances are linked to the development of allergic diseases. While cesarean section is increasing the risk of allergies, early childhood exposure to a farm environment has a protective effect. From their analysis, nutritive and non-nutritive factors influencing the allergy risk in later life have been identified. The effect of breastfeeding on food allergy development is non-univocal. Human milk components including immunoglobulins, cytokines, and prebiotics have been indicated as important for allergy prevention.

Conclusion

Many factors linked to the western lifestyle have been associated with the development of allergic diseases. This suggests several theories that may serve as a basis for new protective interventions. While it is indubitable that mother's milk protects from infectious diseases, its role in the prevention of allergic diseases is to be elucidated.

Strategies and Future Opportunities for the Prevention, Diagnosis, and Management of Cow Milk Allergy

The prevalence of food allergy has increased over the last 20-30 years, including cow milk allergy (CMA) which is one of the most common causes of infant food allergy. International allergy experts met in 2019 to discuss broad topics in allergy prevention and management of CMA including current challenges and future opportunities. The highlights of the meeting combined with recently published developments are presented here. Primary prevention of CMA should start from pre-pregnancy with a focus on a healthy lifestyle and food diversity to ensure adequate transfer of inhibitory IgG- allergen immune complexes across the placenta especially in mothers with a history of allergic diseases and planned c-section delivery. For non-breastfed infants, there is controversy about the preventive role of partially hydrolyzed formulae (pHF) despite some evidence of health economic benefits among those with a family history of allergy. Clinical management of CMA consists of secondary prevention with a focus on the development of early oral tolerance. The use of extensive Hydrolysate Formulae (eHF) is the nutrition of choice for the majority of non-breastfed infants with CMA; potentially with pre-, probiotics and LCPUFA to support early oral tolerance induction. Future opportunities are, among others, pre- and probiotics supplementation for mothers and high-risk infants for the primary prevention of CMA. A controlled prospective study implementing a step-down milk formulae ladder with various degrees of hydrolysate is proposed for food challenges and early development of oral tolerance. This provides a more precise gradation of milk protein exposure than those currently recommended.

Exosome-Derived MicroRNAs of Human Milk and Their Effects on Infant Health and Development

Multiple biologically active components of human milk support infant growth, health and development. Milk provides a wide spectrum of mammary epithelial cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MEVs) for the infant. Although the whole spectrum of MEVs appears to be of functional importance for the growing infant, the majority of recent studies report on the MEV subfraction of milk exosomes (MEX) and their miRNA cargo, which are in the focus of this review. MEX and the dominant miRNA-148a play a key role in intestinal maturation, barrier function and suppression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling and may thus be helpful for the prevention and treatment of necrotizing enterocolitis. MEX and their miRNAs reach the systemic circulation and may impact epigenetic programming of various organs including the liver, thymus, brain, pancreatic islets, beige, brown and white adipose tissue as well as bones. Translational evidence indicates that MEX and their miRNAs control the expression of global cellular regulators such as DNA methyltransferase 1-which is important for the up-regulation of developmental genes including insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1, α-synuclein and forkhead box P3-and receptor-interacting protein 140, which is important for the regulation of multiple nuclear receptors. MEX-derived miRNA-148a and miRNA-30b may stimulate the expression of uncoupling protein 1, the key inducer of thermogenesis converting white into beige/brown adipose tissue. MEX have to be considered as signalosomes derived from the maternal lactation genome emitted to promote growth, maturation, immunological and metabolic programming of the offspring. Deeper insights into milk's molecular biology allow the conclusion that infants are both "breast-fed" and "breast-programmed". In this regard, MEX miRNA-deficient artificial formula is not an adequate substitute for breastfeeding, the birthright of all mammals.

Excessive Unbalanced Meat Consumption in the First Year of Life Increases Asthma Risk in the PASTURE and LUKAS2 Birth Cohorts

A higher diversity of food items introduced in the first year of life has been inversely related to subsequent development of asthma. In the current analysis, we applied latent class analysis (LCA) to systematically assess feeding patterns and to relate them to asthma risk at school age. PASTURE (N=1133) and LUKAS2 (N=228) are prospective birth cohort studies designed to evaluate protective and risk factors for atopic diseases, including dietary patterns. Feeding practices were reported by parents in monthly diaries between the 4^th and 12^th month of life. For 17 common food items parents indicated frequency of feeding during the last 4 weeks in 4 categories. The resulting 153 ordinal variables were entered in a LCA. The intestinal microbiome was assessed at the age of 12 months by 16S rRNA sequencing. Data on feeding practice with at least one reported time point was available in 1042 of the 1133 recruited children. Best LCA model fit was achieved by the 4-class solution. One class showed an elevated risk of asthma at age 6 as compared to the other classes (adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 8.47, 95% CI 2.52–28.56, p = 0.001) and was characterized by daily meat consumption and rare consumption of milk and yoghurt. A refined LCA restricted to meat, milk, and yoghurt confirmed the asthma risk effect of a particular class in PASTURE and independently in LUKAS2, which we thus termed unbalanced meat consumption (UMC). The effect of UMC was particularly strong for non-atopic asthma and asthma irrespectively of early bronchitis (aOR: 17.0, 95% CI 5.2–56.1, p < 0.001). UMC fostered growth of iron scavenging bacteria such as Acinetobacter (aOR: 1.28, 95% CI 1.00-1.63, p = 0.048), which was also related to asthma (aOR: 1.55, 95% CI 1.18-2.03, p = 0.001). When reconstructing bacterial metabolic pathways from 16S rRNA sequencing data, biosynthesis of siderophore group nonribosomal peptides emerged as top hit (aOR: 1.58, 95% CI 1.13-2.19, p = 0.007). By a data-driven approach we found a pattern of overly meat consumption at the expense of other protein sources to confer risk of asthma. Microbiome analysis of fecal samples pointed towards overgrowth of iron-dependent bacteria and bacterial iron metabolism as a potential explanation.

Nutritional Factors in Occupational Lung Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Lung diseases such as asthma and COPD are major public health issues and related to occupational exposures. While therapies to limit the development and progression of these diseases are limited, nutrition interventions could offer potential alternatives to mediate the inflammation associated with these diseases. This is a narrative review of the current state of relevant nutrients on inflammation and respiratory outcomes associated with occupational exposures.

RECENT FINDINGS

Relevant nutrients that have been investigated in recent years include omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, zinc, vitamin D, dairy products, and antioxidants. These nutrients have demonstrated the potential to prevent or modify the adverse outcomes associated with occupational exposures, primarily in preclinical studies. Current therapies for respiratory consequences associated with occupational exposures are limited; therefore, addressing strategies for reducing inflammation is important in improving quality of life and limiting health care costs. More human studies are warranted to determine the effectiveness of nutrition as an intervention.

Probiotics as a Possible Strategy for the Prevention and Treatment of Allergies. A Narrative Review

Allergies are an increasing global public health concern, especially for children and people living in urban environments. Allergies impair the quality of life of those who suffer from them, and for this reason, alternatives for the treatment of allergic diseases or reduction in their symptoms are being sought. The main objective of this study was to compile the studies carried out on probiotics as a possible therapy for allergies. The most studied allergies on which probiotics have been shown to have a beneficial effect are rhinitis, asthma, and atopic dermatitis. Most studies have studied the administration of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium spp. in children and have shown beneficial effects, such as a reduction in hyperreactivity and inflammation caused by allergens and a decrease in cytokine release, among other beneficial effects. In the case of children, no clear beneficial effects were found in several studies, and the potential risk from the use of some opportunistic bacteria, such as probiotics, seems controversial. In the studies that reported beneficial results, these effects were found to make allergy symptoms less aggressive, thus reducing morbidity in allergy sufferers. The different effects of the same probiotic bacteria on different patients seem to reinforce the idea that the efficacy of probiotics is dependent on the microbial species or strain, its derived metabolites and byproducts, and the gut microbiota eubiosis of the patient. This study is relevant in the context of allergic diseases, as it provides a broader understanding of new alternatives for the treatment of allergies, both in children, who are the main sufferers, and adults, showing that probiotics, in some cases, reduce the symptoms and severity of such diseases.

Allergens and Adjuvants in Allergen Immunotherapy for Immune Activation, Tolerance, and Resilience

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) is the only setting in which a vaccine is applied in patients allergic exactly to the active principle in the vaccine. Therefore, AIT products need to be not only effective but also safe. In Europe, for subcutaneous AIT, this has been achieved by the allergoid strategy in which IgE epitopes are destroyed or masked. In addition, adjuvants physically precipitate the allergen at the injection site to prevent too rapid systemic distribution. The choice of adjuvant critically shapes the efficacy and type of immune response to the injected allergen. In contrast to T_H2-promoting adjuvants, others clearly counteract allergy. Marketed products in Europe are formulated with aluminum hydroxide (alum) (66.7%), microcrystalline tyrosine (16.7%), calcium phosphate (11.1%), or the T_H1 adjuvant monophosphoryl lipid A (5.6%). In contrast to the European practice, in the United States mostly nonadjuvanted extracts and no allergoids are used for subcutaneous AIT, highlighting not only a regulatory but maybe a "historic preference." Sublingual AIT in the form of drops or tablets is currently applied worldwide without adjuvants, usually with higher safety but lower patient adherence than subcutaneous AIT. This article will discuss how AIT and adjuvants modulate the immune response in the treated patient toward immune activation, modulation, or-with new developments in the pipeline-immune resilience.

An integrative medicine review of primary prevention of allergy in pediatrics

The prevalence of allergic disease has been rapidly increasing in the developed world for over fifty years. The prevention of allergic disease remains one of the most elusive topics in medicine. Integrative medicine emphasizes prevention of disease and utilizes many interventions to help modify long-term outcomes of health. Primary prevention refers to the arrest of manifestations of a disease before they present clinically. Preventing allergy is not simply about preventing sensitization, but also about developing tolerance. This narrative review article will discuss integrative medicine approaches that may help to prevent atopic disease in the pediatric population. It is organized chronologically to aid in counseling patients: 1) prevention during pregnancy and 2) prevention after birth. While research into allergy prevention is in its infancy, Integrative Medicine is well-suited to provide many insights into the prevention and mitigation of atopic disease.

Diet Modifications in Primary Prevention of Asthma. Where Do We Stand?

The steep increase in asthma prevalence, observed worldwide in recent decades, has created an urgent need to search for effective methods of its prevention. Among other environmental factors, changes in diet habits and the potential influence of individual food components on immunological processes have been extensively studied as a potential method of intervention in primary prevention of asthma. The preventive role of some nutrients has been confirmed: unpasteurized milk reduced the risk of asthma in epidemiological studies, vitamin D supplementation was effective in preventing the transient forms of wheezing in small children and high maternal intake of fish oil reduced the risk of persistent wheeze and asthma in children. However, not all studies provided consistent results, and many food ingredients are still pending for defining their role in asthma development. Moreover, a novel approach looking not only at single food ingredients, but the whole dietary patterns and diversity has recently been proposed. In this paper, we discuss the current role of nutrients in asthma primary prevention and the reasons for inconsistencies in the study results. We look at single diet components, but also the whole dietary patterns. We describe the proposed mechanisms of action at different stages of life, identify the role of modifiers and delineate future perspectives on the application of nutrients in targeting strategies for asthma primary prevention.

First evaluation of a symbiotic food supplement in an allergen exposure chamber in birch pollen allergic patients

Background

Allergic rhinitis/rhinoconjunctivitis is the most common immune disease worldwide, but still largely underestimated, underdiagnosed, and undertreated. Dysbiosis and reduced microbial diversity is linked to the development of allergies, and the immunomodulatory effects of pro- and prebiotics might be used to counteract microbiome dysbiosis in allergy. Adequate symbiotic (multi-strain pro-, plus prebiotic) supplementation can be suggested as a complementary approach in the management of allergic rhinitis.

Objective

The effects of the daily intake of a symbiotic food supplement (combination of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM and Bifidobacterium lactis BL-04 with Fructo-Oligosaccharides) for 4 months in birch pollen allergic rhinoconjunctivitis patients were investigated for the first time in an allergen exposure chamber (AEC) allowing standardised, reproducible pollen exposure before and after intake.

Methods

Eligible patients were exposed to birch pollen (8000 pollen/m³ for 120 min) at the GA²LEN AEC, at baseline (V1) and final visit (V3) outside the season. The Total Symptom Score (TSS) and the scores for nose, eye, bronchial system, and others were evaluated every 10 min during exposure. Other secondary endpoints were the changes in well-being, Peak Nasal Inspiratory Flow (PNIF), lung function parameters, and safety. Co-primary endpoints were differences in Total Nasal Symptom Score (TNSS) and TSS after 120 min of exposure between both visits. Temporal evolution of symptom scores were analysed in an exploratory way using linear mixed effects models.

Results

27 patients (mean age 45 years, 15% male) completed the study. Both co-primary endpoints showed significant improvement after intake of the symbiotic. Median TNSS and TSS were decreased 50% and 80% at 120 min (adjusted p-value = 0.025 and p < 0.01 respectively).

All four symptom scores and the personal well-being, improved to a clinically relevant extent over time, visible by a weaker increase in symptoms during 120 min of the final birch pollen exposure. No relevant differences were observed for PNIF, PEF, and spirometry. There were no airway obstructions or lung restrictions before and after both exposures. Late phase reactions after exposure were reduced after V3, documenting a better birch pollen tolerability of the patients. The safety and tolerability profile of the symbiotic food supplement was excellent, no adverse events (AEs) were observed.

Conclusions

This first evaluation of a symbiotic food supplement in an AEC in rhinoconjunctivitis patients with or without asthma induced by birch pollen revealed a significant beneficial effect, harnessing significant improvements of symptoms and well-being while maintaining an excellent safety and tolerability profile.

Study of the Influence of Sociodemographic and Lifestyle Factors on Consumption of Dairy Products: Preliminary Study in Portugal and Brazil

Sociodemographic characteristics, including regional variations, have been associated with different food consumption patterns. Behavioral factors and lifestyle variables may also contribute to different food dietary trends. In this way, the present study intended to investigate the consumption habits of the most relevant types of dairy products around the world and relate them to sociodemographic factors, for example, age, sex, education and country as well as with some anthropometric and behavioral aspects, for example, body mass index, satisfaction with body weight and exercise or sedentary lifestyles. One other objective of the study was to categorize the lifestyles of the participants, according to measured variables linked with hours of inactivity or exercise, in order to use these as possible differentiating variables for the consumption of dairy products. The study involved a questionnaire survey undertaken on a non-probabilistic convenience sample of participants from Portugal (PT) and Brazil (BR), and participation was voluntary and anonymous. The data analysis involved different statistical techniques: basic statistics, chi-square tests, factor analysis, cluster analysis and tree classification analysis. The results showed that semi skimmed milk is never consumed by about half of the participants (47.4% for PT and 46.7 for BR), and those numbers increase for skimmed (64.8% for PT and 50.9% for BR), chocolate flavored milk (82.6% for PT and 65.6% for BR) and enriched milks (94.8% for PT and 85.3% for BR). Cheeses are also consumed in the two countries by small numbers of people. The number of participants consuming imported cheeses in both countries was particularly low (only 4.0% consume these more than once a week in both countries), suggesting national products may be preferred. It was further observed that those who consume cheese do it seldom (once a week) or sometimes (2–3 times per week). Butter is also consumed by only about half of the adult population (43.8% for PT and 49.5% for BR), but the percentage of those who never consume butter increases for skimmed butter (66.0% for PT and 82.6% for BR) and unsalted butter (70.2% for PT and 69.1% for BR). The consumption of yogurts also follows similar low consumption patterns. The most frequently consumed yogurt types in Portugal are liquid (30.5% consume regularly) and natural yogurts (34.8% consume regularly), while in Brazil the most frequent are creamy fruit pulp yogurt (14.4% consume regularly), liquid (13.7% consume regularly) and Greek type yogurt (10.2% consume regularly). A factor analysis and a cluster analysis established groups according to lifestyles, as follows: 1—Screeners, 2—Exercisers, 3—Travelers and 4—Others. These lifestyles were found to be influential in the consumption of dairy products for all classes of dairy tested: milk, cheese, yogurt and butter. For example, the screeners were found to consume more milk, more butter, more cheese and more yogurt. Additionally, other influential factors were age, sex, education, BMI and satisfaction with body weight. Nevertheless, country was not a meaningfully discriminant variable in relation to the other variables included in the classification analysis. The results concluded that, despite some small differences in the patterns of consumption of dairy products in both countries, the levels of consumption of dairy products are extremely low, for all classes studied (milk, cheese, yogurt or butter). Additionally, it was concluded that some factors are influential on the level of consumption of dairy products, and therefore decision makers can plan their interventions according to the characteristics of the targeted segments of the population, according to lifestyle, age, sex, education, BMI and satisfaction with body weight.

In Vitro Induction of Trained Innate Immunity by bIgG and Whey Protein Extracts

Bovine immunoglobulin G (bIgG) was previously shown to enhance innate immune responses to toll-like receptor (TLR) stimulation, via induction of trained immunity. In this study, we investigated whether minimally processed dairy streams with high levels of whey proteins as potential infant nutrition ingredients could also induce trained immunity, and to what extent this can be explained by the presence of bIgG. The minimally processed whey ingredients serum protein concentrate (SPC) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) were tested for their ability to induce trained immunity in human peripheral blood monocytes. Both ingredients induced trained immunity as evidenced by an increased production of TNF-α and, to a lesser extent, of IL-6 upon stimulation with TLR ligands. This was comparable to isolated bovine immunoglobulin G (bIgG) that served as positive control. Depletion of bIgG from both whey protein-containing ingredients did not significantly inhibit the induction of trained immunity, suggesting that the streams contain other components in addition to bIgG that are able to induce trained immunity. These results indicate that minimally processed whey ingredients may contribute to protection against infections through enhancing innate immune responsiveness to pathogens.

The Impact of Milk and Its Components on Epigenetic Programming of Immune Function in Early Life and Beyond: Implications for Allergy and Asthma

Specific and adequate nutrition during pregnancy and early life is an important factor in avoiding non-communicable diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers, and chronic allergic diseases. Although epidemiologic and experimental studies have shown that nutrition is important at all stages of life, it is especially important in prenatal and the first few years of life. During the last decade, there has been a growing interest in the potential role of epigenetic mechanisms in the increasing health problems associated with allergic disease. Epigenetics involves several mechanisms including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and microRNAs which can modify the expression of genes. In this study, we focus on the effects of maternal nutrition during pregnancy, the effects of the bioactive components in human and bovine milk, and the environmental factors that can affect early life (i.e., farming, milk processing, and bacterial exposure), and which contribute to the epigenetic mechanisms underlying the persistent programming of immune functions and allergic diseases. This knowledge will help to improve approaches to nutrition in early life and help prevent allergies in the future.

Raw milk producers with high levels of hygiene and safety

There is world-wide increasing interest in the consumption of unprocessed, natural food commodities including fresh (unpasteurised) milk and milk products. Consumers are actively seeking out raw milk, partly due to health reasons, but also for taste, freshness, closeness to the producer and to support local agriculture. The need for high levels of hygiene and safety in farms producing raw milk for direct consumption has long been recognised and has led to federal and industry-initiated systems for safe raw milk production. Raw milk producers in North America and Europe have demonstrated that raw milk, intended for direct consumption, can be produced safe and hygienic. The aim of this paper is to describe practices that have been developed for safe raw milk production. The German Vorzugsmilch is a federally regulated programme for legal raw milk production that was established already in the 1930s to provide raw milk with high hygienic standards controlled for zoonotic diseases to consumers. The Raw Milk Institute is a non-profit organisation established in California that has developed a voluntary safe raw milk programme in North America. RAWMI has developed a risk analysis and management system for raw milk dairy farmers to assist farmers in making individually tailored solutions for various production systems. In British Colombia, Canada, small herd share farms have employed good manufacturing practices, a risk management approach and performed monthly samples for pathogens and indicator bacteria to demonstrate safety and consistency. The major components of the raw milk systems applied, and the results of regular milk microbial indicator bacteria are presented. For the German system, the results from standard monthly pathogen tests are compared to zoonotic pathogen tests from other milk sources. The overall results indicate that raw milk can be produced with a high level of hygiene and safety in various systems.