The effect of shape on the margination dynamics of non-neutrally buoyant particles in two-dimensional shear flows

Features of Anisotropic Drug Delivery Systems

Natural materials are anisotropic. Delivery systems occurring in nature, such as viruses, blood cells, pollen, and many others, do have anisotropy, while delivery systems made artificially are mostly isotropic. There is apparent complexity in engineering anisotropic particles or capsules with micron and submicron sizes. Nevertheless, some promising examples of how to fabricate particles with anisotropic shapes or having anisotropic chemical and/or physical properties are developed. Anisotropy of particles, once they face biological systems, influences their behavior. Internalization by the cells, flow in the bloodstream, biodistribution over organs and tissues, directed release, and toxicity of particles regardless of the same chemistry are all reported to be factors of anisotropy of delivery systems. Here, the current methods are reviewed to introduce anisotropy to particles or capsules, including loading with various therapeutic cargo, variable physical properties primarily by anisotropic magnetic properties, controlling directional motion, and making Janus particles. The advantages of combining different anisotropy in one entity for delivery and common problems and limitations for fabrication are under discussion.

The interaction between particles and vascular endothelium in blood flow

Particle-based drug delivery systems have shown promising application potential to treat human diseases; however, an incomplete understanding of their interactions with vascular endothelium in blood flow prevents their inclusion into mainstream clinical applications. The flow performance of nano/micro-sized particles in the blood are disturbed by many external/internal factors, including blood constituents, particle properties, and endothelium bioactivities, affecting the fate of particles in vivo and therapeutic effects for diseases. This review highlights how the blood constituents, hemodynamic environment and particle properties influence the interactions and particle activities in vivo. Moreover, we briefly summarized the structure and functions of endothelium and simulated devices for studying particle performance under blood flow conditions. Finally, based on particle-endothelium interactions, we propose future opportunities for novel therapeutic strategies and provide solutions to challenges in particle delivery systems for accelerating their clinical translation. This review helps provoke an increasing in-depth understanding of particle-endothelium interactions and inspires more strategies that may benefit the development of particle medicine.

Cancer Brachytherapy at the Nanoscale: An Emerging Paradigm

Brachytherapy is an established treatment modality that has been globally utilized for the therapy of malignant solid tumors. However, classic therapeutic sealed sources used in brachytherapy must be surgically implanted directly into the tumor site and removed after the requisite period of treatment. In order to avoid the trauma involved in the surgical procedures and prevent undesirable radioactive distribution at the cancerous site, well-dispersed radiolabeled nanomaterials are now being explored for brachytherapy applications. This emerging field has been coined "nanoscale brachytherapy". Despite present-day advancements, an ongoing challenge is obtaining an advanced, functional nanomaterial that concurrently incorporates features of high radiolabeling yield, short labeling time, good radiolabeling stability, and long tumor retention time without leakage of radioactivity to the nontargeted organs. Further, attachment of suitable targeting ligands to the nanoplatforms would widen the nanoscale brachytherapy approach to tumors expressing various phenotypes. Molecular imaging using radiolabeled nanoplatforms enables noninvasive visualization of cellular functions and biological processes in vivo. In vivo imaging also aids in visualizing the localization and retention of the radiolabeled nanoplatforms at the tumor site for the requisite time period to render safe and effective therapy. Herein, we review the advancements over the last several years in the synthesis and use of functionalized radiolabeled nanoplatforms as a noninvasive substitute to standard brachytherapy sources. The limitations of present-day brachytherapy sealed sources are analyzed, while highlighting the advantages of using radiolabeled nanoparticles (NPs) for this purpose. The recent progress in the development of different radiolabeling methods, delivery techniques and nanoparticle internalization mechanisms are discussed. The preclinical studies performed to date are summarized with an emphasis on the current challenges toward the future translation of nanoscale brachytherapy in routine clinical practices.

The flow of anisotropic nanoparticles in solution and in blood

The alignment of anisotropic nanoparticles in flow has been used for a range of applications such as the preparation of strong fibres and the assembly of in-plane aligned 1D-nanoobjects that are used for electronic devices, sensors, energy and biological application. Important is also the flow behaviour of nanoparticles that were designed for nanomedical applications such as drug delivery. It is widely observed that non-spherical nanoparticles have longer circulation times and a more favourable biodistribution. To be able to understand this behaviour, researchers have turned to analyzing the flow of non-spherical nanoparticles in the blood stream. In this review, an overview of microfluidic techniques that are used to monitor the alignment of anisotropic nanoparticles in solution will be provided, which includes analysis by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and polarized light microscopy. The flow of these nanoparticles in blood is then discussed as the presence of red blood cells causes margination of some nanoparticles. Using fluorescence microscopy, the extent of margination can be identified, which coincides with the ability of nanoparticles to adhere to the cells grown along the wall. While these studies are mainly carried out in vitro using blood, initial investigations in vivo were able to confirm the unusual flow of anisotropic nanoparticles.

Targeted nanotherapy for kidney diseases: a comprehensive review

Kidney diseases represent a major public health problem, affecting millions of people worldwide. Moreover, the treatment of kidney diseases is burdened by the problematic effects of conventional drug delivery, such as systemic drug toxicity, rapid drug clearance, and the absence of precise targeting of the kidney. Although the use of nanotechnology in medicine is in its early stage and lacks robust translational studies, nanomedicines have already shown great promise as novel drug-delivery systems for the treatment of kidney disease. On the basis of our current knowledge of renal anatomy and physiology, pathophysiology of kidney diseases, and physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles, an expansive repertoire and wide use of nanomedicines could be developed for kidney diseases in the near future. Some limitations have slowed the transition of these agents from preclinical studies to clinical trials, however. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on renal drug-delivery systems and recent advances in renal cell targeting; we also demonstrate their important potential as future paradigm-shifting therapies for kidney diseases.

Margination of 2D Platelet Microparticles in Blood

Margination describes the movement of particles toward the endothelial wall within blood vessels. While there have been several studies tracking the margination of spherical particles in blood, the behavior of anisotropic particle shapes is not well described. In this study 2D platelet particles which possess many attractive qualities for use as a drug delivery system, with their high surface area allowing for increased surface binding activity, were directly monitored and margination quantified. The margination propensity of 1 and 2 μm 2D platelet particles was contrasted to that of 2 μm spherical particles at apparent wall shear rates (WSRs) of 50, 100, and 200 s^-1 by both directly tracking labeled particles using fluorescent microscopy as well as using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). For fluorescence studies, margination was quantified using the margination parameter M, which describes the number of particles found closest to the walls of a microfluidic device, with an M-value of 0.2 indicating no margination. Increased margination was seen in 2D platelet particles when compared to spherical particles tested at all flow rates, with M-values of 0.39 and 0.31 seen for 1 and 2 μm 2D platelet particles, respectively, while 2 μm spherical particles had an M-value of 0.21. Similarly, margination was observed qualitatively using SAXS, with increased scattering seen for platelet particles near the microfluidic channel wall. For all particles, increased margination was seen at increasing shear rates.

Experimental Investigation of Temperature Influence on Nanoparticle Adhesion in an Artificial Blood Vessel

Background

A good understanding of the adhesion behaviors of the nanocarriers in microvessels in chemo-hyperthermia synergistic therapy is conducive to nanocarrier design for targeted drug delivery.

Methods

In this study, we constructed an artificial blood vessel system using gelatins with a complete endothelial monolayer formed on the inner vessel wall. The numbers of adhered NPs under different conditions were measured, as well as the interaction forces between the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) ligands and endothelial cells.

Results

The experimental results on the adhesion of ligand-coated nanoparticles (NPs) with different sizes and morphologies in the blood vessel verified that the gelatin-based artificial vessel possessed good cytocompatibility and mechanical properties, which are suitable for the investigation on NP adhesion characteristics in microvessels. When the temperature deviated from 37 °C, an increase or decrease in temperature resulted in a decrease in the number of adhered NPs, but the margination probability of NP adhesion increased at high temperatures due to the enhanced Brownian movement and flow disturbance. It is found that the effect of cooling was less than that of heating according to the observed changes in cell morphology and a decrease in cell activity under the static and perfusion culture conditions within the temperature range of 25 °C-43 °C. Furthermore, the measurement results of change in the RGD ligand-cell interaction with temperature showed good agreement with those in the number of adhered NPs.

Conclusion

The Findings suggest that designing ligands that can bind to the receptor and are least susceptible to temperature variation can be an effective means to enhance drug retention.

Disturbed Flow-Facilitated Margination and Targeting of Nanodisks Protect against Atherosclerosis

Disturbed blood flow induces endothelial pro-inflammatory responses that promote atherogenesis. Nanoparticle-based therapeutics aimed at treating endothelial inflammation in vasculature where disturbed flow occurs may provide a promising avenue to prevent atherosclerosis. By using a vertical-step flow apparatus and a microfluidic chip of vascular stenosis, herein, it is found that the disk-shaped versus the spherical nanoparticles exhibit preferential margination (localization and adhesion) to the regions with the pro-atherogenic disturbed flow. By employing a mouse model of carotid partial ligation, superior targeting and higher accumulation of the disk-shaped particles are also demonstrated within disturbed flow areas than that of the spherical particles. In hyperlipidemia mice, administration of disk-shaped particles loaded with hypomethylating agent decitabine (DAC) displays greater anti-inflammatory and anti-atherosclerotic effects compared with that of the spherical counterparts and exhibits reduced toxicity than "naked" DAC. The findings suggest that shaping nanoparticles to disk is an effective strategy for promoting their delivery to atheroprone endothelia.

Colloidal Polyelectrolyte Complexes from Hyaluronic Acid: Preparation and Biomedical Applications

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a naturally occurring polysaccharide which has been extensively exploited in biomedical fields owing to its outstanding biocompatibility. Self-assembly of HA and polycations through electrostatic interactions can generate colloidal polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs), which can offer a wide range of applications while being relatively simple to prepare with rapid and "green" processes. The advantages of colloidal HA-based PECs stem from the combined benefits of nanomedicine, green chemistry, and the inherent properties of HA, namely high biocompatibility, biodegradability, and biological targeting capability. Accordingly, colloidal PECs from HA have received increasing attention in the recent years as high-performance materials for biomedical applications. Considering their potential, this review is aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of colloidal PECs from HA in complex with polycations, from the most fundamental aspects of the preparation process to their various biomedical applications, notably as nanocarriers for delivering small molecule drugs, nucleic acids, peptides, proteins, and bioimaging agents or the construction of multifunctional platforms.

Targeted thrombolysis by magnetoacoustic particles in photothrombotic stroke model

BACKGROUND

Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) has a short half-life, and additional hemorrhagic transformation (HT) can occur when treatment is delayed. Here, we report the design and thrombolytic performance of 3 [Formula: see text]m discoidal polymeric particles loaded with rtPA and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), referred to as rmDPPs, to address the HT issues of rtPA.

METHODS

The rmDPPs consisted of a biodegradable polymeric matrix, rtPA, and SPIONs and were synthesized via a top-down fabrication.

RESULTS

The rmDPPs could be concentrated at the target site with magnetic attraction, and then the rtPA could be released under acoustic stimulus. Therefore, we named that the particles had magnetoacoustic properties. For the in vitro blood clot lysis, the rmDPPs with magnetoacoustic stimuli could not enhance the lytic potential compared to the rmDPPs without stimulation. Furthermore, although the reduction of the infarcts in vivo was observed along with the magnetoacoustic stimuli in the rmDPPs, more enhancement was not achieved in comparison with the rtPA. A notable advantage of rmDPPs was shown in delayed administration of rmDPPs at poststroke. The late treatment of rmDPPs with magnetoacoustic stimuli could reduce the infarcts and lead to no additional HT issues, while rtPA alone could not show any favorable prognosis.

CONCLUSION

The rmDPPs may be advantageous in delayed treatment of thrombotic patients.

Shape-specific microfabricated particles for biomedical applications: a review

The storied history of controlled the release systems has evolved over time; from degradable drug-loaded sutures to monolithic zero-ordered release devices and nano-sized drug delivery formulations. Scientists have tuned the physico-chemical properties of these drug carriers to optimize their performance in biomedical/pharmaceutical applications. In particular, particle drug delivery systems at the micron size regime have been used since the 1980s. Recent advances in micro and nanofabrication techniques have enabled precise control of particle size and geometry-here we review the utility of microplates and discoidal polymeric particles for a range of pharmaceutical applications. Microplates are defined as micrometer scale polymeric local depot devices in cuboid form, while discoidal polymeric nanoconstructs are disk-shaped polymeric particles having a cross-sectional diameter in the micrometer range and a thickness in the hundreds of nanometer range. These versatile particles can be used to treat several pathologies such as cancer, inflammatory diseases and vascular diseases, by leveraging their size, shape, physical properties (e.g., stiffness), and component materials, to tune their functionality. This review highlights design and fabrication strategies for these particles, discusses their applications, and elaborates on emerging trends for their use in formulations.

An update on dual targeting strategy for cancer treatment

The key issue in the treatment of solid tumors is the lack of efficient strategies for the targeted delivery and accumulation of therapeutic cargoes in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Targeting approaches are designed for more efficient delivery of therapeutic agents to cancer cells while minimizing drug toxicity to normal cells and off-targeting effects, while maximizing the eradication of cancer cells. The highly complicated interrelationship between the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, and the physiological and pathological barriers that are required to cross, dictates the need for the success of targeting strategies. Dual targeting is an approach that uses both purely biological strategies and physicochemical responsive smart delivery strategies to increase the accumulation of nanoparticles within the TME and improve targeting efficiency towards cancer cells. In both approaches, either one single ligand is used for targeting a single receptor on different cells, or two different ligands for targeting two different receptors on the same or different cells. Smart delivery strategies are able to respond to triggers that are typical of specific disease sites, such as pH, certain specific enzymes, or redox conditions. These strategies are expected to lead to more precise targeting and better accumulation of nano-therapeutics. This review describes the classification and principles of dual targeting approaches and critically reviews the efficiency of dual targeting strategies, and the rationale behind the choice of ligands. We focus on new approaches for smart drug delivery in which synthetic and/or biological moieties are attached to nanoparticles by TME-specific responsive linkers and advanced camouflaged nanoparticles.

Approaches to Improve Macromolecule and Nanoparticle Accumulation in the Tumor Microenvironment by the Enhanced Permeability and Retention Effect

Passive targeting is the foremost mechanism by which nanocarriers and drug-bearing macromolecules deliver their payload selectively to solid tumors. An important driver of passive targeting is the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, which is the cornerstone of most carrier-based tumor-targeted drug delivery efforts. Despite the huge number of publications showcasing successes in preclinical animal models, translation to the clinic has been poor, with only a few nano-based drugs currently being used for the treatment of cancers. Several barriers and factors have been adduced for the low delivery efficiency to solid tumors and poor clinical translation, including the characteristics of the nanocarriers and macromolecules, vascular and physiological barriers, the heterogeneity of tumor blood supply which affects the homogenous distribution of nanocarriers within tumors, and the transport and penetration depth of macromolecules and nanoparticles in the tumor matrix. To address the challenges associated with poor tumor targeting and therapeutic efficacy in humans, the identified barriers that affect the efficiency of the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect for macromolecular therapeutics and nanoparticle delivery systems need to be overcome. In this review, approaches to facilitate improved EPR delivery outcomes and the clinical translation of novel macromolecular therapeutics and nanoparticle drug delivery systems are discussed.

Nanomedicine Penetration to Tumor: Challenges, and Advanced Strategies to Tackle This Issue

Nanomedicine has been under investigation for several years to improve the efficiency of chemotherapeutics, having minimal pharmacological effects clinically. Ineffective tumor penetration is mediated by tumor environments, including limited vascular system, rising cancer cells, higher interstitial pressure, and extra-cellular matrix, among other things. Thus far, numerous methods to increase nanomedicine access to tumors have been described, including the manipulation of tumor micro-environments and the improvement of nanomedicine characteristics; however, such outdated approaches still have shortcomings. Multi-functional convertible nanocarriers have recently been developed as an innovative nanomedicine generation with excellent tumor infiltration abilities, such as tumor-penetrating peptide-mediated transcellular transport. The developments and limitations of nanomedicines, as well as expectations for better outcomes of tumor penetration, are discussed in this review.

Bioimaging guided pharmaceutical evaluations of nanomedicines for clinical translations

Nanomedicines (NMs) have emerged as an efficient approach for developing novel treatment strategies against a variety of diseases. Over the past few decades, NM formulations have received great attention, and a large number of studies have been performed in this field. Despite this, only about 60 nano-formulations have received industrial acceptance and are currently available for clinical use. Their in vivo pharmaceutical behavior is considered one of the main challenges and hurdles for the effective clinical translation of NMs, because it is difficult to monitor the pharmaceutic fate of NMs in the biological environment using conventional pharmaceutical evaluations. In this context, non-invasive imaging modalities offer attractive solutions, providing the direct monitoring and quantification of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic behavior of labeled NMs in a real-time manner. Imaging evaluations have great potential for revealing the relationship between the physicochemical properties of NMs and their pharmaceutical profiles in living subjects. In this review, we introduced imaging techniques that can be used for in vivo NM evaluations. We also provided an overview of various studies on the influence of key parameters on the in vivo pharmaceutical behavior of NMs that had been visualized in a non-invasive and real-time manner.

Micro-particle entrapment dynamics in microfluidic pulmonary capillary networks

The journey of vascular targeted carriers (VTC) in the circulatory system is highly intricate and includes navigation through different vessel structures, such as the vast pulmonary capillary network (PCN) in the lungs where particles can get entrapped and lead to blockage. Here, we leverage microfluidic PCN models to explore, for the first time, micro-particle capillary entrapment, in a well-controlled biophysical environment mimicking human physiological hemodynamics at true scale. This in vitro strategy mimics the challenges of vascular carrier transport during their journey in the smallest capillaries of the body (∼5 µm). Specifically, we explore in the PCN model entrapment dynamics of spherical micro-particles of different diameters (i.e. 3, 4 and 4.5 µm) at different concentrations, comparing their motion in cell-free buffer to that in the presence of red blood cells (RBCs). Notably, while 3 µm particles exhibit undisturbed transport in all of the examined concentrations, both in cell-free buffer and in the presence of RBCs, particles of 4 and 4.5 µm exhibit a concentration-dependent transport where the presence of RBCs leads in fact to reduced entrapment. Our experiments suggest that collisions of micro-particles with RBCs can facilitate their navigability, allowing for carrier transport that would lead otherwise to rapid entrapment in a cell-free environment. Altogether, the proposed preclinical in vitro assays offer rapid screening opportunities for design optimization of VTC transport in capillary networks.

Nanotechnology in Kidney and Islet Transplantation: An Ongoing, Promising Field

Organ transplantation has evolved rapidly in recent years as a reliable option for patients with end-stage organ failure. However, organ shortage, surgical risks, acute and chronic rejection reactions and long-term immunosuppressive drug applications and their inevitable side effects remain extremely challenging problems. The application of nanotechnology in medicine has proven highly successful and has unique advantages for diagnosing and treating diseases compared to conventional methods. The combination of nanotechnology and transplantation brings a new direction of thinking to transplantation medicine. In this article, we provide an overview of the application and progress of nanotechnology in kidney and islet transplantation, including nanotechnology for renal pre-transplantation preservation, artificial biological islets, organ imaging and drug delivery.

Nanodiscs: a versatile nanocarrier platform for cancer diagnosis and treatment

Cancer therapy is a significant challenge due to insufficient drug delivery to the cancer cells and non-selective killing of healthy cells by most chemotherapy agents. Nano-formulations have shown great promise for targeted drug delivery with improved efficiency. The shape and size of nanocarriers significantly affect their transport inside the body and internalization into the cancer cells. Non-spherical nanoparticles have shown prolonged blood circulation half-lives and higher cellular internalization frequency than spherical ones. Nanodiscs are desirable nano-formulations that demonstrate enhanced anisotropic character and versatile functionalization potential. Here, we review the recent development of theranostic nanodiscs for cancer mitigation ranging from traditional lipid nanodiscs encased by membrane scaffold proteins to newer nanodiscs where either the membrane scaffold proteins or the lipid bilayers themselves are replaced with their synthetic analogues. We first discuss early cancer detection enabled by nanodiscs. We then explain different strategies that have been explored to carry a wide range of payloads for chemotherapy, cancer gene therapy, and cancer vaccines. Finally, we discuss recent progress on organic-inorganic hybrid nanodiscs and polymer nanodiscs that have the potential to overcome the inherent instability problem of lipid nanodiscs.

Role of Nanotechnology and Their Perspectives in the Treatment of Kidney Diseases

Nanoparticles (NPs) are differing in particle size, charge, shape, and compatibility of targeting ligands, which are linked to improved pharmacologic characteristics, targetability, and bioavailability. Researchers are now tasked with developing a solution for enhanced renal treatment that is free of side effects and delivers the medicine to the active spot. A growing number of nano-based medication delivery devices are being used to treat renal disorders. Kidney disease management and treatment are currently causing a substantial global burden. Renal problems are multistep processes involving the accumulation of a wide range of molecular and genetic alterations that have been related to a variety of kidney diseases. Renal filtration is a key channel for drug elimination in the kidney, as well as a burgeoning topic of nanomedicine. Although the use of nanotechnology in the treatment of renal illnesses is still in its early phases, it offers a lot of potentials. In this review, we summarized the properties of the kidney and characteristics of drug delivery systems, which affect a drug’s ability should focus on the kidney and highlight the possibilities, problems, and opportunities.

Effect of micro- and nanoparticle shape on biological processes

In the drug delivery field, there is beyond doubt that the shape of micro- and nanoparticles (M&NPs) critically affects their biological fate. Herein, following an introduction describing recent technological advances for designing nonspherical M&NPs, we highlight the role of particle shape in cell capture, subcellular distribution, intracellular drug delivery, and cytotoxicity. Then, we discuss theoretical approaches for understanding the effect of particle shape on internalization by the cell membrane. Subsequently, recent advances on shape-dependent behaviors of M&NPs in the systemic circulation are detailed. In particular, the interaction of M&NPs with blood proteins, biodistribution, and circulation under flow conditions are analyzed. Finally, the hurdles and future directions for developing nonspherical M&NPs are underscored.

Intra-Organ Delivery of Nanotherapeutics for Organ Transplantation

Targeted delivery of therapeutics through the use of nanoparticles (NPs) has emerged as a promising method that increases their efficacy and reduces their side effects. NPs can be tailored to localize to selective tissues through conjugation to ligands that bind cell-specific receptors. Although the vast majority of nanodelivery platforms have focused on cancer therapy, efforts have begun to introduce nanotherapeutics to the fields of immunology as well as transplantation. In this review, we provide an overview from a clinician's perspective of current nanotherapeutic strategies to treat solid organ transplants with NPs during the time interval between organ harvest from the donor and placement into the recipient, an innovative technology that can provide major benefits to transplant patients. The use of ex vivo normothermic machine perfusion (NMP), which is associated with preserving the function of the organ following transplantation, also provides an ideal opportunity for a localized, sustained, and controlled delivery of nanotherapeutics to the organ during this critical time period. Here, we summarize previous endeavors to improve transplantation outcomes by treating the organ with NPs prior to placement in the recipient. Investigations in this burgeoning field of research are promising, but more extensive studies are needed to overcome the physiological challenges to achieving effective nanotherapeutic delivery to transplanted organs discussed in this review.

Real-time visualization of morphology-dependent self-motion of hyaluronic acid nanomaterials in water

Drug delivery to target sites is often limited by inefficient particle transport through biological media. Herein, motion behaviors of spherical and nonspherical nanomaterials composed of hyaluronic acid were studied in water using real-time multiple particle tracking technology. The two types of nanomaterials have comparable surface compositions and surface potentials, and they have equivalent diameters. The analysis of nanomaterial trajectories revealed that particles with flattened morphology and a high aspect ratio, designated nanoplatelets, exhibited more linear trajectories and faster diffusion in water than nanospheres. Fitting the plots of mean square displacement vs. time scale suggests that nanoplatelets exhibited hyperdiffusive behavior, which is similar to the motion of living microorganisms. Furthermore, at 37 °C, the surface explored by a nanoplatelet was up to 33-fold higher than that explored by a nanosphere. This investigation on morphology-dependent self-motion of nanomaterials could have a significant impact on drug delivery applications by increasing particle transport through biological media.

Nanomedicine for Immunotherapy Targeting Hematological Malignancies: Current Approaches and Perspective

Conventional chemotherapy has partial therapeutic effects against hematological malignancies and is correlated with serious side effects and great risk of relapse. Recently, immunotherapeutic drugs have provided encouraging results in the treatment of hematological malignancies. Several immunotherapeutic antibodies and cell therapeutics are in dynamic development such as immune checkpoint blockades and CAR-T treatment. However, numerous problems restrain the therapeutic effectiveness of tumor immunotherapy as an insufficient anti-tumor immune response, the interference of an immune-suppressive bone marrow, or tumoral milieu with the discharge of immunosuppressive components, access of myeloid-derived suppressor cells, monocyte intrusion, macrophage modifications, all factors facilitating the tumor to escape the anti-cancer immune response, finally reducing the efficiency of the immunotherapy. Nanotechnology can be employed to overcome each of these aspects, therefore having the possibility to successfully produce anti-cancer immune responses. Here, we review recent findings on the use of biomaterial-based nanoparticles in hematological malignancies immunotherapy. In the future, a deeper understanding of tumor immunology and of the implications of nanomedicine will allow nanoparticles to revolutionize tumor immunotherapy, and nanomedicine approaches will reveal their great potential for clinical translation.

Non-spherical micro- and nanoparticles for drug delivery: Progress over 15 years

Shape of particulate drug carries has been identified as a key parameter in determining their biological outcome. In this review, we analyze the field of particle shape as it shifts from fundamental investigations to contemporary applications for disease treatment, while highlighting outstanding remaining questions. We summarize fabrication and characterization methods and discuss in depth how particle shape influences biological interactions with cells, transport in the vasculature, targeting in the body, and modulation of the immune response. As the field moves from discoveries to applications, further attention needs to be paid to factors such as characterization and quality control, selection of model organisms, and disease models. Taken together, these aspects will provide a conceptual foundation for designing future non-spherical drug carriers to overcome biological barriers and improve therapeutic efficacy.

Advance cardiac nanomedicine by targeting the pathophysiological characteristics of heart failure

Heart failure (HF) has continued to be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Nanomedicine, which can deliver therapeutic drugs/biomolecules specifically to damaged myocardium and overcome the limitations of conventional therapies, shows great potential in the treatment of HF. Although a number of preclinical studies of cardiac nanoformulations have been published, targeted nanomedicine for HF is yet to be applied in clinical practice. Therefore, it is meaningful to sum up past experiences and deepen the understanding of nanomedicine and HF. In this review, we first emphasized the key biological barriers to cardiac nanomedicine that hinder its targeting effect. Since the rational design of nanoparticles should take into account the specific characteristics of HF, we then summarized the key pathophysiological changes of HF to provide a clear understanding on HF, as well as the latest examples of nanotechnology-based delivery strategies for different pathophysiological characteristics. Finally, the major challenges are discussed in detail, aiming to provide guidance for future development of cardiac nanomedicine.

Quantitatively Tracking Bio-Nano Interactions of Metal-Phenolic Nanocapsules by Mass Cytometry

Polymer nanocapsules, with a hollow structure, are increasingly finding widespread use as drug delivery carriers; however, quantitatively evaluating the bio-nano interactions of nanocapsules remains challenging. Herein, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based metal-phenolic network (MPN) nanocapsules of three sizes (50, 100, and 150 nm) are engineered via supramolecular template-assisted assembly and the effect of the nanocapsule size on bio-nano interactions is investigated using in vitro cell experiments, ex vivo whole blood assays, and in vivo rat models. To track the nanocapsules by mass cytometry, a preformed gold nanoparticle (14 nm) is encapsulated into each PEG-MPN nanocapsule. The results reveal that decreasing the size of the PEG-MPN nanocapsules from 150 to 50 nm leads to reduced association (up to 70%) with phagocytic blood cells in human blood and prolongs in vivo systemic exposure in rat models. The findings provide insights into MPN-based nanocapsules and represent a platform for studying bio-nano interactions.

Insights into Multifunctional Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Glioblastoma Treatment

Glioblastoma (GB) is an aggressive cancer with high microvascular proliferation, resulting in accelerated invasion and diffused infiltration into the surrounding brain tissues with very low survival rates. Treatment options are often multimodal, such as surgical resection with concurrent radiotherapy and chemotherapy. The development of resistance of tumor cells to radiation in the areas of hypoxia decreases the efficiency of such treatments. Additionally, the difficulty of ensuring drugs effectively cross the natural blood-brain barrier (BBB) substantially reduces treatment efficiency. These conditions concomitantly limit the efficacy of standard chemotherapeutic agents available for GB. Indeed, there is an urgent need of a multifunctional drug vehicle system that has potential to transport anticancer drugs efficiently to the target and can successfully cross the BBB. In this review, we summarize some nanoparticle (NP)-based therapeutics attached to GB cells with antigens and membrane receptors for site-directed drug targeting. Such multicore drug delivery systems are potentially biodegradable, site-directed, nontoxic to normal cells and offer long-lasting therapeutic effects against brain cancer. These models could have better therapeutic potential for GB as well as efficient drug delivery reaching the tumor milieu. The goal of this article is to provide key considerations and a better understanding of the development of nanotherapeutics with good targetability and better tolerability in the fight against GB.

Antibody-drug nanoparticle induces synergistic treatment efficacies in HER2 positive breast cancer cells

Chemotherapeutic drugs suffer from non-specific binding, undesired toxicity, and poor blood circulation which contribute to poor therapeutic efficacy. In this study, antibody–drug nanoparticles (ADNs) are engineered by synthesizing pure anti-cancer drug nanorods (NRs) in the core of nanoparticles with a therapeutic monoclonal antibody, Trastuzumab on the surface of NRs for specific targeting and synergistic treatments of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) positive breast cancer cells. ADNs were designed by first synthesizing ~ 95 nm diameter × ~ 500 nm long paclitaxel (PTX) NRs using the nanoprecipitation method. The surface of PTXNRs was functionalized at 2′ OH nucleophilic site using carbonyldiimidazole and conjugated to TTZ through the lysine residue interaction forming PTXNR-TTZ conjugates (ADNs). The size, shape, and surface charge of ADNs were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), SEM, and zeta potential, respectively. Using fluorophore labeling and response surface analysis, the percentage conjugation efficiency was found > 95% with a PTX to TTZ mass ratio of 4 (molar ratio ≈ 682). In vitro therapeutic efficiency of PTXNR-TTZ was evaluated in two HER2 positive breast cancer cell lines: BT-474 and SK-BR-3, and a HER2 negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell using MTT assay. PTXNR-TTZ inhibited > 80% of BT-474 and SK-BR-3 cells at a higher efficiency than individual PTX and TTZ treatments alone after 72 h. A combination index analysis indicated a synergistic combination of PTXNR-TTZ compared with the doses of single-drug treatment. Relatively lower cytotoxicity was observed in MCF-10A human breast epithelial cell control. The molecular mechanisms of PTXNR-TTZ were investigated using cell cycle and Western blot analyses. The cell cycle analysis showed PTXNR-TTZ arrested > 80% of BT-474 breast cancer cells in the G2/M phase, while > 70% of untreated cells were found in the G0/G1 phase indicating that G2/M arrest induced apoptosis. A similar percentage of G2/M arrested cells was found to induce caspase-dependent apoptosis in PTXNR-TTZ treated BT-474 cells as revealed using Western blot analysis. PTXNR-TTZ treated BT-474 cells showed ~ 1.3, 1.4, and 1.6-fold higher expressions of cleaved caspase-9, cytochrome C, and cleaved caspase-3, respectively than untreated cells, indicating up-regulation of caspase-dependent activation of apoptotic pathways. The PTXNR-TTZ ADN represents a novel nanoparticle design that holds promise for targeted and efficient anti-cancer therapy by selective targeting and cancer cell death via apoptosis and mitotic cell cycle arrest.

Engineering nanoparticles to tackle tumor barriers

Engineering nanoparticles (NPs) as delivery systems of anticancer therapeutics has attracted tremendous attention in recent decades, and some nanoscale drug formulations have been approved for clinical use. However, their therapeutic efficacies are still limited by the presence of a series of biological barriers during the delivery process. Among these obstacles, tumor barriers are generally recognized as the bottleneck, because they dominate the NP extravasation from the tumor vasculature and penetration into the tumor parenchyma. Therefore, this review first discussed tumor barriers from two aspects: tumor vascular barriers and tumor stromal barriers. Pathological features of the two sets of barriers as well as their influence on the delivery efficacy were described. Then, we outlined strategies for engineering NPs to overcome these challenges: increasing extravasation through physical property optimization and tumor vascular targeting; and facilitating deep penetration through particle size manipulation, modulation of the tumor extracellular matrix, and some new mechanisms. This review will provide a critical perspective on engineering strategies for more efficient nanomedicine in oncology.

Stiffness-tuneable nanocarriers for controlled delivery of ASC-J9 into colorectal cancer cells

HYPOTHESIS

One of the main challenges in cancer therapy is the poor water solubility of many anticancer drugs which results in low bioavailability at the tumour sites and reduced efficacy. The currently available polymer-based anticancer drug delivery systems often suffer from low encapsulation efficiency, uncontrolled release, and lack of long-term stability. Herein, we report the development of novel stiffness-tuneable core-shell nanocarriers composed of naturally derived polymers silk fibroin (SF) and sodium alginate (SA) inside a liposomal shell for enhanced cellular uptake and controlled release of hydrophobic anticancer agent ASC-J9 (Dimethylcurcumin). It is anticipated that the stiffness of the nanocarriers has a significant effect on their cellular uptake and anticancer efficacy.

EXPERIMENTS

The nanocarriers were prepared by thin film hydration method followed by extrusion and cross-linking of SA to obtain a uniform size and shape, avoiding harsh processing conditions. The structural transformation of SF in the nanocarriers induced by SA crosslinking was determined using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The size, zeta potential, morphology and stiffness of the nanocarriers were measured using dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Drug loading and release were measured using UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The cellular uptake and anticancer efficacy of the nanocarriers were studied in HCT 116 human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells and 3D tumour spheroids using high content microscopy.

FINDINGS

The synthesized nanocarriers had high encapsulation efficiency (62-78%) and were physically stable for up to 5 months at 4 ˚C. The release profile of the drug from the nanocarriers was directed by their stiffness and was easily tuneable by changing the ratio of SF to SA in the core. Furthermore, the designed nanocarriers improved the cellular uptake and anticancer activity of ASC-J9, and enhanced its tumour penetration in HCT 116 3D colorectal cancer spheroids. These findings suggest that the designed core-shell nanocarriers can be used as a highly efficient drug delivery system for cancer therapy.

Effect of Material and Population on the Delivery of Nanoparticles to an Atherosclerotic Plaque: A Patient-specific In Silico Study

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the prevalent reason of mortality all around the world. Targeting CAD, specifically atherosclerosis, with controlled delivery of micro and nanoparticles, as drug carriers, is a very proficient approach. In this work, a patient-specific and realistic model of an atherosclerotic plaque in the left anterior descending (LAD) artery was created by image-processing of CT-scan images and implementing a finite-element mesh. Next, a fluid-solid interaction simulation considering the physiological boundary conditions was conducted. By considering the simulated force fields and particle-particle interactions, the correlation between injected particles at each cardiac cycle and the surface density of adhered particles over the atherosclerotic plaque (SDP) were examined. For large particles (800 and 1000 nm) the amount of SDP on the plaque increased significantly when the number of the injected particles became higher. However, by increasing the number of the injected particles, for the larger particles (800 and 1000 nm) the increase in SDP was about 50% greater than that of the smaller ones (400 and 600 nm). Furthermore, for constant number of particles, depending on their size, different trends in SDP were observed. Subsequently, the distribution and adhesion of metal-based nanoparticles including SiO₂, Fe₃O₄, NiO₂, silver and gold with different properties were simulated. The injection of metal particles with medium density among the considered particles resulted in the highest SDP. Remarkably, the affinity, the geometrical features, and the biophysical factors involved in the adhesion outweighed the effect of difference in the density of particles on the SDP. Finally, the consideration of the lift force in the simulations significantly reduced the SDP and consistently decreased the particle residence time in the studied domain.

Engineering in Medicine To Address the Challenge of Cancer Drug Resistance: From Micro- and Nanotechnologies to Computational and Mathematical Modeling

Drug resistance has profoundly limited the success of cancer treatment, driving relapse, metastasis, and mortality. Nearly all anticancer drugs and even novel immunotherapies, which recalibrate the immune system for tumor recognition and destruction, have succumbed to resistance development. Engineers have emerged across mechanical, physical, chemical, mathematical, and biological disciplines to address the challenge of drug resistance using a combination of interdisciplinary tools and skill sets. This review explores the developing, complex, and under-recognized role of engineering in medicine to address the multitude of challenges in cancer drug resistance. Looking through the "lens" of intrinsic, extrinsic, and drug-induced resistance (also referred to as "tolerance"), we will discuss three specific areas where active innovation is driving novel treatment paradigms: (1) nanotechnology, which has revolutionized drug delivery in desmoplastic tissues, harnessing physiochemical characteristics to destroy tumors through photothermal therapy and rationally designed nanostructures to circumvent cancer immunotherapy failures, (2) bioengineered tumor models, which have benefitted from microfluidics and mechanical engineering, creating a paradigm shift in physiologically relevant environments to predict clinical refractoriness and enabling platforms for screening drug combinations to thwart resistance at the individual patient level, and (3) computational and mathematical modeling, which blends in silico simulations with molecular and evolutionary principles to map mutational patterns and model interactions between cells that promote resistance. On the basis that engineering in medicine has resulted in discoveries in resistance biology and successfully translated to clinical strategies that improve outcomes, we suggest the proliferation of multidisciplinary science that embraces engineering.

Nanoparticles in cancer immunotherapies: An innovative strategy

Cancer has been one of the most significant causes of mortality, worldwide. Cancer immunotherapy has recently emerged as a competent, cancer-fighting clinical strategy. Nevertheless, due to the difficulty of such treatments, costs, and off-target adverse effects, the implementation of cancer immunotherapy described by the antigen-presenting cell (APC) vaccine and chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy ex vivo in large clinical trials have been limited. Nowadays, the nanoparticles theranostic system as a promising target-based modality provides new opportunities to improve cancer immunotherapy difficulties and reduce their adverse effects. Meanwhile, the appropriate engineering of nanoparticles taking into consideration nanoparticle characteristics, such as, size, shape, and surface features, as well as the use of these physicochemical properties for suitable biological interactions, provides new possibilities for the application of nanoparticles in cancer immunotherapy. In this review article, we focus on the latest state-of-the-art nanoparticle-based antigen/adjuvant delivery vehicle strategies to professional APCs and engineering specific T lymphocyte required for improving the efficiency of tumor-specific immunotherapy.

Exploring the Impact of Morphology on the Properties of Biodegradable Nanoparticles and Their Diffusion in Complex Biological Medium

Nanoparticle morphology (size, shape, and composition) and surface chemistry are the determining factors underpinning the efficacy of such materials in therapeutic applications. The size, shape, and surface chemistry of a nanoparticle can strongly influence key properties such as interactions with diverse biological fluids and interfaces and, in turn, impact the delivery of bioactive cargo, modulating therapeutic performance. This is exemplified in ocular drug delivery, where potential therapeutics must navigate complex biological media such as the gel-like vitreal fluid and the retina. Biodegradable block copolymer amphiphiles are a robust tool for the engineering of various types of self-assembled nanoparticles with diverse morphologies ranging from spherical and tubular polymersomes to spherical and worm-like micelles. Here, we explore the effect of morphological features such as shape and surface chemistry upon the interactions of a series of copolymer nanoparticles with retinal (ARPE-19) cells and the release of a low solubility drug (dexamethasone) that is currently used in ocular therapy and study their diffusion in vitreous using ex vivo eyes. We demonstrate that both aspect ratio and surface chemistry of nanoparticles will influence their performance in terms of cell uptake, drug release, and diffusion with high aspect ratio shapes demonstrating enhanced properties in relation to their spherical counterparts.

Cell Membrane-Based Biomimetic Nanoparticles and the Immune System: Immunomodulatory Interactions to Therapeutic Applications

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have been synthesized from a wide array of materials. The therapeutic success of these platforms hinges upon their ability to favorably interact with the biological environment (both systemically and locally) and recognize the diseased target tissue. The immune system, composed of a highly coordinated organization of cells trained to recognize foreign bodies, represents a key mediator of these interactions. Although components of this system may act as a barrier to nanoparticle (NP) delivery, the immune system can also be exploited to target and trigger signaling cues that facilitate the therapeutic response stemming from systemic administration of NPs. The nano-bio interface represents the key facilitator of this communication exchange, where the surface properties of NPs govern their in vivo fate. Cell membrane-based biomimetic nanoparticles have emerged as one approach to achieve targeted drug delivery by actively engaging and communicating with the biological milieu. In this review, we will highlight the relationship between these biomimetic nanoparticles and the immune system, emphasizing the role of tuning the nano-bio interface in the immunomodulation of diseases. We will also discuss the therapeutic applications of this approach with biomimetic nanoparticles, focusing on specific diseases ranging from cancer to infectious diseases. Lastly, we will provide a critical evaluation on the current state of this field of cell membrane-based biomimetic nanoparticles and its future directions in immune-based therapy.

A review of the application of nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) poses a great burden to global public health as current therapies are generally ineffective. Early detection and effective therapy are crucial for the future prevention and progression of CKD. Nanoparticles (NPs) vary by particle size, charge, shape and the density of targeting ligands and are associated with enhancement of the pharmacokinetic properties, targetability, or the bioavailability of drugs. Thus, the emergence of NPs in medicine has provided novel solutions to the potential diagnosis and treatment of CKD. This review describes the current experimental research, clinical applications of NPs, the current challenges, and upcoming opportunities in the diagnosis and treatment of CKD.

Sequential deconstruction of composite drug transport in metastatic breast cancer

It is challenging to design effective drug delivery systems (DDS) that target metastatic breast cancers (MBC) because of lack of competent imaging and image analysis protocols that suitably capture the interactions between DDS and metastatic lesions. Here, we integrate high temporal resolution of in vivo whole-body PET-CT, ex vivo whole-organ optical imaging, high spatial resolution of confocal microscopy, and mathematical modeling, to systematically deconstruct the trafficking of injectable nanoparticle generators encapsulated with polymeric doxorubicin (iNPG-pDox) in pulmonary MBC. iNPG-pDox accumulated substantially in metastatic lungs, compared to healthy lungs. Intratumoral distribution and retention of iNPG-pDox varied with lesion size, possibly induced by locally remodeled microenvironment. We further used multiscale imaging and mathematical simulations to provide improved drug delivery strategies for MBC. Our work presents a multidisciplinary translational toolbox to evaluate transport and interactions of DDS within metastases. This knowledge can be recursively applied to rationally design advanced therapies for metastatic cancers.

Factors Influencing the Delivery Efficiency of Cancer Nanomedicines

The superiority of nanomedicine over conventional medicines in the treatment of cancer has gained immediate recognition worldwide. As traditional cancer therapies are nonspecific and detrimental to healthy cells, the ability of nanomedicine to release drugs to target tumor cells specifically instead of healthy cells has brought new hope to cancer patients. This review focuses on the effects of various factors of nanoparticles such as transport, concentration in cells, tumor microenvironment, interaction with protein, penetration, uptake by tumor cells, cancer cell mutations, and intracellular trafficking of the nanoparticle. Besides the history of nanomedicine, future perspectives of nanomedicines are also explored in this text.

Wormlike Nanovector with Enhanced Drug Loading Using Blends of Biodegradable Block Copolymers

The application of nanoparticles comprising amphiphilic block copolymers for the delivery of drugs is a subject of great interest as they hold promise for more effective and selective therapies. In order to achieve this ambition, it is of critical importance to develop our understanding of the self-assembly mechanisms by which block copolymers undergo so that we can control their morphology, tune their ability to be loaded with biofunctional cargoes, and optimize their interactions with target cells. To this end, we have developed a strategy by which blends of (biocompatible) amphiphilic block copolymers generate nonspherical nanovectors, simultaneously enhancing drug loading without the need for subsequent purification owing to the use of the biocompatible direct hydration approach. The principal morphology achieved using this blending strategy are wormlike nanovectors (nanoworms, NWs), with an elongated form known to have a profound effect on flow behavior and interactions with cells. Unloaded nanoworms are not toxic toward human retinal (ARPE-19) cells and can be effectively endocytosed even after varying the surface charge. In terms of drug loading, we demonstrate that uptake of dexamethasone (DEX; a clinically relevant therapeutic agent) in nanoworms (DEX@NWs) can be enhanced using this process, increasing drug content up to 0.5 mg/mL (10 wt % in particles). Furthermore, such nanoworms are stable for at least 5 months and are, therefore, a promising platform for nanomedicine applications.

Visible Light-Responsive Dynamic Biomaterials: Going Deeper and Triggering More

Photoresponsive materials have been widely used in vitro for controlled therapeutic delivery and to direct 4D cell fate. Extension of the approaches into a bodily setting requires use of low-energy, long-wavelength light that penetrates deeper into and through complex tissue. This review details recent reports of photoactive small molecules and proteins that absorb visible and/or near-infrared light, opening the door to exciting new applications in multiplexed and in vivo regulation.

A mathematical model to predict nanomedicine pharmacokinetics and tumor delivery

Towards clinical translation of cancer nanomedicine, it is important to systematically investigate the various parameters related to nanoparticle (NP) physicochemical properties, tumor characteristics, and inter-individual variability that affect the tumor delivery efficiency of therapeutic nanomaterials. Comprehensive investigation of these parameters using traditional experimental approaches is impractical due to the vast parameter space; mathematical models provide a more tractable approach to navigate through such a multidimensional space. To this end, we have developed a predictive mathematical model of whole-body NP pharmacokinetics and their tumor delivery in vivo, and have conducted local and global sensitivity analyses to identify the factors that result in low tumor delivery efficiency and high off-target accumulation of NPs. Our analyses reveal that NP degradation rate, tumor blood viscosity, NP size, tumor vascular fraction, and tumor vascular porosity are the key parameters in governing NP kinetics in the tumor interstitium. The impact of these parameters on tumor delivery efficiency of NPs is discussed, and optimal values for maximizing NP delivery are presented.

The impact of size and surface ligand of gold nanorods on liver cancer accumulation and photothermal therapy in the second near-infrared window

Gold nanorods (GNRs) with longitudinal surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) peaks in second near-infrared (NIR-II) window have attracted a great amount of attention as photothermal transducer because of their inherently excellent photothermal transition efficiency, high biocompatibility and versatile surface functionalization. One key question for the application of these GNRs against tumors in vivo is which size/shape and surface ligand conjugation are promising for circulation and tumor targeting. In this study, we prepared a series of gold nanorods (GNRs) of similar aspect ratio and LSPR peaks, and thus similar photothermal transfer efficiency under irradiation of 980 nm laser, but with tunable size in width and length. The obtained GNRs were subjected to surface modification with PEG and tumor targeting ligand lactoferrin. With these tailor-designed GNRs in hand, we have the chance to study the impact of dimension and surface property of the GNRs on their internalization via tumor cells, photothermal cytotoxicity in vitro, blood circulation and tissue distribution pattern in vivo. As a result, the GNRs with medium size (70 nm in length and 11.5 nm in width) and surface PEG/LF modification (GNR70@PEG-LF) exhibit the fastest cell internalization via HepG2 cells and best photothermal outcome in vitro. The GNR70@PEG-LF also display long circulation time and the highest tumor accumulation in vivo, due to the synergetic effect of surface coating and dimension. Finally, tumor ablation ability of the GNRs under irradiation of 980 nm light were validated on mice xenograft model, suggesting their potential photothermal therapy against cancer in NIR-II window.

Emerging Prospects for Nanoparticle-Enabled Cancer Immunotherapy

One of the standards for cancer treatment is cancer immunotherapy which treats both primary and metastasized tumors. Although cancer immunotherapeutics show better outcomes as compared with conventional approaches of cancer treatment, the currently used cancer immunotherapeutics have limited application in delivering cancer antigens to immune cells. Conversely, in solid tumors, tumor microenvironment suppresses the immune system leading to the evasion of anticancer immunity. Some promising attempts have been made to overcome these drawbacks by using different approaches, for instance, the use of biomaterial-based nanoparticles. Accordingly, various studies involving the application of nanoparticles in cancer immunotherapy have been discussed in this review article. This review not only describes the modes of cancer immunotherapy to reveal the importance of nanoparticles in this modality but also narrates nanoparticle-mediated delivery of cancer antigens and therapeutic supplements. Moreover, the impact of nanoparticles on the immunosuppressive behavior of tumor environment has been discussed. The last part of this review deals with cancer immunotherapy using a combination of traditional interventional oncology approach and image-guided local immunotherapy against cancer. According to recent studies, cancer therapy can potentially be improved through nanoparticle-based immunotherapy. In addition, drawbacks associated with the currently used cancer immunotherapeutics can be fixed by using nanoparticles.