Zein in controlled drug delivery and tissue engineering

Deciphering the drug delivery potential of Type1 lipid transfer protein from Citrus sinensis for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of drugs

Type1 Non-specific Lipid Transfer Protein (CsLTP1) from Citrus sinensis is a small cationic protein possessing a long tunnel-like hydrophobic cavity. CsLTP1 performing membrane trafficking of lipids is a promising candidate for developing a potent drug delivery system. The present work includes in-silico studies and the evaluation of drugs binding to CsLTP1 using biophysical techniques along with the investigation of CsLTP1's ability to enhance the efficacy of drugs employing cell-based bioassays. The in-silico investigations identified Panobinostat, Vorinostat, Cetylpyridinium Chloride, and Fulvestrant with higher affinities and stability of binding to the hydrophobic pocket of CsLTP1. SPR studies revealed strong binding affinities of anticancer drugs, Panobinostat (KD = 1.40 μM) and Vorinostat (KD = 2.17 μM) to CsLTP1 along with the binding and release kinetics. CD and fluorescent spectroscopy revealed drug-induced conformational changes in CsLTP1. CsLTP1-associated drug forms showed remarkably enhanced efficacy in MCF-7 cells, representing increased cell cytotoxicity, intracellular ROS, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, and up-regulation of proapoptotic markers than the free drugs employing qRT-PCR and western blot analysis. The findings demonstrate that CsLTP1 binds strongly to hydrophobic drugs to facilitate their transport, hence improving their therapeutic efficacy revealed by the in-vitro investigations. This study establishes an excellent foundation for developing CsLTP1-based efficient drug delivery system.

Molecular regulation of rapeseed protein for improving its techno-functional properties

To improve the techno-functional properties of rapeseed protein (RP), this work tried to regulate the molecular structure of RP via inducing the co-assembly of RP with zein and whey protein (WP). The results showed that WP and zein mainly regulate the folding process of RP through hydrophobic and disulfide bonds, thereby altering the structural conformation and forming stable complex RP (CRP). WP addition not only increased the number of surface charges and hydrophilicity of proteins, but also decreased their sizes, improved the water solubility, as well as the availability of active groups. These changes significantly increased the foaming capacity (from 60 % to 147 %) and in vitro gastric digestion rate (from 10 % to 60 %) of CRP. Besides, WP also contributed to the formation of gels and the regulation of their textural profiles. Comparatively, zein improved the hydrophobicity of CRP and balanced degree of intermolecular forces, which effectively increased the emulsifying activity index of CRP from 22 m2/g to 90 m2/g. Zein decreased the hardness, springiness and water-holding capacity of gel, but increased its gumminess and chewiness. Overall, both WP and zein effectively changed the structural conformation of RP, and improved its techno-functional properties, which provides an effective strategy to modify protein.

Docosahexaenoic acid-loaded nanoparticles: A state-of-the-art of preparation methods, characterization, functionality, and therapeutic applications

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 n-3), an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, offers several beneficial effects. DHA helps in reducing depression, autoimmune diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, attention deficit hyperactivity syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases. It can stimulate the development of brain and nerve, alleviate lipids metabolism-related disorders, and enhance vision development. However, DHA susceptibility to chemical oxidation, poor water solubility, and unpleasant order could restrict its applications for nutritional and therapeutic purposes. To avoid these drawbacks and enhance its bioavailability, DHA can be encapsulated using an effective delivery system. Several encapsulation methods are recognized, and DHA-loaded nanoparticles have demonstrated numerous benefits. In clinical studies, positive influences on the development of several diseases have been reported, but some assumptions are conflicting and need more exploration, since DHA has a systemic and not a targeted release at the required level. This might cause the applications of nanoparticles that could allow DHA release at the required level and improve its efficiency, thus resulting in a better controlling of several diseases. In the current review, we focused on researches investigating the formulation and development of DHA-loaded nanoparticles using different delivery systems, including low-density lipoprotein, zinc oxide, silver, zein, and resveratrol-stearate. Silver-DHA nanoparticles presented a typical particle size of 24 nm with an incorporation level of 97.67 %, while the entrapment efficiency of zinc oxide-DHA nanoparticles represented 87.3 %. By using zein/Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) stabilized nanoparticles, DHA's encapsulation level reached 84.6 %. We have also highlighted the characteristics, functionality and medical implementation of these nanoparticles in the treatment of inflammations, brain disorders, diabetes as well as hepatocellular carcinoma.

Research advances in Zein-based nano-delivery systems

Zein is the main vegetable protein from maize. In recent years, Zein has been widely used in pharmaceutical, agriculture, food, environmental protection, and other fields because it has excellent biocompatibility and biosafety. However, there is still a lack of systematic review and research on Zein-based nano-delivery systems. This paper systematically reviews preparation and modification methods of Zein-based nano-delivery systems, based on the basic properties of Zein. It discusses the preparation of Zein nanoparticles and the influencing factors in detail, as well as analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of different preparation methods and summarizing modification methods of Zein nanoparticles. This study provides a new idea for the research of Zein-based nano-delivery system and promotes its application.

Lutein encapsulation into dual-layered starch/zein gels using 3D food printing: Improved storage stability and in vitro bioaccessibility

The ability of 3D printing to encapsulate, protect, and enhance lutein bioaccessibility was investigated under various printing conditions. A spiral-cube-shaped geometry was used to investigate the effects of printing parameters, namely zein concentration (Z; 20, 40, and 60 %) and printing speed (PS; 4, 8, 14, and 20 mm/s). Coaxial extrusion 3D printing was used with lutein-loaded zein as the internal flow material, and corn starch paste as the external flow material. The viscosities of the inks, microstructural properties, storage stability, and bioaccessibility of encapsulated lutein were determined. The sample printed with a zein concentration of 40 % at a printing speed of 14 mm/s (Z-40/PS-14) exhibited the best shape integrity. When lutein was entrapped in starch/zein gels (Z-40/PS-14), only 39 % of lutein degraded after 21 days at 25 °C, whereas 78 % degraded at the same time when crude lutein was studied. Similar improvements were also observed after storing at 50 °C for 21 days. Furthermore, after simulated digestion, the bioaccessibility of encapsulated lutein (9.8 %) was substantially higher than that of crude lutein (1.5 %). As a result, the developed delivery system using 3D printing could be an effective strategy for enhancing the chemical stability and bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds (BCs).

Improving the properties of whey protein isolate-zein nanogels with novel acidifiers: Re-dispersity, stability and quercetin bioavailability

Low bioavailability of quercetin (Que) reduces its preclinical and clinical benefits. In order to improve Que bioavailability, a novel whey protein isolate (WPI)-zein nanogel was prepared by pH-driven self-assembly and heat-induced gelatinization. The results showed that hydrochloric acid can be substituted by both acetic acid and citric acid during the pH-driven process. After encapsulation, the bioavailability of Que in nanogels (composed of 70 % WPI) induced by different acidifiers increased to 19.89 % (citric acid), 21.65 % (hydrochloric acid) and 24.34 % (acetic acid), respectively. Comparatively, nanogels induced by acetic acid showed higher stability (pH and storage stability), re-dispersibility (75.62 %), Que bioavailability (24.34 %), and antioxidant capacity (36.78 % for DPPH scavenging rates). s improved performance of nanogels. In mechanism, acetic acid significantly balanced different intermolecular forces by weakening "acid-induced denaturation" effect. Moreover, the faster binding of Que and protein as well as higher protein molecular flexibility and randomness (higher ratio of random coil) was also observed in nanogels induced by acetic acid. All of these changes contributed to improve nanogels performances. Overall, WPI-zein nanogels induced by acetic acid might be a safe, efficiency and stable delivery system to improve the bioavailability of hydrophobic active ingredients.

Revolutionizing Cancer Treatment: The Promising Horizon of Zein Nanosystems

Various nanomaterials have recently become fascinating tools in cancer diagnostic applications because of their multifunctional and inherent molecular characteristics that support efficient diagnosis and image-guided therapy. Zein nanoparticles are a protein derived from maize. It belongs to the class of prolamins possessing a spherical structure with conformational properties similar to those of conventional globular proteins like ribonuclease and insulin. Zein nanoparticles have gained massive interest over the past couple of years owing to their natural hydrophilicity, ease of functionalization, biodegradability, and biocompatibility, thereby improving oral bioavailability, nanoparticle targeting, and prolonged drug administration. Thus, zein nanoparticles are becoming a promising candidate for precision cancer drug delivery. This review highlights the clinical significance of applying zein nanosystems for cancer theragnostic─moreover, the role of zein nanosystems for cancer drug delivery, anticancer agents, and gene therapy. Finally, the difficulties and potential uses of these NPs in cancer treatment and detection are discussed. This review will pave the way for researchers to develop theranostic strategies for precision medicine utilizing zein nanosystems.

Metformin Loaded Zein Polymeric Nanoparticles to Augment Antitumor Activity against Ehrlich Carcinoma via Activation of AMPK Pathway: D-Optimal Design Optimization, In Vitro Characterization, and In Vivo Study

Metformin (MET), an antidiabetic drug, is emerging as a promising anticancer agent. This study was initiated to investigate the antitumor effects and potential molecular targets of MET in mice bearing solid Ehrlich carcinoma (SEC) as a model of breast cancer (BC) and to explore the potential of zein nanoparticles (ZNs) as a carrier for improving the anticancer effect of MET. ZNs were fabricated through ethanol injection followed by probe sonication method. The optimum ZN formulation (ZN8) was spherical and contained 5 mg zein and 30 mg sodium deoxycholate with a small particle size and high entrapment efficiency percentage and zeta potential. A stability study showed that ZN8 was stable for up to three months. In vitro release profiles proved the sustained effect of ZN8 compared to the MET solution. Treatment of SEC-bearing mice with ZN8 produced a more pronounced anticancer effect which was mediated by upregulation of P53 and miRNA-543 as well as downregulation of NF-κB and miRNA-191-5p gene expression. Furthermore, ZN8 produced a marked elevation in pAMPK and caspase-3 levels as well as a significant decrease in cyclin D1, COX-2, and PGE2 levels. The acquired findings verified the potency of MET-loaded ZNs as a treatment approach for BC.

Nanoencapsulation and delivery of bioactive ingredients using zein nanocarriers: approaches, characterization, applications, and perspectives

Zein has garnered widespread attention as a versatile material for nanosized delivery systems due to its unique self-assembly properties, amphiphilicity, and biocompatibility characteristics. This review provides an overview of current approaches, characterizations, applications, and perspectives of nanoencapsulation and delivery of bioactive ingredients within zein-based nanocarriers. Various nanoencapsulation strategies for bioactive ingredients using various types of zein-based nanocarrier structures, including nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanoemulsions, and nanogels, are discussed in detail. Factors affecting the stability of zein nanocarriers and characterization methods of bioactive-loaded zein nanocarrier structures are highlighted. Additionally, current applications of zein nanocarriers loaded with bioactive ingredients are summarized. This review will serve as a guide for the selection of appropriate nanoencapsulation techniques within zein nanocarriers and a comprehensive understanding of zein-based nanocarriers for specific applications in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and agricultural industries.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01489-6.

Regulation of immunomodulatory networks by Nrf2-activation in immune cells: Redox control and therapeutic potential in inflammatory diseases

Inflammatory diseases present a serious health challenge due to their widespread prevalence and the severe impact on patients' lives. In the quest to alleviate the burden of these diseases, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) has emerged as a pivotal player. As a transcription factor intimately involved in cellular defense against metabolic and oxidative stress, Nrf2's role in modulating the inflammatory responses of immune cells has garnered significant attention. Recent findings suggest that Nrf2's ability to alter the redox status of cells underlies its regulatory effects on immune responses. Our review delves into preclinical and clinical evidence that underscores the complex influence of Nrf2 activators on immune cell phenotypes, particularly in the inflammatory milieu. By offering a detailed analysis of Nrf2's role in different immune cell populations, we cast light on the potential of Nrf2 activators in shaping the immune response towards a more regulated state, mitigating the adverse effects of inflammation through modeling redox status of immune cells. Furthermore, we explore the innovative use of nanoencapsulation techniques that enhance the delivery and efficacy of Nrf2 activators, potentially advancing the treatment strategies for inflammatory ailments. We hope this review will stimulate the development and expansion of Nrf2-targeted treatments that could substantially improve outcomes for patients suffering from a broad range of inflammatory diseases.

Biopolymer zein nanoparticles loaded with Moringa Oleifera extract for improved wound healing activity: Development, Qbd based optimization and in vivo study

Recently, nanobiomaterials have been explored for improved biological activities and value addition to the herbal extracts. Zein is a natural biopolymer with excellent pharmaceutical characteristics for topical applications. Moringa oleifera plant possesses large number of phytopharmaceuticals and its leaves are used in wound healing since ancient time. In this study, we studied first time, encapsulation of Moringa oleifera leaves aqueous extract into zein nanoparticles which are developed and optimized using quality by design approach. Moringa oleifera leaves aqueous extract was characterized by FTIR and total phenolic content determination. Moringa oleifera leaves aqueous extract loaded zein nanoparticles were systematically characterized for particle size, PDI, zeta potential, transmission electron microscopy and loading capacity. Further, a gel having optimized formulation for topical application was prepared and characterized for pH, spreadability, extrudability and storage stability. The so developed formulation were tested for wound healing activities on animals and results clearly indicated significant activity (p < 0.05) in case of Moringa oleifera leaves aqueous extract loaded zein nanoparticles formulation than control and relatively improved wound healing than Moringa oleifera leaves aqueous extract only loaded gel . This study opens up new possibilities in exploring zein nanoparticles for herbal extract based therapeutic applications.

Preparation and characterization of chitosan/dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose composite film loaded with cinnamaldehyde@zein nanoparticles for active food packaging

In this study, zein-loaded cinnamaldehyde (Cin@ZN) nanoparticles were incorporated into Chitosan (CS)/dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose (DCMC) matrix to fabricate the active food packaging materials possessing outstanding antioxidant and antibacterial properties. The research investigated how varying levels of Cin@ZN nanoparticles affected the morphology, microstructure, physicochemical properties of CS/DCMC composite films. The inclusion of Cin@ZN could significantly improve the mechanical strength, reduce the water vapor and oxygen permeability of CS/DCMC composite films and endow films with UV-light blocking properties. It's worth noting that the antibacterial and antioxidant capacities of CS/DCMC films had an astonishing enhancement with Cin@ZN blending, in which ABTS scavenging ratio of the composite films (100 mg) with different Cin@ZN contents reached >90 %. Furthermore, CS/DCMC/Cin@ZN 35 % composite film has the ability to efficiently protect strawberries from microbial damage and decelerate the spoilage rate of strawberries under ambient condition. Consequently, the CS/DCMC/Cin@ZN composite film can be applied as packaging material to extend the lifespan of fruits.

Electrospun zein nanofibers loaded with curcumin as a wound dressing: enhancing properties with PSS and PDADMAC layers

Development of wound dressings with enhanced therapeutic properties is of great interest in the modern healthcare. In this study, a zein-based nanofibrous wound dressing containing curcumin as a therapeutic agent was fabricated through electrospinning technique. In order to achieve desirable properties, such as antibacterial characteristics, reduced contact angle, and enhanced mechanical properties, the layer-by-layer technique was used for coating the surfaces of drug-loaded nanofibers by sequentially incorporating poly (sodium 4-styrene sulfonate) as a polyanion and poly (diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) as a polycation. Various analyses, including scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, drug release assessment., and mechanical tests were employed to assess the characteristics of the prepared wound dressings. Based on the results, coating with polyelectrolytes enhanced the Young's modulus and tensile strength of the electrospun mat from 1.34 MPa and 4.21 MPa to 1.88 MPa and 8.83 MPa, respectively. The coating also improved the controlled release of curcumin and antioxidant activity, while the outer layer, PDADMAC, exhibited antibacterial properties. The cell viability tests proved the appropriate biocompatibility of the prepared wound dressings. Moreover, our findings show that incorporation of the coating layers enhances cell migration and provides a favorable surface for cell attachment. According to the findings of this study, the fabricated nanofibrous wound dressing can be considered a promising and effective therapeutic intervention for wound management, facilitating the healing process.

Mucoadhesive and thermosensitive Bletilla striata polysaccharide/chitosan hydrogel loaded nanoparticles for rectal drug delivery in ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic disease with diffuse mucosal inflammation limited to the colon. A topical drug delivery system that could be facilely performed and efficiently retained at colon are attractive for clinical ulcerative colitis treatment. Herein, a novel platform for rectal administration of thermosensitive hydrogel co-loaded with nanoparticles to treat ulcerative colitis was developed. Thiolated-hyaluronic acid was synthesized, and prepared nanoparticles with zein and Puerarin. And the Bletilla striata polysaccharide with colonic mucosa repair effect was oxidized, and mixed with chitosan and β-sodium glycerophosphate to prepare thermosensitive hydrogel. Thermosensitive hydrogels were combined with nanoparticles to investigate their mucosal adhesion, retention, and permeability, as well as their therapeutic effects on ulcerative colitis. Thiolated-hyaluronic acid nanoparticles had good stability, and could be quickly converted into hydrogel at body temperature when combined with thermosensitive hydrogel. The nanoparticles-loaded thermosensitive hydrogel also was excellent at mucosal penetration, enhancing the retention time of drugs in colon, and effectively controlling drug release. In vivo ulcerative colitis treatment revealed that the nanoparticles-loaded hydrogel significantly repaired the colonic mucosa and inhibit colonic inflammation. Therefore, the thermosensitive hydrogel co-loaded nanoparticles will have a promising application in effective treatment of ulcerative colitis by topical administration.

Formulation of Chitosan-Zein Nano-in-Microparticles for Oral DNA Delivery

Gene delivery via the oral route offers a promising strategy for improving DNA vaccination and gene-based therapy outcomes. The noninvasive nature of oral delivery lends to ease of dosing, which can facilitate convenience and patient compliance. Moreover, oral administration allows for both local and systemic production of therapeutic genes or, in the case of DNA vaccination, mucosal and systemic immunity. Here, we describe the methods to produce a dual biomaterial, oral DNA delivery system composed of chitosan (CS) and zein (ZN). In this system, CS serves to encapsulate and deliver DNA cargo to intestinal cells in the form of CS-DNA nanoparticles (CS-DNA NPs), while ZN is used to form a protective matrix around the CS-DNA NPs that prevent degradation during gastric transit but then degrades to release the CS-DNA NPs for transfection upon entry into the intestines. These particles have demonstrated the ability to effectively protect cargo DNA from simulated gastric degradation in vitro and mediate transgene production in vivo, making them an effective oral gene delivery system.

Evaluation of the effects of zein incorporation on physical, mechanical, and biological properties of polyhydroxybutyrate electrospun scaffold for bone tissue engineering applications

Materials and fabrication methods significantly influence the scaffold's final features in tissue engineering. This study aimed to blend zein with polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) at 5, 10, and 15 wt%, fabricate scaffolds using electrospinning, and then characterize them. SEM and mechanical analyses identified the scaffold with 10 wt% zein (PHB-10Z) as the optimal sample. Incorporating 10 wt% zein reduced fiber diameter from 894 ± 122 to 531 ± 42 nm while increasing ultimate tensile strength and elongation at break by approximately 53 % and 70 %, respectively. FTIR proved zein's presence in the scaffolds and possible hydrogen bonding with PHB. TGA confirmed the miscibility of polymers. DSC and XRD analyses indicated lower crystallinity for the PHB-10Z than for PHB. AFM evaluation indicated a rougher surface for the PHB-10Z in comparison to PHB. The PHB-10Z demonstrated a more hydrophobic surface and less weight loss after 100 days of degradation in PBS than PHB. The free radical scavenging assay exhibited antioxidant activity for the zein-containing scaffold. Eventually, enhanced cell attachment, viability, and differentiation in the PHB-10Z scaffold drawn from SEM, MTT, ALP activity, and Alizarin red staining of MG-63 cells confirmed that PHB-zein electrospun scaffold is a potent candidate for bone tissue engineering applications.

Zein-Induced Polyelectrolyte Complexes for Encapsulating Triterpenoid Phytochemicals

The hydrophobicity and aggregation of zein, a biopolymer, limit its application as an effective drug delivery carrier. Here, we developed a zein-induced polyelectrolyte (ZiP) complex and investigated its efficiency in delivering 1% hydrolyzed ginseng saponin, a compound K-rich fraction derived from the root of Panax ginseng. The ZiP complex was formulated by incorporating the self-assembled amphiphilic prolamin zein into the aqueous phase. The physical properties, encapsulation efficiency, and stability of the encapsulation system at room temperature (25 °C) and 45 °C were assessed. The effects of different ratios of zein, pullulan, and pectin on the formation of the ZiP complex, the encapsulation stability, and the cellular efficacy of ZiP complexes were also assessed. The ZiP complex was surface-modified with hydrophilic pullulan and pectin polysaccharides in a mass ratio of 1:2:0.2 through electrostatic interactions. The primary hydrophilic modification of the ZiP complex was formed by the adsorption of pullulan, which enhanced the encapsulation stability. The outermost hydrophilic layer comprised the gelling polysaccharide pectin, which further improved the stability of the macro-sized oil-encapsulated complex, reaching sizes over 50 μm. The size of the ZiP complex increased when the concentration of pectin or the total content of the ZiP complex increased to 2:4:0.2. Compound K was successfully encapsulated with a particle size of 294.8 nm and an encapsulation efficiency of 99.6%. The ZiP complex demonstrated stability at high temperatures and long-term stability of the encapsulated saponin over 24 weeks. These results revealed the potency of ZiP complexes that enhance the in vivo absorption of phytochemicals as effective drug delivery carriers that can overcome the limitations in industrial formulation development as a delivery system.

Transferrin-Bearing, Zein-Based Hybrid Lipid Nanoparticles for Drug and Gene Delivery to Prostate Cancer Cells

Gene therapy holds great promise for treating prostate cancer unresponsive to conventional therapies. However, the lack of delivery systems that can transport therapeutic DNA and drugs while targeting tumors without harming healthy tissues presents a significant challenge. This study aimed to explore the potential of novel hybrid lipid nanoparticles, composed of biocompatible zein and conjugated to the cancer-targeting ligand transferrin. These nanoparticles were designed to entrap the anti-cancer drug docetaxel and carry plasmid DNA, with the objective of improving the delivery of therapeutic payloads to prostate cancer cells, thereby enhancing their anti-proliferative efficacy and gene expression levels. These transferrin-bearing, zein-based hybrid lipid nanoparticles efficiently entrapped docetaxel, leading to increased uptake by PC-3 and LNCaP cancer cells and significantly enhancing anti-proliferative efficacy at docetaxel concentrations exceeding 1 µg/mL. Furthermore, they demonstrated proficient DNA condensation, exceeding 80% at polymer-DNA weight ratios of 1500:1 and 2000:1. This resulted in increased gene expression across all tested cell lines, with the highest transfection levels up to 11-fold higher than those observed with controls, in LNCaP cells. These novel transferrin-bearing, zein-based hybrid lipid nanoparticles therefore exhibit promising potential as drug and gene delivery systems for prostate cancer therapy.

Zein nanoparticles as oral carrier for mometasone furoate delivery

Mometasone furoate (MF) is a synthetic glucocorticoid used clinically to treat specific inflammatory disorders including superior and inferior respiratory tract. Due to its poor bioavailability we further investigated whether nanoparticles (NPs) made of zein protein may constitute a safe and effective choice to incorporate MF. Thus, in this work, we loaded MF into zein NPs aiming to evaluate possible advantages that could result from oral delivery and extend the range of MF application such as inflammatory gut diseases. MF-loaded zein NPs presented an average size in the range of 100 and 135 nm, narrow size distribution (polydispersity index < 0.300), zeta potential of around + 10 mV and association efficiency of MF over 70%. Transmission electron microscopy imaging revealed that NPs had a round shape and presented a smooth surface. The zein NPs showed low MF release in a buffer that mimics the gastric condition (pH = 1.2) and slower and controlled MF release in the intestinal condition (pH = 6.8). The short and intermediate safety of zein NPs was confirmed assessing the incubation against Caco-2 and HT29-MTX intestinal cells up to 24 h. Permeability studies of MF across Caco-2/HT29-MTX co-culture monolayer evidenced that zein NPs modulated MF transport across cell monolayer resulting in a stronger and prolonged interaction with mucus, potentially extending the time of absorption and overall local and systemic bioavailability. Overall, zein NPs showed to be suitable to carry MF to the intestine and future studies can be developed to investigate the use of MF-loaded zein NPs to treat intestinal inflammatory diseases.

Nanobiopesticides: Are they the future of phytosanitary treatments in modern agriculture?

The world's population is continuously increasing; therefore, food availability will be one of the major concerns of our future. In addition to that, many practices and products used, such as pesticides and fertilizers have been shown harmful to the environment and human health and are assumed as being one of the main factors responsible for the loss of biodiversity. Also, climate change could agravate the problem since it causes unpredictable variation of local and regional climate conditions,which frequently favor the growth of diseases, pathogens and pest growth. The use of natural products, like essential oils, plant extracts, or substances of microbial-origin in combination with nanotechnology is one suitable way to outgrow this problem. The most often employed natural products in research studies to date include pyrethrum extract, neem oil, and various essential oils, which when enclosed shown increased resistance to environmental factors. They also demonstrated insecticidal, antibacterial, and fungicidal properties. However, in order to truly determine if these products, despite being natural, would be hazardous or not, testing in non-target organisms, which are rare, must start to become a common practice. Therefore, this review aims to present the existing literature concerning nanoformulations of biopesticides and a standard definition for nanobiopesticides, their synthesis methods and their possible ecotoxicological impacts, while discussing the regulatory aspects regarding their authorization and commercialization. As a result of this, you will find a critical analysis in this reading. The most obvious findings are that i) there are insufficient reliable ecotoxicological data for risk assessment purposes and to establish safety doses; and ii) the requirements for registration and authorization of these new products are not as straightforward as those for synthetic chemicals and take a lot of time, which is a major challenge/limitation in terms of the goals set by the Farm to Fork initiative.

Numerical Mechanistic Modelling of Drug Release from Solvent-Removal Zein-Based In Situ Gel

The development of effective drug delivery systems remains a focus of extensive research to enhance therapeutic outcomes. Among these, in situ forming gels (ISG) have emerged as a promising avenue for controlled drug release. This research focuses on the mathematical modeling of levofloxacin HCl (Lv) release from zein-based ISG using the cup method, aiming to mimic the environment of a periodontal pocket. The drug release behavior of the ISGs was investigated through experimental observations and numerical simulations employing forward and central difference formula. Notably, the experimental data for drug release from the 20% w/w zein-based ISG formulations closely aligned with the simulations obtained from numerical mechanistic modeling. In summary, 20% w/w zein-based ISG formulations demonstrated nearly complete drug release with the maximum drug concentration at the edge of the matrix phase values consistently around 100-105%, while 25% w/w zein-based ISG formulations exhibited somewhat lower drug release extents, with values ranging from 70-90%. Additionally, the rate of drug transport from the polymer matrix to the external phase influenced initial release rates, resulting in a slower release. The utilization of glycerol formal as a solvent extended drug release further than dimethyl sulfoxide, thanks to denser matrices formed by high-loading polymers that acted as robust barriers to solvent removal and drug diffusion. Furthermore, UV-vis imaging was utilized to visualize the matrix formation process and solvent diffusion within the ISGs. The imaging results offered valuable insights into the matrix formation kinetics, controlled drug release mechanisms, and the influence of solvent properties on drug diffusion. The combination of mathematical modeling and experimental visualization provides a comprehensive understanding of drug release from zein-based ISGs and offers a foundation for tailored drug delivery strategies.

Zein-Based Nanoparticles Improve the Therapeutic Efficacy of a TrkB Agonist toward Alzheimer's Disease

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)/TrkB pathway plays a crucial role in neural plasticity and neuronal survival but is often deficient in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD). CF3CN acts as a specific TrkB agonist that displays therapeutic effects in the AD mouse model, but its brain/plasma ratio (B/P ratio) distribution is not satisfactory. To increase its brain exposure, we synthesized several derivatives and employed nanoparticle (NP) formulation to optimize the most potent #2 derivative's in vivo PK profiles. We generated stable #2-loaded zein/lactoferrin composite NPs (#2/zein/LF) using the antisolvent co-precipitation method. In vivo PK studies revealed that nanoencapsulation improved #2's oral bioavailability by approximately 2-fold and significantly enhanced its plasma Cmax and t1/2, but the brain profiles were comparable. Pharmacodynamics showed that #2/zein/LF activates TrkB signaling that phosphorylates asparagine endopeptidase (AEP) T322 and decreases its enzymatic activity, resulting in reduced AEP-cleaved amyloid precursor protein and Tau fragments in the brains of AD mice, correlating with its PK profiles. After 3 months of treatment in 3xTg mice, #2/zein/LF decreased AD pathologies and alleviated cognitive dysfunction. Hence, zein/LF composite nanoencapsulation is a promising drug delivery method for improving the PK profiles of a potential preclinical candidate for treating neurodegenerative diseases.

Characterization of Nano-SiO2/Zein Film Prepared Using Ultrasonic Treatment and the Ability of the Prepared Film to Resist Different Storage Environments

This study has developed, ultrasound-assisted, a novel food packaging film (U-zein/SiO2) for food packaging applications. Incorporating an optimal concentration of 18 mg/mL of nano-SiO2 and subjecting the film to 10 min of ultrasonic treatment resulted in a remarkable increase of 32.89% in elongation at break and 55.86% in tensile strength. In addition, the incorporation of nano-SiO2 effectively reduces the water content and solubility of the composite film, resulting in improved water/oxygen barrier properties. These physiochemical properties were further improved with the application of ultrasound. The analysis of attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared, X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and scanning electronic microscope demonstrated that the ultrasound treatment improved the hydrogen bonds, improved thermal stability, molecular arrangement, structure stability, and intermolecular compatibility of the composite film, resulting in enhanced physio-mechanical properties of the film. In addition, the ultrasound treatment led to a smoother film surface and reduced the pores on the film's cross-section. Moreover, the U-zein/SiO2 film exhibited excellent mechanical and water/oxygen barrier properties in different storage environments over a period of 30 days. These results offer sound theoretical support for the practical application of the prepared preservative film.

Co-Encapsulation of Curcumin and Diosmetin in Nanoparticles Formed by Plant-Food-Protein Interaction Using a pH-Driven Method

In this work, a pH-driven method was used to prepare zein-soy protein isolate (SPI) composite nanoparticles (NPs). The mass ratio of SPI to zein influenced the Z-average size (Z-ave). Once the zeta potential stabilized, SPI was completely coated on the periphery of the zein NPs. The optimal mass ratio of zein:SPI was found to be 2:3. After determining the structure using TEM, curcumin (Cur) and/or diosmetin (Dio) were loaded into zein-SPI NPs for co-encapsulation or individual delivery. The co-encapsulation of Cur and Dio altered their protein conformations, and both Cur and Dio transformed from a crystalline structure to an amorphous form. The protein conformation change increased the number of binding sites between Dio and zein NPs. As a result, the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of Dio improved from 43.07% to 73.41%, and thereby increased the loading efficiency (LE%) of zein-SPI NPs to 16.54%. Compared to Dio-loaded zein-SPI NPs, Cur/Dio-loaded zein-SPI NPs improved the storage stability of Dio from 61.96% to 82.41% within four weeks. The extended release of bioactive substances in the intestine during simulated gastrointestinal digestion improved the bioavailability. When exposed to a concentration of 0-800 µg/mL blank-loaded zein-SPI NPs, the viability of HepG2 and LO-2 cells was more than 90%, as shown in MTT assay tests. The zein-SPI NPs are non-toxic, biocompatible, and have potential applications in the food industry.

Encapsulation of polyphenols in protein-based nanoparticles: Preparation, properties, and applications

Polyphenols have a variety of physiological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, their applications are often limited because due to the instability of polyphenols. Encapsulation technologies can be employed to overcome these problems and increase the utilization of polyphenols. In this article, the utilization of protein-based nanoparticles for encapsulating polyphenols is reviewed due to their good biocompatibility, biodegradability, and functional attributes. Initially, the various kinds of animal and plant proteins available for forming protein nanoparticles are discussed, as well as the fabrication methods that can be used to assemble these nanoparticles. The molecular interaction mechanisms between proteins and polyphenols are then summarized. Applications of protein-based nanoparticles for encapsulating polyphenols are then discussed, including as nutrient delivery systems, in food packaging materials, and in the creation of functional foods. Finally, areas where further research is need on the development, characterization, and application of protein-based polyphenol-loaded nanoparticles are highlighted.

Construction of a Ternary Composite Colloidal Structure of Zein/Soy Protein Isolate/Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose to Deliver Curcumin and Improve Its Bioavailability

This work presents the fabrication of ternary nanoparticles (Z/S/C NPs) comprising zein (Z), soy protein isolate (SPI) and carboxymethylcellulose sodium (CMC-Na) through a pH-driven method. The results showed that the smallest particle size (71.41 nm) and the most stable zeta potential, measuring -49.97 mV, were achieved with the following ratio of ternary nanoparticles Z/SPI/CMC-Na (2:3:3). The surface morphology of the nanoparticles was further analyzed using transmission electron microscopy, and the synthesized nanoparticles were utilized to encapsulate curcumin (Cur), a hydrophobic, bioactive compound. The nanoparticles were characterized using a particle size analyzer, infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The results revealed that the formation of nanoparticles and the encapsulation of Cur were driven by electrostatic, hydrogen-bonding and hydrophobic interactions. The drug loading efficiency (EE%) of Z/S/C-cur nanoparticles reached 90.90%. The Z/S/C ternary nanoparticles demonstrated enhanced storage stability, photostability and simulated the gastrointestinal digestion of Cur. The release of Cur and variations in the particle size of nanoparticles were investigated across different stages of digestion. The biocompatibility of the Z/S/C ternary nanoparticles was assessed by conducting cell viability assays on HepG2 and L-O2 cells, which showed no signs of cytotoxicity. These results suggested that the ternary composite nanoparticles have potential in delivering nutritional foods and health-promoting bioactive substances.

Zein as an Effective Carrier for Hesperidin Delivery Systems with Improved Prebiotic Potential

Hesperidin is a polyphenol derived from citrus fruits that has a broad potential for biological activity and the ability to positively modify the intestinal microbiome. However, its activity is limited by its low solubility and, thus, its bioavailability-this research aimed to develop a zein-based hesperidin system with increased solubility and a sustained release profile. The study used triple systems enriched with solubilizers to maximize solubility. The best system was the triple system hesperidin-zein-Hpβ-CD, for which the solubility improved by more than six times. A significant improvement in the antioxidant activity and the ability to inhibit α-glucosidase was also demonstrated, due to an improved solubility. A release profile analysis was performed in the subsequent part of the experiments, confirming the sustained release profile of hesperidin, while improving the solubility. Moreover, the ability of selected probiotic bacteria to metabolize hesperidin and the effect of this flavonoid compound on their growth were investigated.

Recent Advances in Zein-Based Nanocarriers for Precise Cancer Therapy

Cancer has emerged as a leading cause of death worldwide. However, the pursuit of precise cancer therapy and high-efficiency delivery of antitumor drugs remains an enormous obstacle. The major challenge is the lack of a smart drug delivery system with the advantages of biodegradability, biocompatibility, stability, targeting and response release. Zein, a plant-based protein, possesses a unique self-assembly ability to encapsulate anticancer drugs directly or indirectly. Using zein as a nanotherapeutic pharmaceutic preparation can protect anticancer drugs from harsh environments, such as sunlight, stomach acid and pepsin. Moreover, the surface functionalization of zein is easily realized, which can endow it with targeting and stimulus-responsive release capacity. Hence, zein is an ideal nanocarrier for the precise delivery of anticancer drugs. Combined with our previous research experiences, we attempt to review the current state of the preparation of zein-based nanocarriers for anticancer drug delivery. The challenges, solutions and development trends of zein-based nanocarriers for precise cancer therapy are discussed. This review will provide a guideline for precise cancer therapy in the future.

Calcitriol-Loaded Multifunctional Nanospheres with Superlubricity for Advanced Osteoarthritis Treatment

Osteoarthritis (OA) is characterized by the lubrication dysfunction of a cartilage sliding interface caused by chronic joint inflammation, and effective nonsurgical therapy for advanced OA remains lacking. Addressing chronic joint inflammation, lubrication dysfunction, and cartilage-tissue degradation simultaneously may hopefully tackle this challenge. Herein, we developed superlubricative zein@alginate/strontium@calcitriol (ZASC) nanospheres to treat advanced OA. ZASC was confirmed to significantly improve joint lubrication through traditional tribological tests and our proposed tribological experiment to mimic the intra-articular condition based on the human medial tibiofemoral joint tissues. This finding was attributed to the hydration lubrication formed around the alginate-strontium spheres that enabled ball-bearing lubrication and the filling of cartilage defects. Moreover, ZASCs that released calcitriol in a sustained manner showed proliferative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptosis effects in vitro. Further experiments demonstrated that ZASC exerted chondroprotective effects by inhibiting the breakdown of the extracellular matrix in patient-derived OA cartilage explants. In vivo results demonstrated that ZASC can effectively maintain a normal gait to improve joint function, inhibit abnormal bone remodeling and cartilage degradation in early OA and can effectively reverse the advanced OA progression. Therefore, ZASC is a potentially nonsurgical therapeutic strategy for advanced OA treatments.

Agro-Industrial Plant Proteins in Electrospun Materials for Biomedical Application

Plant proteins are receiving a lot of attention due to their abundance in nature, customizable properties, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and bioactivity. As a result of global sustainability concerns, the availability of novel plant protein sources is rapidly growing, while the extensively studied ones are derived from byproducts of major agro-industrial crops. Owing to their beneficial properties, a significant effort is being made to investigate plant proteins' application in biomedicine, such as making fibrous materials for wound healing, controlled drug release, and tissue regeneration. Electrospinning technology is a versatile platform for creating nanofibrous materials fabricated from biopolymers that can be modified and functionalized for various purposes. This review focuses on recent advancements and promising directions for further research of an electrospun plant protein-based system. The article highlights examples of zein, soy, and wheat proteins to illustrate their electrospinning feasibility and biomedical potential. Similar assessments with proteins from less-represented plant sources, such as canola, pea, taro, and amaranth, are also described.

Strategies of stabilization of zein nanoparticles containing doxorubicin hydrochloride

Hybrid nanoparticles made up of zein and various stabilizers were developed and characterized. In detail, a zein concentration of 2 mg/ml was blended with various amounts of different phospholipids or PEG-derivatives in order to obtain formulations with suitable physico-chemical properties for drug delivery purposes. Doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) was used as a model of a hydrophilic compound and its entrapment efficiency, release profile and cytotoxic activity were investigated. Photon correlation spectroscopy showed that the best formulations were obtained using DMPG, DOTAP and DSPE-mPEG2000 as stabilizers of zein nanoparticles, which were characterized by an average diameter of ~100 nm, a narrow size distribution and a significant time- and temperature-dependent stability. The interaction between protein and stabilizers was confirmed through FT-IR analysis, while TEM analysis showed the presence of a shell-like structure around the zein core. The release profiles of the drug from the zein/DSPE-mPEG2000 nanosystems, evaluated at two pHs (5.5 and 7.4), showed a prolonged and constant leakage of the drug. The encapsulation of DOX within zein/DSPE-mPEG2000 nanosystems did not compromise its biological efficacy, demonstrating the potential application of these hybrid nanoparticles as drug carriers.

4D printed tri-segment nerve conduit using zein gel as the ink for repair of rat sciatic nerve large defect

Zein has enormous potential for application in biomedical field due to biodegradation and biocompatibility, we have recently prepared zein gel as a possible 3D printing ink. Our previous studies found that the pore structure in zein material can reduce early inflammation, promote the polarization of macrophages toward the M2 phenotype, and accelerate nerve regeneration. To further explore the role of zein in nerve repair, we used 4D printing technique to create nerve conduits with zein protein gel, and designed 2 types of tri-segment conduits with different degradation rates. Structural parts printed in support baths with higher water content show faster degradation rates than those printed in support baths with lower water content. The conduits that degraded quickly at both ends and slowly in the middle (CB75-CB40-CB75) and the conduits that degraded slowly at both ends and quickly in the middle (CB40-CB75-CB40) were 4D printed, respectively. Animal experiments suggest that the CB75-CB40-CB75 conduit is better for nerve repair, which may be because its degradation pattern can match to the pattern of nerve regeneration better. Our new strategy through 4D printing indicated that fine modulation in conduit degradation can affect efficacy of nerve repair significantly.

Zein nanospheres assisting inorganic and organic drug combination to overcome stent implantation-induced thrombosis and infection

The complication of stent implantation is the biggest obstacle to the success of its clinical application. In this study, we developed a combination way of 3D printing and the coating technique for preparation of functional polyurethane stents against stent implantation-induced thrombosis and postoperative infection. SEM, XPS, static water contact angle, and XRD demonstrated that the functional polyurethane stent had a 37 μm-thickness membrane composed of zein nanospheres (250-350 nm). Meanwhile, ZnO nanoparticles were encapsulated in zein nanospheres while heparin was adsorbed on the surface, causing 97.1 ± 6.4 % release of heparin in 120 min (first-order kinetic model) and 62.7 ± 5.6 % release of Zn²⁺ in 9 days (Korsmeyer-Peppas model). The mechanical analysis revealed that the functional polyurethane stents had about 8.61 MPa and 2.5 MPa tensile strength and bending strength, respectively. The in vitro biological analysis showed that the functional polyurethane stents had good EA.hy926 cells compatibility (97.9 ± 3.8 %), anti-coagulation response (comparable plasma protein, platelet adhesion and suppressed clotting) and sustained antibacterial activities by comparison with the bare polyurethane stent. The preliminary evaluation by rabbit ex vivo carotid artery intervention experiment demonstrated that the functional polyurethane stents could maintain blood circulation under the continuous stresses of blood flow. Meanwhile, the detailed data from the simulated implant infection experiment in vivo showed the functional polyurethane stents could effectively reduce microbial infection by 3-6 times lower and improve fibrosis and macrophage infiltration.

Natural and biocompatible dressing unit based on tea carbon dots modified core-shell electrospun fiber for diabetic wound disinfection and healing

Wound infection and healing in patients with diabetes is one of the complex problems in trauma treatment. Therefore, designing and preparing an advanced dressing membrane for treating the wounds of such patients is essential. In this study, a zein film with biological tea carbon dots (TCDs) and calcium peroxide (CaO₂) as the main components for promoting diabetic wound healing was prepared by an electrospinning technique, which combines the advantages of natural degradability and biosafety. CaO₂ is a biocompatible material with a microsphere structure that reacts with water to release hydrogen peroxide and calcium ions. TCDs with a small diameter were doped in the membrane to mitigate its properties while improving the antibacterial and healing effects of the membrane. TCDs/CaO₂ was mixed with ethyl cellulose-modified zein (ZE) to prepare the dressing membrane. The antibacterial properties, biocompatibility and wound-healing properties of the composite membrane were investigated by antibacterial experiment, cell experiment and a full-thickness skin defect. TCDs/CaO₂ @ZE exhibited significant anti-inflammatory and wound healing-promoting properties in diabetic rats, without any cytotoxicity. This study is meaningful in developing a natural and biocompatible dressing membrane for diabetic wound healing, which shows a promising application in wound disinfection and recovery in patients with chronic diseases.

Zein nanoparticles for drug delivery: Preparation methods and biological applications

Zein, a vegetable protein extracted from corn (Zea mays L.), forms a gastro-resistant and mucoadhesive polymer that is cheap and easy to obtain and facilitates the encapsulation of bioactives with hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and amphiphilic properties. The methods used for synthesizing these nanoparticles include antisolvent precipitation/nanoprecipitation, pH-driven, electrospraying, and solvent emulsification-evaporation methods. Each method has its advantages in the preparation of nanocarriers, nevertheless, all of them enable the production of zein nanoparticles that are stable and resistant to environmental factors, with different biological activities required in the cosmetic, food, and pharmaceutical industries. Therefore, zein nanoparticles are promising nanocarriers that can encapsulate various bioactives with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antidiabetic properties. This article reviews the principal methods for obtaining zein nanoparticles containing bioactives, the advantages and characteristics of each method, as well as the main biological applications of nanotechnology-based formulations.

In vitro/in vivoidentification of zein degraded peptides using HPLC-MS/MS and their safety evaluation

The identification of degraded products of implanted scaffolds is desirable to avoid regulatory concerns.In vivoidentification of products produced by the degradation of natural protein-based scaffolds is complex and demands the establishment of a routine analytical method. In this study, we developed a method for the identification of peptides produced by the degradation of zein bothin vitroandin vivousing high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Forin vitroexperiments, zein was degraded enzymatically and analyzed produced peptides.In vitrostudy showed cytocompatibility of peptides present in the hydrolysate of zein with no induction of apoptosis and cell senescence. Forin vivoexperiment, zein gels were prepared and subcutaneously implanted in rats. Peptides produced by the degradation of zein were identified and few were selected as targeted (unique peptides) and two peptides were synthesized as the reference sequence of these peptides. Further, peptide analysis using HPLC-MS/MS of different organs was performed after 2 and 8 weeks of implantation of zein gel in rats. It was found that zein-originated peptides were accumulated in different organs. QQHIIGGALF or peptides with same fractions were identified as unique peptides. These peptides were also found in control rats with regular rat feed, which means the degradation of implanted zein biomaterial produced food related peptides of non-toxic nature. Furthermore, hemotoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining exhibited normal features. Overall, zein degraded products showed cytocompatibility and did not induce organ toxicity, and QQHIIGGALF can act as a standard peptide for tracing and determining zein degradation. The study also provides the feasibility of complex analysis on identification and quantification of degradation products of protein-based scaffolds.

Zein-based nanoparticles: Preparation, characterization, and pharmaceutical application

Zein, as one of the natural and GRAS proteins in plant, is renewable, nontoxic, biocompatible and biodegradable. Over the past decade, many research efforts have been devoted to zein-based biomaterials for several industrial applications. Combining with research experiences in our research group, the preparation methods, characterizations and pharmaceutical applications of zein-based nanoparticles were summarized in this review. Zein NPs with different particle nanostructures have been prepared by chemical crosslinking, desolvating, dispersing and micromixing strategies. The pharmaceutical applications of zein NPs are mainly focus on the drug delivery. Zein NPs can improve the drug stability, increase the oral bioavailability, control the drug release and enhance the drug targeting, thereby improving the pharmaceutical effect effectively. More efforts are required to analyze the relationship among preparation methods, particle nanostructures and pharmaceutical properties in virtue of quality by design approach, and further promote the scale-up production and clinical application of zein NPs.

Injectable zein gel with in situ self-assembly as hemostatic material

Zein is a biocompatible and biodegradable corn protein with promising properties for biomedical applications. It is hydrophobic with the ability to self-assemble in an aqueous medium. It can also form a gel in hydroalcoholic solvents at higher concentrations. Few studies have investigated the biomedical significance of zein gels. Herein, we exploited the injectability and water-responsive increase in stiffness of zein gel to achieve hemostasis by physical blockage of the wound and clot formation. The release of components from the gel further aided blood clotting and gave a higher clot strength than a natural clot, which can prevent rebleeding. Rabbit aortic injury and swine femoral artery injury models were used to evaluate the hemostatic efficacy of the zein gel. Zein gel was effective in both hemostatic models without applying external compression due to an in situ increase in stiffness, while the control (Celox™ Gauze) required external compression at the wound site. The zein gel was easily removed after hemostasis due to hydrophobic self-assembly. Overall, zein gel is proposed as an effective hemostatic product for any wound shape owing to its good shape adaptability and rapid in situ blood-responsive stiffness increase.

3D-Printed Prolamin Scaffolds for Cell-Based Meat Culture

Cultivating meat from muscle stem cells in vitro requires 3D edible scaffolds as the supporting matrix. Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) printing is an emerging 3D-printing technology for fabricating ultrafine fibrous scaffolds with high precision microstructures for biomedical applications. However, edible EHD-printed scaffolds remain scarce in cultured meat (CM) production partly due to special requirements with regard to the printability of ink. Here, hordein or secalin is mixed, which are cereal prolamins extracted from barley or rye, with zein to produce pure prolamin-based inks, which exhibit favorable printability similar to common polycaprolactone ink. Zein/hordein and zein/secalin scaffolds with highly ordered tessellated structures are successfully fabricated after optimizing printing conditions. The prolamin scaffolds demonstrated good water stability and in vitro degradability due to the porous fiber surface, which is spontaneously generated by culturing muscle cells for 1 week. Moreover, mouse skeletal myoblasts (C2C12) and porcine skeletal muscle satellite cells (PSCs) can adhere and proliferate on the fibrous matrix, and a CM slice is produced by culturing PSCs on prolamin scaffolds with high tissue similarity. The upregulation of myogenic proteins shows that the differentiation process is triggered in the 3D culture, demonstrating the great potential of prolamin scaffolds in CM production.

Comparison of the enhanced attachment and proliferation of the human mesenchymal stem cells on the biomimetic nanopatterned surfaces of zein, silk fibroin, and gelatin

Natural proteins have been reported to positively affect the attachment and proliferation of cells. For the first time, zein, a plant protein, was utilized to make patterned surface mimicking the extracellular matrix to assist the attachment and proliferation of stem cells. Zein would promote the attachment and proliferation of the stem cells more than 10 times of that of gelatin and silk fibroin, respectively, which are popular protein selections for the formation of the biomaterial scaffolds. The more the surface was covered by zein, the more the stem cell grown. It was revealed that the stem cells would grow and stretch in the direction of the patterns, and the stem cells preferred to grow in the grooves in the size of 8 μm, that was similar to the size of the stem cells, rather than the size larger or smaller than that of the cells, such as 50 and 2 μm. It was concluded that zein is a better choice than silk fibroin and gelatin with highly potential for the formation of patterned surface and structure as the biomaterial scaffolds for stem cell therapy.

Zein-Alginate-Phosphatidylcholine Nanocomplex Efficiently Delivers Lycopene and Lutein over Dietary-Derived Carotenoid Mixed Micelles in Caco-2 Cells

This study evaluated the potency of zein-alginate-phosphatidylcholine nanoparticles (NPs) on bioaccessibility/intestinal uptake of encapsulated lycopene (LY) and lutein (LT) versus dietary absorption using simulated digestion and human intestinal Caco-2 cells. LY-zein-alginate-PC (LYZAP) and LT-zein-alginate-PC (LTZAP) NPs yield desired properties, which exhibit sustained release and are suitable for oral administration. Interestingly, co-treatment of LYZAP + LTZAP showed better release of carotenoids instead of individual treatment at intestinal pH. Bioaccessibility, cellular uptake, and basolateral secretion of LY and LT from NPs were significantly enhanced than micellar carotenoids (dietary mode of absorption). The increased absorption of carotenoids from NPs correlated with triglyceride levels. The intestinal cell uptake of carotenoids by nanoencapsulation may be due to endocytosis, paracellular, and SRB-1 protein-mediated transport. Overall, LYZAP and LTZAP NPs possess superior properties to control the release and cellular uptake of unique or distinct carotenoids. The inclusion of alginate and phosphatidylcholine in zein-based nanoencapsulation could be a promising strategy to improve carotenoid bioavailability.

Antibacterial Z-scheme ZnIn2S4/Ag2MoO4 composite photocatalytic nanofibers with enhanced photocatalytic performance under visible light

Considering the biocompatibility of natural proteins and the strong photo-redox capability of Z-scheme heterojunctions, we fabricated Z-scheme ZnIn₂S₄/Ag₂MoO₄@Zein (Z ZA) photocatalytic membranes via electrospinning and in-situ precipitation for enrofloxacin (ENR) degradation. Z ZA exhibit a fiber structure wrapped with ZnIn₂S₄/Ag₂MoO₄ heterojunctions. Photocatalytic studies and various characterization results certified that the Z-scheme structure between ZnIn₂S₄ and Ag₂MoO₄ significantly increases the lifetime and separation efficiency of photogenerated carriers, which in turn enhances the photodegradation of ENR. The degradation rate of Z ZA-10 (ZnIn₂S₄/10 wt% Ag₂MoO₄@Zein) with the highest catalytic activity could reach 100% within 120 min compared with other samples. For ENR degradation, •O₂^- radicals were certified to be the primary active species by trapping experiments, and several possible conversion pathways of ENR in photocatalytic reactions were proposed. Furthermore, the antibacterial rates of Z ZA-20 (ZnIn₂S₄/20 wt% Ag₂MoO₄@Zein) against B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and E. coli could reach 90.09%, 89.78%, 84.34%, and 95.31%, respectively. Antibacterial evaluations and cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that Z ZA photocatalytic films had desirable antibacterial properties and low cytotoxicity, rendering them safe and effective for use in the treatment of antibiotic wastewater.

Advancement in "Garbage In Biomaterials Out (GIBO)" concept to develop biomaterials from agricultural waste for tissue engineering and biomedical applications

Presently on a global scale, one of the major concerns is to find effective strategies to manage the agricultural waste to protect the environment. One strategy that has been drawing attention among the researchers is the development of biocompatible materials from agricultural waste. This strategy implies successful conversion of agricultural waste products (e.g.: cellulose, eggshell etc.) into building blocks for biomaterial development. Some of these wastes contain even bioactive compounds having biomedical applications. The replacement and augmentation of human tissue with biomaterials as alternative to traditional method not only bypasses immune-rejection, donor scarcity, and maintenance; but also provides long term solution to damaged or malfunctioning organs. Biomaterials development as one of the key challenges in tissue engineering approach, resourced from natural origin imparts better biocompatibility due to closely mimicking composition with cellular microenvironment. The "Garbage In, Biomaterials Out (GIBO)" concept, not only recycles the agricultural wastes, but also adds to biomaterial raw products for further product development in tissue regeneration. This paper reviews the conversion of garbage agricultural by-products to the biocompatible materials for various biomedical applications.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

The agro-waste biomass processed, purified, modified, and further utilized for the fabrication of biomaterials-based support system for tissue engineering applications to grow living body parts in vitro or in vivo.

Bioadhesive Tannic-Acid-Functionalized Zein Coating Achieves Engineered Colonic Delivery of IBD Therapeutics via Reservoir Microdevices

The biggest challenge in oral delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs such as 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) is to (i) prevent rapid absorption in the small intestine and (ii) achieve localized release at the site of inflammation in the lower gut, i.e., the colon. Here, we present an advanced biopolymeric coating comprising of tannic-acid-functionalized zein protein to provide a sustained, colon-targeted release profile for 5-ASA and enhance the mucoadhesion of the dosage form via a mussel-inspired mechanism. To enable localized delivery and provide high local concentration, 5-ASA is loaded into the microfabricated drug carriers (microcontainers) and sealed with the developed coating. The functionality and drug release profile of the coating are characterized and optimized in vitro, showing great tunability, scalability, and stability toward proteases. Further, ex vivo experiments demonstrate that the tannic acid functionalization can significantly enhance the mucoadhesion of the coating, which is followed up by in vivo investigations on the intestinal retention, and pharmacokinetic evaluation of the 5-ASA delivery system. Results indicate that the developed coating can provide prolonged colonic delivery of 5-ASA. Therefore, the here-developed biodegradable coating can be an eco-friendly substitute to the state-of-the-art commercial counterparts for targeted delivery of 5-ASA and other small molecule drugs.