Self-activated arsenic manganite nanohybrids for visible and synergistic thermo/immuno-arsenotherapy

Can arsenic do anything good? Arsenic nanodrugs in the fight against cancer - last decade review

Arsenic has been an element of great interest among scientists for many years as it is a widespread metalloid in our ecosystem. Arsenic is mostly recognized with negative connotations due to its toxicity. Surely, most of us know that a long time ago, arsenic trioxide was used in medicine to treat, mainly, skin diseases. However, not everyone knows about its very wide and promising use in the treatment of cancer. Initially, in the seventies, it was used to treat leukemia, but new technological possibilities and the development of nanotechnology have made it possible to use arsenic trioxide for the treatment of solid tumours. The most toxic arsenic compound - arsenic trioxide - as the basis of anticancer drugs in which they function as a component of nanoparticles is used in the fight against various types of cancer. This review aims to present the current solutions in various cancer treatment using arsenic compounds with different binding motifs and methods of preparation to create targeted nanoparticles, nanodiamonds, nanohybrids, nanodrugs, or nanovehicles.

Capecitabine loaded potato starch-chitosan nanoparticles: A novel approach for targeted therapy and improved outcomes in aggressive colon cancer

Aggressive colon cancer treatment poses significant challenges. This study investigates the potential of innovative carbohydrate-based nanoparticles for targeted Capecitabine (CTB) delivery. CTB nanoparticles were synthesized by conjugating CTB with potato starch and chitosan using ultrasonication, hydrolysis, and ionotropic gelation. Characterization included drug loading, rheology, Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). In vitro and in vivo antitumor activity was evaluated using HT-29 cells and N, N-dimethylhydrazine-induced Balb/c mice, respectively. Cellular assays assessed angiogenesis, migration, proliferation, and apoptosis. Nanoparticles exhibited a mean size of 245 nm, positive zeta potential (+30 mV), high loading efficacy (76 %), and sustained drug release (92 % over 100 h). CTB-loaded nanoparticles displayed superior colon histology, reduced tumour scores, and inhibited VEGD and CD31 expression compared to free CTB. Cellular assays confirmed significant antitumor effects, including reduced tube formation, migration, and proliferation, and increased apoptosis. This study demonstrates the promise of CTB-loaded potato starch-chitosan nanoparticles for aggressive colon cancer treatment. These findings highlight the potential of these nanoparticles for further evaluation in diverse cancer models.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Immunotherapy in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype with the worst prognosis and highest recurrence rates. The treatment choices are limited due to the scarcity of endocrine and HER2 targets, except for chemotherapy. However, the side effects of chemotherapy restrict its long-term usage. Immunotherapy shows potential as a promising therapeutic strategy, such as inducing immunogenic cell death, immune checkpoint therapy, and immune adjuvant therapy. Nanotechnology offers unique advantages in the field of immunotherapy, such as improved delivery and targeted release of immunotherapeutic agents and enhanced bioavailability of immunomodulators. As well as the potential for combination therapy synergistically enhanced by nanocarriers. Nanoparticles-based combined application of multiple immunotherapies is designed to take the tactics of enhancing immunogenicity and reversing immunosuppression. Moreover, the increasing abundance of biomedical materials holds more promise for the development of this field. This review summarizes the advances in the field of nanoparticle-mediated immunotherapy in terms of both immune strategies for treatment and the development of biomaterials and presents challenges and hopes for the future.

A dual-enzyme-like photosensitive nanozyme for remodeling the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment to enhance immunotherapy

In "immune-cold" tumors, the upregulation of immunosuppressive cells and insufficient infiltration of lymphocytes contribute to the resistance against immune therapy. Herein, we have developed a dual-enzyme-like photosensitive nanozyme (PBAF) to remodel the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment (TIME) and induce the tumor infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Specifically, PBAF exhibits peroxidase (POD)-like activity and glutathione oxidase (GSHOx)-like activity and can be stimulated by 750 nm laser, promoting oxidative stress at the tumor site. Consequently, this process further leads to the reconstruction of TIME in animal experiments, inducing tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) toward the immunostimulatory M1 phenotype, eliminating myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and regulatory T cells (Tregs). Simultaneously, PBAF also promotes dendritic cells (DCs) maturation to enhance CTLs infiltration into the tumor. The remodeled TIME and enhanced immune responses by PBAF demonstrate significant post-administration inhibition of recurrence and metastasis in the treatment of malignant tumors.

Maximizing arsenic trioxide's anticancer potential: Targeted nanocarriers for solid tumor therapy

Arsenic trioxide (ATO) has gained significant attention due to its promising therapeutic effects in treating different diseases, particularly acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). Its potent anticancer mechanisms have been extensively studied. Despite the great efficacy ATO shows in fighting cancers, drawbacks in the clinical use are obvious, especially for solid tumors, which include rapid renal clearance and short half-life, severe adverse effects, and high toxicity to normal cells. Recently, the emergence of nanomedicine offers a potential solution to these limitations. The enhanced biocompatibility, excellent targeting capability, and desirable effectiveness have attracted much interest. Therefore, we summarized various nanocarriers for targeted delivery of ATO to solid tumors. We also provided detailed anticancer mechanisms of ATO in treating cancers, its clinical trials and shortcomings as well as the combination therapy of ATO and other chemotherapeutic agents for reduced drug resistance and synergistic effects. Finally, the future study direction and prospects were also presented.

Rationalized landscape on protein-based cancer nanomedicine: Recent progress and challenges

The clinical advancement of protein-based nanomedicine has revolutionized medical professionals' perspectives on cancer therapy. Protein-based nanoparticles have been exploited as attractive vehicles for cancer nanomedicine due to their unique properties derived from naturally biomacromolecules with superior biocompatibility and pharmaceutical features. Furthermore, the successful translation of Abraxane™ (paclitaxel-based albumin nanoparticles) into clinical application opened a new avenue for protein-based cancer nanomedicine. In this mini-review article, we demonstrate the rational design and recent progress of protein-based nanoparticles along with their applications in cancer diagnosis and therapy from recent literature. The current challenges and hurdles that hinder clinical application of protein-based nanoparticles are highlighted. Finally, future perspectives for translating protein-based nanoparticles into clinic are identified.

Bibliometric and visualized analysis of cancer nanomedicine from 2013 to 2023

Cancer nanomedicine has been an emerging field for drug development against malignant tumors during the past three decades. A bibliometric analysis was performed to characterize the current international trends and present visual representations of the evolution and emerging trends in the research and development of nanocarriers for cancer treatment. This study employed bibliometric analysis and visualization techniques to analyze the literature on antitumor nanocarriers published between 2013 and 2023. A total of 98,980 articles on antitumor nanocarriers were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database and analyzed using the Citespace software for specific characteristics such as publication year, countries/regions, organizations, keywords, and references. Network visualization was constructed by VOSviewer and Citespace. From 2013 to 2023, the annual global publications increased 7.39 times, from 1851 to 13,683. People's Republic of China (2588 publications) was the most productive country. Chinese Academy of Sciences (298 publications) was the most productive organization. The top 5 high-frequency keywords were "nanoparticles," "drug delivery," "nanomedicine," "cancer," and "nanocarriers." The keywords with the strongest citation bursts recently were "cancer immunotherapy," "microenvironment," "antitumor immunity," etc., which indicated the emerging frontiers of antitumor nanomedicine. The co-occurrence cluster analysis of the keywords formed 6 clusters, and most of the top 10 publications by citation counts focused on cluster #1 (nanocarriers) and cluster #2 (cancer immunotherapy). We further provided insightful discussions into the identified subtopics to help researchers gain more details of current trends and hotspots in this field. The present study processes a macro-level literature analysis of antitumor nanocarriers and provides new perspectives and research directions for future development in cancer nanomedicine.

Arsenic trioxide: applications, mechanisms of action, toxicity and rescue strategies to date

Arsenical medicine has obtained its status in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years. In the 1970s, arsenic trioxide was identified to have high efficacy and potency for the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia, which promoted many studies on the therapeutic effects of arsenic trioxide. Currently, arsenic trioxide is widely used to treat acute promyelocytic leukemia and various solid tumors through various mechanisms of action in clinical practice; however, it is accompanied by a series of adverse reactions, especially cardiac toxicity. This review presents a comprehensive overview of arsenic trioxide from preclinical and clinical efficacy, potential mechanisms of action, toxicities, and rescue strategies for toxicities to provide guidance or assistance for the clinical application of arsenic trioxide.

Albumin conjugation promotes arsenic trioxide transport through alkaline phosphatase-associated transcytosis in MUC4 wildtype pancreatic cancer cells

Pancreatic cancer (PC) has a poor prognosis due to chemotherapy resistance and unfavorable drug transportation. Albumin conjugates are commonly used as drug carriers to overcome these obstacles. However, membrane-bound glycoprotein mucin 4 (MUC4) has emerged as a promising biomarker among the genetic mutations affecting albumin conjugates therapeutic window. Human serum albumin-conjugated arsenic trioxide (HSA-ATO) has shown potential in treating solid tumors but is limited in PC therapy due to unclear targets and mechanisms. This study investigated the transport mechanisms and therapeutic efficacy of HSA-ATO in PC cells with different MUC4 mutation statuses. Results revealed improved penetration of ATO into PC tumors through conjugated with HSA. However, MUC4 mutation significantly affected treatment sensitivity and HSA-ATO uptake both in vitro and in vivo. Mutant MUC4 cells exhibited over ten times higher IC50 for HSA-ATO and approximately half the uptake compared to wildtype cells. Further research demonstrated that ALPL activation by HSA-ATO enhanced transcytosis in wildtype MUC4 PC cells but not in mutant MUC4 cells, leading to impaired uptake and weaker antitumor effects. Reprogramming the transport process holds potential for enhancing albumin conjugate efficacy in PC patients with different MUC4 mutation statuses, paving the way for stratified treatment using these delivery vehicles.

Fluorinated Iron Metal-Organic Frameworks for Activatable 19F Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Synergistic Therapy of Tumors

Due to their appealing physiochemical properties, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been widely employed in biomedical fields. In this study, we utilize ferric ions and fluorine-containing organic ligands as both structural and functional units to develop a stimulus-responsive nanoagent, 19FIMOF-TA nanoparticles, for activatable 19F magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and synergistic therapy of tumors. This nanoagent could respond to excess GSH in a tumor microenvironment, discharging fluorinated organic ligands and reduced ferrous ions. The release of these fluorine-containing small molecules results in boosting of the 19F MRI signals, which could be further enhanced by the photothermal effect of this nanoagent to achieve a responsive cascaded amplification of 19F MRI signals for tumor visualization. Meanwhile, ferroptosis promoted by the ferrous ions leads to significant tumor cell death, which is synergistically aggravated by the photothermal effect. The encouraging results illustrate the promising potential of our nanoagent for effective tumor imaging and combinative cancer therapy.

Manganese Dioxide-Entrapping Dendrimers Co-Deliver Protein and Nucleotide for Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Guided Chemodynamic/Starvation/Immune Therapy of Tumors

Development of a nanoscale drug delivery system that can simultaneously exert efficient tumor therapeutic efficacy while creating the desired antitumor immune responses is still challenging. Herein, we report the use of a manganese dioxide (MnO2)-entrapping dendrimer nanocarrier to codeliver glucose oxidase (GOx) and cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP), an agonist of the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) for improved tumor chemodynamic/starvation/immune therapy. Methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG)- and phenylboronic acid (PBA)-modified generation 5 (G5) poly(amidoamine) dendrimers were first synthesized and then entrapped with MnO2 nanoparticles (NPs) to generate the hybrid MnO2@G5-mPEG-PBA (MGPP) NPs. The created MGPP NPs with an MnO2 core size of 2.8 nm display efficient glutathione depletion ability, and a favorable Mn2+ release profile under a tumor microenvironment mimetic condition to enable Fenton-like reaction and T1-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. We show that the MGPP-mediated GOx delivery facilitates enhanced chemodynamic/starvation therapy of cancer cells in vitro, and further codelivery of cGAMP can effectively trigger immunogenic cell death (ICD) to strongly promote the maturation of dendritic cells. In a bilateral mouse colorectal tumor model, the dendrimer delivery nanosystem elicits a potent antitumor performance with a strong abscopal effect, greatly improving the overall mouse survival rate. Importantly, the dendrimer-mediated codelivery not only allows the coordination of Mn2+ with GOx and cGAMP for respective chemodynamic/starvation-triggered ICD and augmented STING activation to boost systemic antitumor immune responses, but also enables T1-weighted tumor MR imaging, potentially serving as a promising nanoplatform for enhanced antitumor therapy with desired immune responses.

Nanomedicine-mediated regulated cell death in cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has attracted widespread attention in cancer treatment and has achieved considerable success in the clinical treatment of some tumors, but it has a low response rate in most tumors. To achieve sufficient activation of the immune response, significant efforts using nanotechnology have been made to enhance cancer immune response. In recent years, the induction of various regulated cell death (RCD) has emerged as a potential antitumor immuno-strategy, including processes related to apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and cuproptosis. In particular, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) released from the damaged membrane of dying cells act as in situ adjuvants to trigger antigen-specific immune responses by the exposure of an increased antigenicity. Thus, RCD-based immunotherapy offers a new approach for enhancing cancer treatment efficacy. Furthermore, incorporation with multimodal auxiliary therapies in cell death-based immunotherapy can trigger stronger immune responses, resulting in more efficient therapeutic outcome. This review discusses different RCD modalities and summarizes recent nanotechnology-mediated RCDs in cancer immunotherapy.

Potentiating cancer vaccination by adjuvant-loaded cryo-shocked tumor cells

Cancer vaccine holds vast promise in potentiating tumor immunotherapy. Here, we developed a simple cancer vaccine based on the liquid nitrogen-treated cells (LNT cells) that engineered by one-shot shocking of the live tumor cells in liquid nitrogen. In this vaccine, the obtained LNT cells served as both tumor antigens and delivery vehicles to load the adjuvant imiquimod (R837). This design could achieve efficient co-uptake of antigen/adjuvant by antigen presenting cells (APCs) and prolong in vivo retention of tumor antigens and adjuvants. This adjuvant-loaded LNT cells augmented in vivo antitumor responses and enhanced survival in melanoma-bearing mouse model compared with conventional whole-cell vaccine of the mixture of tumor lysis and adjuvant.

Controllable hypoxia-activated chemotherapy as a dual enhancer for synergistic cancer photodynamic immunotherapy

The efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) is severely limited by the hypoxic tumor microenvironment (TME), while the performance of PDT-aroused antitumor immunity is frustrated by the immunosuppressive TME and deficient immunogenic cell death (ICD) induction. To simultaneously tackle these pivotal problems, we herein create an albumin-based nanoplatform co-delivering IR780, NLG919 dimer and a hypoxia-activated prodrug tirapazamine (TPZ) as the dual enhancer for synergistic cancer therapy. Under NIR irradiation, IR780 generates 1O2 for PDT, which simultaneously cleaves the ROS-sensitive linker for triggered TPZ release, and activates its chemotherapy via exacerbated tumor hypoxia. Meanwhile, firstly found by us, TPZ-mediated chemotherapy boosts PDT-induced tumor ICD to evoke stronger antitumor immunity including the development of tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Eventually, enriched intratumoral GSH triggers the activation of NLG919 to mitigate the immunosuppressive TME via specific indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO-1) inhibition, consequently promoting the intratumoral infiltration of CTLs and the killing of both primary and distant tumors, while the resultant memory T cells allows nearly 100% suppression of tumor recurrence and metastasis. This nanoplatform sets up an example for dully enhanced photodynamic immunotherapy of breast cancer via hypoxia-activated chemotherapy, and paves a solid way for the treatment of other hypoxic and immunosuppressive malignant tumors.

Comprehensively Optimizing Fenton Reaction Factors for Antitumor Chemodynamic Therapy by Charge-Reversal Theranostics

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) is a highly tumor-specific treatment, while its efficacy is compromised by the intratumoral Fenton reaction efficiency, which is determined by the following reaction factors, including the availability of Fenton ions (e.g., Fe2+), the amount of H2O2, and the degree of acidity. Synchronous optimization of these factors is a big challenge for efficient CDT. Herein, a strategy of comprehensively optimizing Fenton reaction factors was developed for traceable multistage augmented CDT by charge-reversal theranostics. The customized pH-responsive poly(ethylene)glycol-poly(β-amino esters) (PEG-PAE) micelle (PM) was prepared as the carrier. Glucose oxidase (GOx), Fe2+, and pH-responsive second near-infrared (NIR-II) LET-1052 probe were coloaded by PM to obtain the final theranostics. The activity of metastable Fe2+ remained by the unsaturated coordination with PEG-PAE. Then tumor accumulation and exposure of Fe2+ were achieved by charge-reversal cationization of PEG-PAE, which was further enhanced by a GOx catalysis-triggered pH decrease. Together with the abundant H2O2 generation and pH decrease through GOx catalysis, the limiting factors of the Fenton reaction were comprehensively optimized, achieving the enhanced CDT both in vitro and in vivo. These findings provide a strategy for comprehensively optimizing intratumoral Fenton reaction factors to overcome the intrinsic drawbacks of current CDT.

Innovative Design Strategies Advance Biomedical Applications of Phthalocyanines

Owing to their long absorption wavelengths, high molar absorptivity, and tunable photosensitivity, phthalocyanines have been widely used in photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, phthalocyanines still face the drawbacks of poor targeting, "always-on" photosensitizing properties, and unsatisfactory therapeutic efficiency, which limit their wide applications in biomedical fields. Thus, new design strategies such as modification of targeting molecules, formation of nanoparticles, and activating photosensitizers are developed to improve the above defects. Notably, recent studies have shown that novel phthalocyanines are not only used in fluorescence imaging and PDT, but also in photoacoustic imaging, photothermal imaging, sonodynamic therapy, and photothermal therapy. This review focuses on recent design strategies, applications in biomedicine, and clinical development of phthalocyanines, providing ideas and references for the design and application of phthalocyanine, so as to promote their future transformation into clinical applications.

Recent applications of phase-change materials in tumor therapy and theranostics

Phase-change materials (PCMs) are a type of special material which can store and release a large amount of thermal energy without any significant temperature change. They are emerging in recent years as a promising functional material in tumor therapy and theranostics due to their accurate responses to the temperature variations, biocompatibility and low toxicity. In this review, we will introduce the main types of PCMs and their desirable physiochemical properties for biomedical applications, and highlight the recent progress of PCM's applications in the modulated release of antitumor drugs, with special attentions paid to various ways to initiate temperature-dependent phase change, the concomitant thermal therapy and its combination with or activation of other therapies, particularly unconventional therapies. We will also summarize PCM's recent applications in tumor theranostics, where both drugs and imaging probes are delivered by PCMs for controlled drug release and imaging-guided therapy. Finally, the future perspectives and potential limitations of harnessing PCMs in tumor therapy will be discussed.

Simultaneous Knockdown of Immune Suppressive Markers by Tumor Microenvironment-Responsive Multifaceted Prodrug Nanomedicine

Tumors managing to exempt from immune clearance are attributable to their overexpressed immune suppressive molecules (CD47, PD-L1, etc.). Leadingly, the checkpoint blockade-based chemoimmunotherapy by means of knockdown of these immunosuppressive checkpoints, together with immunogenetic chemotherapeutics, is perceived to be a valid therapeutic strategy for improving anti-tumor outcomes. Herein, chemotherapeutic camptothecin was covalently introduced into an intriguing multifaceted nanomedicine. Note that the elaborated nanomedicine was chemically engineered to enable targeted transportation to the tumors via systemic administration, possessing intelligent responsiveness to sequential extracellular and intracellular microenvironments in the targeted tumors for prompted transcellular endocytosis owing to enzymolysis by the tumor-enriched matrix metalloproteinases and the selective liberation of cytocidal camptothecin in the cell interiors owing to thiolysis by glutathione. In addition, this chemotherapeutic nanomedicine allowed facile encapsulation of the negatively charged RNA interference payloads. Consequently, aiming for treatment of intractable triple-negative breast tumors, we attempted the small interfering RNA (siRNA) payloads aiming for CD47 and PD-L1 into the aforementioned nanomedicine. The subsequent investigations demonstrated drastic knockdown of these vital immune suppressive checkpoints by this siRNA-encapsulating chemotherapeutic nanomedicine, conducing to the reversal of the immune checkpoint suppressive microenvironment of triple-negative 4T1 tumors. Namely, the inhibited proceedings of the innate and adaptive anti-tumor immunities were revived, as supported by observation of the activated infiltration and retention of CD68⁺ macrophages and CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ lymphocytes into the tumors. Eventually, most potent anti-tumor efficacies were accomplished by systemic administration of this chemoimmunotherapeutic nanomedicine, which verified the amplified contribution from anti-tumor immunities by means of knockdown of the immune suppressive molecules to the ultimate anti-tumor efficacies. Note that the upregulation of the immune suppressive molecules was constantly reported in a variety of clinical therapies; hence, our facile chemoimmunotherapeutic platform should be emphasized in clinical translation for seeking improved therapeutic outcomes.

Engineered Living Bacteriophage-Enabled Self-Adjuvanting Hydrogel for Remodeling Tumor Microenvironment and Cancer Therapy

Due to the complexity and heterogeneity in the tumor microenvironment, the efficacy of breast cancer treatment has been significantly impeded. Here, we established a living system using an engineered M13 bacteriophage through chemical cross-linking and biomineralization to remodel the tumor microenvironment. Chemically cross-linking of the engineered bacteriophage gel (M13 Gel) could in situ synthesize photothermal palladium nanoparticles (PdNPs) on the pVIII capsid protein to obtain M13@Pd Gel. In addition, NLG919 was further loaded into a gel to form (M13@Pd/NLG gel) for down-regulating the expression of tryptophan metabolic enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1). Both in vitro and in vivo studies showed that the M13 bacteriophage served not only as a cargo-loaded device but also as a self-immune adjuvant, which induced the immunogenic death of tumor cells effectively and down-regulated IDO1 expression. Such a bioactive gel system constructed by natural living materials could reverse immunosuppression and significantly improve the anti-breast cancer response.

Translational albumin nanocarrier caging photosensitizer for efficient cancer photodynamic therapy

It still remains a great challenge to efficiently treat malignant cancers which severely threaten human health. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) as a localized therapeutic modality has improved the therapeutic efficacy via chemical damage through reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, their efficacy is severely hampered by insufficient targeted delivery of photosensitizers owing to the lack of suitable carrier with facile preparation process and the clinical applicability. Herein, we applied clinically approved human serum albumin as the nanoreactor to encapsulate photosensitizers Chlorin e6 (Ce6) for enhancing their tumor accumulation and subsequently potent PDT effect against bladder cancer models. Albumin-loaded Chlorin e6 nanoparticles (CA-NPs) with rational nanoscale size exhibit increased reactive oxygen species production and excellent resistance to photobleaching. Moreover, CA-NPs could be efficiently internalized by tumor cells and locate in the lysosome, while they rapidly translocate to cytosol after irradiation to induce remarkable cytotoxicity (IC₅₀ ∼5.8 μg/ml). Furthermore, CA-NPs accumulate effectively in tumor tissue to afford total eradication of murine bladder tumor after single injection. More importantly, we also evidence the superior PDT effect in fresh human bladder tumor tissues via abundant reactive oxygen species generation and subsequent cell apoptosis. These findings demonstrate that human serum albumin acts as a universal tool to load small organic photoactivatable molecule with remarkable effectiveness and readiness for clinical translation.

Polymeric nano-system for macrophage reprogramming and intracellular MRSA eradication

Intracellular Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) remains a major factor of refractory and recurrent infections, which cannot be well addressed by antibiotic therapy. Here, we design a cellular infectious microenvironment-activatable polymeric nano-system to mediate targeted intracellular drug delivery for macrophage reprogramming and intracellular MRSA eradication. The polymeric nano-system is composed of a ferrocene-decorated polymeric nanovesicle formulated from poly(ferrocenemethyl methacrylate)-block-poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) (PFMMA-b-PMPC) copolymer with co-encapsulation of clofazimine (CFZ) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ). The cellular-targeting PMPC motifs render specific internalization by macrophages and allow efficient intracellular accumulation. Following the internalization, the ferrocene-derived polymer backbone sequentially undergoes hydrophobic-to-hydrophilic transition, charge reversal and Fe release in response to intracellular hydrogen peroxide over-produced upon infection, eventually triggering endosomal escape and on-site cytosolic drug delivery. The released IFN-γ reverses the immunosuppressive status of infected macrophages by reprogramming anti-inflammatory M2 to pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype. Meanwhile, intracellular Fe²⁺-mediated Fenton reaction together with antibiotic CFZ contributes to increased intracellular hydroxyl radical (•OH) generation. Ultimately, the nano-system achieves robust potency in ablating intracellular MRSA and antibiotic-tolerant persisters by synchronous immune modulation and efficient •OH killing, providing an innovative train of thought for intracellular MRSA control.

Nanocarrier-based delivery of arsenic trioxide for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poses a severe threat to human health and economic development. Despite many attempts at HCC treatment, most are inevitably affected by the genetic instability and variability of tumor cells. Arsenic trioxide (ATO) has shown to be effective in HCC. However, time-consuming challenges, especially the optimal concentration in tumor tissue and bioavailability of ATO, remain to be overcome for its transition from the bench to the bedside. To bypass these issues, nanotechnology-based delivery systems have been developed for prevention, diagnosis, monitoring and treatment in recent years. This article is a systematic overview of the latest contributions and detailed insights into ATO-loaded nanocarriers, with particular attention paid to strategies for improving the efficacy of nanocarriers of ATO.