Pathological, Immunohistochemical and Bacteriological Study of Tissues and Milk of Cows and Fetuses Experimentally Infected with Brucella abortus

A Review on the Methodology and Use of the Pregnant Mouse Model in the Study of Brucella Reproductive Pathogenesis and Its Abortifacient Effect

Brucellosis is one of the most common and widespread bacterial zoonoses and is caused by Gram-negative bacteria belonging to the genus Brucella. These organisms are able to infect and replicate within the placenta, resulting in abortion, one of the main clinical signs of brucellosis. Although the mouse model is widely used to study Brucella virulence and, more recently, to evaluate the protection of new vaccines, there is no clear consensus on the experimental conditions (e.g., mouse strains, doses, routes of inoculation, infection/pregnancy time) and the natural host reproducibility of the pregnant mouse model for reproductive brucellosis. This lack of consensus calls for a review that integrates the major findings regarding the effect of Brucella wild-type and vaccine strains infections on mouse pregnancy. We found sufficient evidence on the utility of the pregnant mouse model to study Brucella-induced placentitis and abortion and propose suitable experimental conditions (dose, time of infection) and pregnancy outcome readouts for B. abortus and B. melitensis studies. Finally, we discuss the utility and limitations of the pregnant mouse as a predictive model for the abortifacient effect of live Brucella vaccines.

Comparative study on alginate/chitosan microcapsules and Montanide ISA 61 as vaccine adjuvants in mice

Selection of adjuvant to be combined with the antigen is an extremely important point for formulating effective vaccines. The aim of this study was to evaluate reactogenicity, levels of IgM, IgG and subclasses (IgG1, IgG2b and IgG3), and protection elicited by vaccine formulations with association of chitosan coated alginate or Montanide ISA 61 with γ-irradiated Brucella ovis. The alginate/chitosan biopolymers as well as the Montanide ISA 61 emulsion elicited intense and long-lasting local response, especially when associated with the antigen. However, Montanide ISA 61 induced less intense reactogenicity when compared to alginate/chitosan. Furthermore, γ-irradiated B. ovis with Montanide ISA 61 induced higher levels of IgG2b an important marker of cellular immune response. In conclusion, Montanide ISA 61 resulted in milder reactogenicity when compared to the alginate/chitosan, while it induced a high IgG2b/IgG1 ratio compatible with a Th1 profile response.

Serological, cultural, and molecular analysis of Brucella from Buffalo milk in various regions of Iran

Brucellosis is a significant infection that causes abortion, decreased milk production, and sterility in livestock, which greatly affects the industry. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Brucella in buffalo milk samples across various regions of Iran, utilizing serological, molecular, and cultural analyses. A total of 1860 buffalo milk samples were collected from industrial, semi-industrial, and traditional buffalo farms in four major buffalo breeding provinces. The milk ring test agglutination test (MRT) was initially conducted on all milk samples, followed by culture and molecular testing for positive and negative samples in MRT. The study revealed positive results for the presence of Brucella DNA in various provinces of Iran. The MRT had a relatively low sensitivity, with results ranging from 0 to 0.7% in different provinces. However, the AMOS PCR method showed a significantly higher presence of Brucella DNA, ranging from 13 to 46% in these provinces. The highest abundance of Brucella bacterial DNA was found in Ardabil province, while the lowest was in West Azerbaijan province. Brucella abortus was the most commonly detected bacteria, followed by Brucella melitensis. Interestingly, the B. abortus vaccine strain RB51 was detected in 26.3% of positive samples of B. abortus. The culture assay of milk samples further confirmed the presence of B. melitensis biovar 1 in one sample from Khuzestan province. Overall, the study emphasizes that the AMOS PCR method is the most sensitive in detecting Brucella-exposed milk, while the sensitivity of milk sample culture and MRT is relatively lower.

Fecal and vaginal microbiota of vaccinated and non-vaccinated pregnant elk challenged with Brucella abortus

Introduction

Brucella abortus is the causative agent of brucellosis in cattle and in humans, resulting in economic losses in the agricultural sector and representing a major threat to public health. Elk populations in the American Northwest are reservoirs for this bacterium and transmit the agent to domestic cattle herds. One potential strategy to mitigate the transmission of brucellosis by elk is vaccination of elk populations against B. abortus; however, elk appear to be immunologically distinct from cattle in their responses to current vaccination strategies. The differences in host response to B. abortus between cattle and elk could be attributed to differences between the cattle and elk innate and adaptive immune responses. Because species-specific interactions between the host microbiome and the immune system are also known to affect immunity, we sought to investigate interactions between the elk microbiome and B. abortus infection and vaccination.

Methods

We analyzed the fecal and vaginal microbial communities of B. abortus-vaccinated and unvaccinated elk which were challenged with B. abortus during the periparturient period.

Results

We observed that the elk fecal and vaginal microbiota are similar to those of other ruminants, and these microbial communities were affected both by time of sampling and by vaccination status. Notably, we observed that taxa representing ruminant reproductive tract pathogens tended to increase in abundance in the elk vaginal microbiome following parturition. Furthermore, many of these taxa differed significantly in abundance depending on vaccination status, indicating that vaccination against B. abortus affects the elk vaginal microbiota with potential implications for animal reproductive health.

Discussion

This study is the first to analyze the vaginal microbiota of any species of the genus Cervus and is also the first to assess the effects of B. abortus vaccination and challenge on the vaginal microbiome.

Accuracy of serological tests for bovine brucellosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The direct methods for diagnosis of bovine brucellosis have several limitations, therefore serological tests are the basis for the diagnosis of the disease. However, a meta-analysis estimating the diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) and diagnostic specificity (DSp) on the main tests used in bovine brucellosis control programs worldwide has not been performed. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to estimate the DSe, DSp and thereby accuracy of serological tests individually used in the diagnosis of bovine brucellosis. The databases CABI, Cochrane Library, PubMed/MEDLINE, SciELO, Scopus and Web of Science were used to select articles. The search resulted in 5308 studies, of which 71 were selected for systematic review using quality assessment tools and 65 studies were included in the meta-analysis. For the meta-analysis, 178 assays and 11 different serological tests were considered. To estimate DSe and DSp of the tests, studies were divided according to animal selection for the studies: (1) studies that carried out a random or consecutive selection of participants (noncasecontrol studies) and (2) all studies, including casecontrol studies. Considering only the non-case-control studies to estimate the DSe, the tests that exhibited the best and worst performance were the iELISA test (indirect enzyme immunoassay - bacterial suspension as antigen - BS) (96.5%, 95% CI: 94.1-97.9%) and 2ME (2- mercaptoethanol test) (85.0%, 95% CI: 79.6-89.1%), respectively; while for DSp, the FPA (fluorescence polarization assay) (99, 7%, 95% CI: 99.5-99.8%) and PCFIA tests (protein concentration fluorescence immunoassay) (78.5%, 95% CI: 70.0-85.1%) showed better and worse performance, respectively. Overall, our results showed an overestimation in the DSe and DSp of the eleven serological tests assessed when casecontrol studies were included in the meta-analysis, which is a concern considering its impacts on the time and costs associated with populational diagnosis of the diseases, since several of these tests are routinely used in the control and eradication programs of bovine brucellosis worldwide. Furthermore, the tests that exhibited the best DSe and DSp, iELISA (BS) and FPA, respectively, are relatively easy to perform and interpret and the test which showed the best overall accuracy was FPA.

Seroprevalence and related risk factors of Brucella spp. in livestock and humans in Garbatula subcounty, Isiolo county, Kenya

BACKGROUND

Brucellosis is a neglected zoonotic disease that affects both animals and humans, causing debilitating illness in humans and socio-economic losses in livestock-keeping households globally. The disease is endemic in many developing countries, including Kenya, but measures to prevent and control the disease are often inadequate among high-risk populations. This study aimed to investigate the human and livestock seroprevalence of brucellosis and associated risk factors of Brucella spp. in a pastoralist region of northern Kenya.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted using a two-stage cluster sampling method to select households, livestock, and humans for sampling. Blood samples were collected from 683 humans and 2157 animals, and Brucella immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on potential risk factors associated with human and animal exposures. Risk factors associated with Brucella spp. exposures in humans and livestock were identified using Multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

The results indicated an overall livestock Brucella spp. seroprevalence of 10.4% (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 9.2-11.7). Camels had the highest exposure rates at 19.6% (95% CI: 12.4-27.3), followed by goats at 13.2% (95% CI: 9.3-17.1), cattle at 13.1% (95% CI: 11.1-15.3) and sheep at 5.4% (95% CI: 4.0-6.9). The herd-level seroprevalence was 51.7% (95% CI: 47.9-55.7). Adult animals (Adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) = 2.3, CI: 1.3-4.0), female animals (aOR = 1.7, CI: 1.1-2.6), and large herd sizes (aOR = 2.3, CI: 1.3-4.0) were significantly associated with anti-brucella antibody detection while sheep had significantly lower odds of Brucella spp. exposure compared to cattle (aOR = 1.3, CI: 0.8-2.1) and camels (aOR = 2.4, CI: 1.2-4.8). Human individual and household seroprevalences were 54.0% (95% CI: 50.2-58.0) and 86.4% (95% CI: 84.0-89.0), respectively. Significant risk factors associated with human seropositivity included being male (aOR = 2.1, CI:1.3-3.2), residing in Sericho ward (aOR = 1.6, CI:1.1-2.5) and having no formal education (aOR = 3.0, CI:1.5-5.9). There was a strong correlation between human seropositivity and herd exposure (aOR = 1.6, CI:1.2-2.3).

CONCLUSIONS

The study provides evidence of high human and livestock exposures to Brucella spp. and identifies important risk factors associated with disease spread. These findings emphasize the need for targeted prevention and control measures to curb the spread of brucellosis and implement a One Health surveillance to ensure early detection of the disease in Isiolo County, Northern Kenya.

Erythronate utilization activates VdtR regulating its metabolism to promote Brucella proliferation, inducing abortion in mice

Brucella is a facultative intracellular pathogen that preferentially colonizes reproductive organs and utilizes erythritol as a preferred carbon source for its survival and proliferation. In this study, we identified a virulence-related DeoR-family transcriptional regulator (VdtR) and an erythronate metabolic pathway responsible for four-carbon acid sugar metabolism of D-erythronate and L-threonate in Brucella. We found that VdtR plays an important role in Brucella intracellular survival and trafficking to the endoplasmic reticulum in RAW 264.7 macrophages and in virulence in a mouse model. More importantly, we found that VdtR negatively regulates the erythronate metabolic pathway to promote extracellular proliferation of Brucella, depending on utilization of D-erythronate, an oxidative product of erythritol in the host. In a pregnant mouse model, the erythronate metabolic pathway was shown to cooperate with erythritol metabolism and play a crucial role in Brucella proliferation in the placenta, inducing placentitis and finally resulting in abortion or stillbirth. Our results demonstrate that, in addition to erythritol, erythronate is a preferred carbon source for Brucella utilization to promote its extracellular proliferation. This discovery updates the information on the preferential colonization of reproductive organs by Brucella and provides a novel insight into the Brucella-associated induction of abortion in pregnant animals. IMPORTANCE Brucella is an intracellular parasitic bacterium causing zoonosis, which is distributed worldwide and mainly characterized by reproductive disorders. Erythritol is found in allantoic fluid, chorion, and placenta of aborted animals, preferentially utilized by Brucella to cause infertility and abortion. However, the erythritol metabolism-defected mutant was unable to function as a vaccine strain due to its residual virulence. Here, we found that erythronate, an oxidative product of erythritol in the host, was also preferentially utilized by Brucella relying on the function of a deoxyribonucleoside regulator-family transcriptional regulator VdtR. Erythronate utilization activates VdtR regulation of the erythronate metabolic pathway to promote Brucella extracellular proliferation, inducing placentitis/abortion in mice. Double mutations on Brucella erythritol and D-erythronate metabolisms significantly reduced bacterial virulence. This study revealed a novel mechanism of Brucella infection-induced abortion, thus providing a new clue for the study of safer Brucella attenuated vaccines.

Antigenic and molecular evidence of Brucella sp.-associated epididymo-orchitis in frugivorous (Artibeus lituratus) and nectarivorous (Glossophaga soricina) bats in Brazil

This study included 47 free-ranging bats from the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Six bats (12.8%) had genital inflammatory lesions, and two of them (one Artibeus lituratus and one Glossophaga soricina, a frugivorous and a nectarivorous, respectively) were diagnosed with Brucella sp. infection through PCR, and antigens in intralesional macrophages were detected using immunohistochemistry.

Cell and Tissue Tropism of Brucella spp

Brucella spp. are facultatively intracellular bacteria that can infect, survive, and multiply in various host cell types in vivo and/or in vitro. The genus Brucella has markedly expanded in recent years with the identification of novel species and hosts, which has revealed additional information about the cell and tissue tropism of these pathogens. Classically, Brucella spp. are considered to have tropism for organs that contain large populations of phagocytes such as lymph nodes, spleen, and liver, as well as for organs of the genital system, including the uterus, epididymis, testis, and placenta. However, experimental infections of several different cultured cell types indicate that Brucella may actually have a broader cell tropism than previously thought. Indeed, recent studies indicate that certain Brucella species in particular hosts may display a pantropic distribution in vivo. This review discusses the available knowledge on cell and tissue tropism of Brucella spp. in natural infections of various host species, as well as in experimental animal models and cultured cells.

Histopathologic and immunohistochemical findings in the placentas and fetuses of domestic swine naturally infected with Brucella suis biovar 2

Porcine brucellosis, which is caused by Brucella suis biovar (bv) 2, is a re-emerging disease that causes reproductive problems in pigs in Europe. The pathogenesis and lesions of B. suis intrauterine infection are poorly characterized; characterization could facilitate the diagnosis and investigation of porcine brucellosis. We collected samples of placentas and fetuses for histologic and microbiologic studies during an outbreak of abortions on a pig-breeding farm in Spain. Brucella was cultured from the vaginal swabs obtained from sows that had aborted, some placentas, and fetal tissues (spleen, liver, lung, gastric content); molecular testing confirmed B. suis bv 2 infection. Histologically, there was necrotizing and hemorrhagic placentitis; suppurative hepatitis; lymphoid depletion and sinusoidal histiocytosis in the spleen, lymph nodes, and thymus; and bronchointerstitial pneumonia. Hemorrhages were observed in the umbilical cord, heart, kidneys, and brain. We detected Brucella by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in all of the placentas and fetal organs studied, specifically in the trophoblasts of the chorionic epithelium, in the cytoplasm of macrophages in the chorionic stroma, and extracellularly in necrotic debris. Furthermore, we assessed the lymphocyte population in the placentas through the use of IHC (anti-CD3, anti-Pax5 antibodies), revealing that the lymphocytic response was composed of T cells but not B cells.

Equine brucellosis: current understanding and challenges

Brucellosis in equines, including horses, donkeys, and mules, is characterized by abscesses in tendons, bursae, and joints. Reproductive disorders, which are common in other animals, are rare in both males and females. Joint breeding of horses, cattle, and pigs was found as the main risk factor for equine brucellosis, with the transmission from equines to cattle or among equines possible, although unlikely. Hence, evaluation of the disease in equines can be considered an indirect indicator of the effectiveness of brucellosis control measures employed for other domestic species. Generally, the disease in equines reflects disease status in the sympatric domestic species, mainly cattle. It is important to note that in equines, the disease has no validated diagnostic test, which limits the interpretation of available data. Finally, it is important to mention that equines also represent significant Brucella spp. infection sources for humans. Considering the zoonotic aspect of brucellosis, the significant losses due to infection, and the representativeness of horses, mules, and donkeys in the society, as well as the continuous efforts to control and eradicate the disease in livestock, in this review, we covered the various aspects of brucellosis in equines and compile the sparse and diffuse information on the subject.

Inflammatory Mechanism of Brucella Infection in Placental Trophoblast Cells

Brucellosis is a severe zoonotic infectious disease caused by the infection of the Brucella, which is widespread and causes considerable economic losses in underdeveloped areas. Brucella is a facultative intracellular bacteria whose main target cells for infection are macrophages, placental trophoblast cells and dendritic cells. The main clinical signs of Brucella infection in livestock are reproductive disorders and abortion. At present, the pathogenesis of placentitis or abortion caused by Brucella in livestock is not fully understood, and further research on the effect of Brucella on placental development is still necessary. This review will mainly introduce the research progress of Brucella infection of placental trophoblast cells as well as the inflammatory response caused by it, explaining the molecular regulation mechanism of Brucella leading to reproductive system disorders and abortion, and also to provide the scientific basis for revealing the pathogenesis and infection mechanism of Brucella.

Infectious Disease Agents Associated with Pulmonary Alterations in Aborted Bovine Fetuses

Simple Summary

A retrospective study was performed to identify pulmonary alterations and/or pneumonia in aborted bovine fetuses (n = 37) and to associate the presence of infectious disease antigens and nucleic agents with patterns and/or alterations of pulmonary disease. Immunohistochemical (IHC) assays were performed to identify antigens of selected agents associated with bovine respiratory disease: bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoAHV1), bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bovine parainfluenza virus 3 (BPIV-3), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), and Mycoplasma bovis. Molecular assays were performed to identify nucleic acids of a panel of reproductive disease agents and bovine gammaherpesvirus 6 (BoGHV6) in the lungs of 12 fetuses. Only interstitial pneumonia (12/37) and suppurative bronchopneumonia (1/37) were observed; pneumonia was not observed in 65% of the tissues evaluated. The most frequent intralesional agents were BRSV (16.2%; 6/37), BVDV (13.5%; 5/37), and BoAHV1 (8.1%; 3/37). Interstitial pneumonia was associated with BRSV (n = 3), BoAHV1 (n = 3), and BVDV (n = 2); suppurative bronchopneumonia contained a Gram-positive bacterium and intralesional antigens of BVDV and BRSV. Nucleic acid detection identified at least one disease agent in 75% of the fetuses examined. Reproductive pathogens detected included Leptospira spp., (n = 3), BVDV, Neospora caninum, and Brucella abortus (n = 2). BoGHV6 DNA was identified in the lungs of two fetuses with interstitial pneumonia. Single (n = 7), dual (n = 3), triple (n = 4), and quadruple (n = 1) mixed infections were identified while infectious agents were not identified in 59.5% (22/37) of the examined lungs. Single fetal infections were associated with BRSV, BVDV (n = 2), Leptospira spp., BoAHV1, and BoGHV6 (n = 1). These results indicate that the fetuses suffered intrauterine infection through transplacental transmission. The identification of BRSV and BoGHV6 in multiple fetuses with associated pulmonary alterations warrants further investigation relative to the role of these agents in fetopathy and possible direct and/or indirect effects on fetal survival.

Abstract

This study investigated the occurrence of selected pathogens of bovine respiratory disease in fetal pulmonary tissue of cattle and associated these with patterns of disease. Fetal pulmonary (n = 37) tissues were evaluated by histopathology; immunohistochemical assays identified intralesional antigens of bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoAHV1), bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bovine parainfluenza virus 3 (BPIV-3), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), and Mycoplasma bovis. Molecular assays were performed to amplify reproductive disease pathogens and bovine gammaherpesvirus 6 (BoGHV6) from 12 lungs. The 2 patterns of pulmonary diseases were interstitial pneumonia (12/37) and suppurative bronchopneumonia (1/37). The frequency of the intralesional antigens identified was BRSV (16.2%; 6/37), BVDV (13.5%; 5/37), BoAHV1 (8.1%; 3/37), M. bovis (5.4%; 2/37), and BPIV-3 (2.7%; 1/37). Interstitial pneumonia was associated with BRSV (n = 3), BoAHV1 (n = 3), and BVDV (n = 2); suppurative bronchopneumonia contained a Gram-positive bacterium and BVDV and BRSV. Reproductive pathogens detected included Leptospira spp., (n = 3), BVDV, Neospora caninum, and Brucella abortus (n = 2). BoGHV6 DNA was identified in the lungs of two fetuses with interstitial pneumonia. These findings suggest that these fetuses were infected transplacentally by several pathogens. The role of some of these pathogens herein identified must be further elucidated in the possible participation of fetal disease.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Contributes to Inflammatory Pathology in the Placenta during Brucella abortus Infection

Research on Brucella pathogenesis has focused primarily on its ability to cause persistent intracellular infection of the mononuclear phagocyte system. At these sites, Brucella abortus evades innate immunity, which results in low-level inflammation and chronic infection of phagocytes. In contrast, the host response in the placenta during infection is characterized by severe inflammation and extensive extracellular replication of B. abortus. Despite the importance of reproductive disease caused by Brucella infection, our knowledge of the mechanisms involved in placental inflammation and abortion is limited. To understand the immune responses specifically driving placental pathology, we modeled placental B. abortus infection in pregnant mice. B. abortus infection caused an increase in the production of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), specifically in the placenta. We found that placental expression levels of Tnfa and circulating TNF-α were dependent on the induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress and the B. abortus type IV secretion system (T4SS) effector protein VceC. Blockade of TNF-α reduced placental inflammation and improved fetal viability in mice. This work sheds light on a tissue-specific response of the placenta to B. abortus infection that may be important for bacterial transmission via abortion in the natural host species.

Characterization of the Microbiota Associated With 12-Week-Old Bovine Fetuses Exposed to Divergent in utero Nutrition

A recent study reported the existence of a diverse microbiota in 5-to-7-month-old calf fetuses, suggesting that colonization of the bovine gut with so-called “pioneer” microbiota may begin during mid-gestation. In the present study, we investigated 1) the presence of microbiota in bovine fetuses at early gestation (12 weeks), and 2) whether the fetal microbiota is influenced by the maternal rate of gain or dietary supplementation with vitamins and minerals (VTM) during early gestation. Amniotic and allantoic fluids, and intestinal and placental (cotyledon) tissue samples obtained from fetuses (n = 33) on day 83 of gestation were processed for the assessment of fetal microbiota using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The sequencing results revealed that a diverse and complex microbial community was present in each of these fetal compartments evaluated. Allantoic and amniotic fluids, and fetal intestinal and placenta microbiota each had distinctly different (0.047 ≥ R² ≥ 0.019, P ≤ 0.031) microbial community structures. Allantoic fluid had a greater (P < 0.05) microbial richness (number of OTUs) (Mean 122) compared to amniotic fluid (84), intestine (63), and placenta (66). Microbial diversity (Shannon index) was similar for the intestinal and placental samples, and both were less diverse compared with fetal fluid microbiota (P < 0.05). Thirty-nine different archaeal and bacterial phyla were detected across all fetal samples, with Proteobacteria (55%), Firmicutes (16.2%), Acidobacteriota (13.6%), and Bacteroidota (5%) predominating. Among the 20 most relatively abundant bacterial genera, Acidovorax, Acinetobacter, Brucella, Corynebacterium, Enterococcus, Exiguobacterium, and Stenotrophomonas differed by fetal sample type (P < 0.05). A total of 55 taxa were shared among the four different microbial communities. qPCR of bacteria in the intestine and placenta samples as well as scanning electron microscopy imaging of fetal fluids provided additional evidence for the presence of a microbiota in these samples. Minor effects of maternal rate of gain and VTM supplementation, and their interactions on microbial richness and composition were detected. Overall, the results of this study indicate that colonization with pioneer microbiota may occur during early gestation in bovine fetuses, and that the maternal nutritional regime during gestation may influence the early fetal microbiota.

Low-dose aspirin protects unexplained recurrent spontaneous abortion via downregulation of HMGB1 inflammation activation

BACKGROUND

High mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) is considered as a kind of sterile inflammatory mediators, which is an overexpression in patients with unexplained recurrent spontaneous abortion (URSA). Specific targeting effect of aspirin on HMGB1 has been revealed. Our previous studies have explored the application of HMGB1 as a therapeutic target of aspirin in URSA disease of mice model and human, but the dynamic process of aspirin downregulating HMGB1 concentration has not been demonstrated.

METHODS

From December 2018 to November 2020, women with URSA (n = 91) and control women (n = 90) with no history of recurrent abortion or adverse pregnancy were included in the Reproductive Medicine Center of the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University. ELISA was applied to detect the concentrations of HMGB1 and IFN-γ in the peripheral blood. Thirty-one URSA patients were monitored for low-dose aspirin treatment (2 and 4 weeks), the changes of HMGB1 and IFN-γ concentrations in peripheral blood of URSA patients before and after using aspirin were compared, and pregnancy outcomes after aspirin treatment were followed up.

RESULTS

The levels of HMGB1 in peripheral blood were significantly higher in URSA patients compared with controls, decreasing trends of HMGB1 and IFN-γ concentrations in plasma of URSA patients were observed after treatment with low-dose aspirin continuously, and the expression of HMGB1 was positively correlated with IFN-γ. There were no birth abnormalities in the babies of the URSA patients treated with aspirin.

CONCLUSIONS

High levels of HMGB1 may be one of the pathogenesis of URSA. Low-dose aspirin may provide protective effect on the HMGB1-triggered URSA.

Epitope-Based Vaccine of a Brucella abortus Putative Small RNA Target Induces Protection and Less Tissue Damage in Mice

Brucella spp. are Gram-negative, facultative intracellular bacteria that cause brucellosis in humans and animals. Currently available live attenuated vaccines against brucellosis still have drawbacks. Therefore, subunit vaccines, produced using epitope-based antigens, have the advantage of being safe, cost-effective and efficacious. Here, we identified B. abortus small RNAs expressed during early infection with bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) and an apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase (Int) was identified as the putative target of the greatest expressed small RNA. Decreased expression of Int was observed during BMDM infection and the protein sequence was evaluated to rationally select a putative immunogenic epitope by immunoinformatic, which was explored as a vaccinal candidate. C57BL/6 mice were immunized and challenged with B. abortus, showing lower recovery in the number of viable bacteria in the liver, spleen, and axillary lymph node and greater production of IgG and fractions when compared to non-vaccinated mice. The vaccinated and infected mice showed the increased expression of TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-6 following expression of the anti-inflammatory genes IL-10 and TGF-β in the liver, justifying the reduction in the number and size of the observed granulomas. BMDMs stimulated with splenocyte supernatants from vaccinated and infected mice increase the CD86+ marker, as well as expressing greater amounts of iNOS and the consequent increase in NO production, suggesting an increase in the phagocytic and microbicidal capacity of these cells to eliminate the bacteria.

Association between risk of brucellosis and genetic variations in MicroRNA-146a

BACKGROUND

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the most common types of DNA changes in the human genome that leading to phenotypic differences in humans. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are usually affected by various bacterial infections, and they are involved in controlling the immune responses. MicroRNA-146a (miR-146a) plays an essential role in the development of infectious and inflammatory diseases. The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between risk of brucellosis and genetic variations in miR-146a.

METHODS

This case-control study was conducted on 108 Brucellosis patients and 108 healthy controls. We genotyped two SNPs (rs2910164 and rs57095329) of the miR-146a using tetra-primer amplification refractory mutation system-polymerase chain reaction (T-ARMS-PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism-polymerase chain reaction (RFLP-PCR) methods.

RESULTS

The rs2910164 SNP was significantly associated with brucellosis in co-dominant [OR = 4.27, 95% CI = (2.35-7.79, P = 0.001] and dominant [OR = 3.52, 95% CI = (1.97-6.30, P = 0.001] models. Co-dominant (P = 0.047) and recessive (P = 0.018) models were significant at position rs57095329 between the two groups of patient and healthy. The A C haplotype (rs2910164 and rs57095329) was associated with brucellosis in the assessed population [OR (95% CI) = 1.98 (1.22-3.20), P = 0.0059].

CONCLUSIONS

Consequently, our study demonstrated significant differences in genotype and haplotype frequencies of miR-146a variants between brucellosis patients and controls. Further studies on the larger sample sizes are required to verify the observed associations.

Effect of co-positivity for brucellosis and tuberculosis on milk yield and fertility of Holstein cows

This study aimed to determine whether cows detected as tuberculosis (bTB) reactors and seropositive to brucellosis (bBR), as well as co-positive to bBR and bTB (bBR-bTB) and with a complete lactation before slaughter, were associated with reduced milk production and fertility. A total of 8068 productive and reproductive records of high-yielding Holstein cows from a single large dairy herd with a high prevalence of bTB and bBR were collected from 2012 to 2015. Lactation derived either from calving (n = 6019) or hormonally induced lactation (n = 2049), and all cows received growth hormone throughout lactation. For cows not induced into lactation, pregnancy rate to first service for healthy cows (C; 26.6%) was higher (P < 0.01) than bBR (15.2%), bTB (15.8%), and bBR-bTB (1.3%) cows. For induced cows, pregnancy rate to first service did not differ significantly among C, bBR, and bTB (14.5-17.3%) cows, but the percentage success of first service was extremely low (1.3%; P < 0.01) in bBR-bTB cows. Services per pregnancy (only pregnant cows) were lowest for C (3.3 ± 2.9; P < 0.01) and highest (6.4 ± 3.4) for bBR-bTB non-induced cows. This variable was lowest for C (2.9 ± 2.5; P < 0.01) and highest for bBR-bTB non-induced cows (6.3 ± 3.1). Pregnancy rate to all services did not differed for C (79.5%), bBR (76.7%), and bTB (75.9%) but was lower (58.9%; P < 0.01) for bBR-bTB non-induced cows. For induced cows this variable was highest for bBR (53.3%) and lowest for bBR-bTB (34.1%; P < 0.01) non-induced cows. 305-d milk production was increased by 4%, and total milk yield by 7% in TB-positive cows compared to that of the negative cows non-induced hormonally into lactation. This study showed the negative impact of the co-positivity for bTB and bBR on the reproductive efficiency of Holstein cows, although positive bTB and bBR tests enhanced milk yield.

Development of BruAb2_0168 based isothermal Polymerase Spiral Reaction assay for specific detection of Brucella abortus in clinical samples

Bovine brucellosis, predominantly caused by Brucella abortus is one of the most neglected zoonotic diseases causing severe economic losses in the dairy industry. The early and precise diagnosis of the disease is required to reduce the transmission of infection in humans as well as animals. In the current study, a rapid and novel isothermal amplification-based polymerase spiral reaction (PSR) was developed for the specific detection of Brucella abortus by targeting the BruAb2_0168 gene. The assay could be conducted at 65 °C in a water bath and results can be obtained after 60 min. The detection limit of the PSR assay was found to be 1.33fg. The sensitivity of the assay was found to be 10⁴ fold higher than conventional PCR and equivalent to real-time PCR (RT-PCR). The assay didn't exhibit cross-reaction with selected pathogenic non-Brucella bacteria and Brucella spp. other than B. abortus. Forty clinical samples were also tested using this novel assay and it was able to detect 25 samples as positive, however, conventional PCR could detect the targeted organism in 22 samples only. To the extent of our knowledge, this is the first report towards the development of a PSR assay for specific detection of B. abortus. The assay can be used as a quick, sensitive and accurate test for the diagnosis of bovine brucellosis in the field setting. Relatively one of the paradigm-shifting aspects of this assay would be it does not require any expensive equipment and the results can be easily visualized by the unaided eye, therefore making PSR a valuable diagnostic tool in field conditions.

Epidemiology of brucellosis in cattle and dairy farmers of rural Ludhiana, Punjab

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease imposing significant impacts on livestock production and public health worldwide. India is the world's leading milk producer and Punjab is the state which produces the most cattle and buffalo milk per capita. The aim of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of bovine brucellosis to provide evidence for control of the disease in Punjab State, India. A cross-sectional study of dairy farms was conducted in humans and livestock in rural Ludhiana district using a multi-stage sampling strategy. The study suggests that brucellosis is endemic at high levels in cattle and buffalo in the study area with 15.1% of large ruminants testing seropositive and approximately a third of dairy farms having at least one animal test seropositive. In total, 9.7% of those in direct contact with livestock tested seropositive for Brucella spp. Persons that assisted with calving and/or abortion within the last year on a farm with seronegative livestock and people which did not assist with calving/abortion had 0.35 (95% CI: 0.17 to 7.1) and 0.21 (0.09 to 0.46) times the odds of testing seropositive compared to persons assisting with calving/abortion in a seropositive farm, respectively. The study demonstrated that persons in direct contact with cattle and buffalo in the study area have high risk of exposure to Brucella spp. Control of the disease in livestock is likely to result in benefits to both animal and public health sectors.

Quantification of Brucella abortus population structure in a natural host

Cattle are natural hosts of the intracellular pathogen Brucella abortus, which inflicts a significant burden on the health and reproduction of these important livestock. The primary routes of infection in field settings have been described, but it is not known how the bovine host shapes the structure of B. abortus populations during infection. We utilized a library of uniquely barcoded B. abortus strains to temporally and spatially quantify population structure during colonization of cattle through a natural route of infection. Introducing 10⁸ bacteria from this barcoded library to the conjunctival mucosa resulted in expected levels of local lymph node colonization at a 1-wk time point. We leveraged variance in strain abundance in the library to demonstrate that only 1 in 10,000 brucellae introduced at the site of infection reached a parotid lymph node. Thus, cattle restrict the overwhelming majority of B. abortus introduced via the ocular conjunctiva at this dose. Individual strains were spatially restricted within the host tissue, and the total B. abortus census was dominated by a small number of distinct strains in each lymph node. These results define a bottleneck that B. abortus must traverse to colonize local lymph nodes from the conjunctival mucosa. The data further support a model in which a small number of spatially isolated granulomas founded by unique strains are present at 1 wk postinfection. These experiments demonstrate the power of barcoded transposon tools to quantify infection bottlenecks and to define pathogen population structure in host tissues.

Development of Brucella melitensis Rev.1 ΔOmp19 mutants with DIVA feature and comparison of their efficacy against three commercial vaccines in a mouse model

Brucella is an intracellular zoonotic pathogen that can affect many hosts. Brucella melitensis Rev.1 is a live attenuated, is one of the most effective vaccine strain against brucellosis. It can be used safely in sheep, goats, and even cattle. Although many studies are available on this topic, there is no effective vaccine strain for sheep and goats that distinguishes the antibody titer produced between the field infections and vaccinations. Outer membrane protein 19 (Omp 19) is both virulent and a protective antigen found on the cell-wall of the Brucella strain. In this study, used the suicide plasmid pJQ200KS, which contained homologous region without Omp19 Open Reading Frame (ORF) that was transferred to B. melitensis Rev.1 and further transformed into spheroplasts along with penicillin, ampicillin, and glycine by electroporation. To obtain a mutant vector from Escherichia coli, we used the heat shock transformation method along with the blue-white colony screening using X-gal media, whereas for the gene transfer in Brucella, we used electroporation. A scanning electron microscope (S.E.M) was used to observe the spheroplast transformation while the mutant vector and deletion mutants were confirmed through PCR and sequence analysis. In the mouse model efficacy trials, three commercial vaccines were found to comply with the OIE standards. Although the deletion mutants 19 and 44/10 had similar efficiency as the commercial vaccines in terms of stimulation power, the ELISA test with Omp19 protein showed the same results as the negative control. The Rev.1 Omp19 deletion mutants obtained in this study contained sufficient residual virulence, and their protective immunity was similar to the commercial vaccines. The study showed that a vaccine prepared using a B. melitensis Rev.1 ΔOmp19 can act as a marker vaccine or differentiate infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) through the ELISA test that detects the Omp19 protein.

The Role of Neutrophils in Brucellosis

Brucellosis is a bacterial disease of domestic animals and humans. The pathogenic ability of Brucella organisms relies on their stealthy strategy and their capacity to replicate within host cells and to induce long-lasting infections. Brucella organisms barely induce neutrophil activation and survive within these leukocytes by resisting microbicidal mechanisms. Very few Brucella-infected neutrophils are found in the target organs, except for the bone marrow, early in infection. Still, Brucella induces a mild reactive oxygen species formation and, through its lipopolysaccharide, promotes the premature death of neutrophils, which release chemokines and express "eat me" signals. This effect drives the phagocytosis of infected neutrophils by mononuclear cells that become thoroughly susceptible to Brucella replication and vehicles for bacterial dispersion. The premature death of the infected neutrophils proceeds without NETosis, necrosis/oncosis, or classical apoptosis morphology. In the absence of neutrophils, the Th1 response exacerbates and promotes bacterial removal, indicating that Brucella-infected neutrophils dampen adaptive immunity. This modulatory effect opens a window for bacterial dispersion in host tissues before adaptive immunity becomes fully activated. However, the hyperactivation of immunity is not without a price, since neutropenic Brucella-infected animals develop cachexia in the early phases of the disease. The delay in the immunological response seems a sine qua non requirement for the development of long-lasting brucellosis. This property may be shared with other pathogenic alphaproteobacteria closely related to Brucella We propose a model in which Brucella-infected polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) function as "Trojan horse" vehicles for bacterial dispersal and as modulators of the Th1 adaptive immunity in infection.

Seroprevalence and risk factors for bovine brucellosis in the Chittagong Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh

Brucellosis is a neglected endemic zoonosis in Bangladesh and has a significant impact on public health and animal welfare of dairy farming as well as dairy farm economics. A cross‐sectional study was conducted to evaluate the seroprevalence of and risk factors for brucellosis in dairy cattle in the Chittagong metropolitan area (CMA) of Chittagong, Bangladesh. We collected serum samples (n = 158) from six randomly selected dairy farms in the CMA between February and November, 2015. The Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and a competitive ELISA (cELISA) were used as the screening and confirmatory tests respectively. Farm level and animal level demographic and risk factor data were collected using a questionnaire. The risk factors were analysed using a multivariable logistic regression with random effects. The overall seroprevalences of antibodies against brucellosis in cattle were 21.5% (34/158) and 7.6% (12/158) based on parallel and serial interpretation of the two tests respectively. Our results revealed that 20.3% (32/158) samples were positive using the RBPT and 8.9% (14/158) were positive using the cELISA. The within‐herd seroprevalence ranged from 10% to 26.3% and 5 to 20.7% using the RBPT and cELISA tests respectively. The odds of seropositivity were significantly higher in lactating cows (OR: 2.59; 95% CI: 1.02–6.55), cows producing less than 2 litres of milk (OR: 29.6; 95% CI: 4.3–353.8), cow producing 2–12 litres of milk (OR: 4.8; 95% CI: 1.1–33.4) and cows with reproductive disorders (OR: 3.2; 95% CI: 1.2–10.1). About 7.6% (12/158) and 1.3% (2/158) of cattle were found to be infected with acute and chronic brucellosis respectively. Based on these results, we suggest that cows that have reproductive disorders and are producing little milk should be prioritized for brucellosis screening in CMA. The screening tests should be used to control brucellosis in cattle in order to protect animal welfare, human health and to minimize the economic losses.

Shedding of Brucella melitensis happens through milk macrophages in the murine model of infection

Although shedding of zoonotic brucellae in milk has been demonstrated in natural hosts, these data are still missing for the standard murine infection model. We therefore analysed shedding kinetics and the niche of B. melitensis in murine milk. Pregnant Balb/cByJ mice were intraperitoneally infected with 10⁵ CFU of the 16 M reference strain, a 16 M mCherry mutant or a human isolate. Milk was collected over the course of lactation, and subjected to culture and immunofluorescence assays. Bacteria were also quantified in spleen and mammary glands of maternal mice and in spleen of the litter. The shedding of the three strains did not differ significantly (p = 0.301), ranging from log₁₀ 1.5 to 4.04 CFU/ml. A total of 73% of the mice excreted B. melitensis into the milk with peak values at mid-lactation; up to 30 bacteria/cell were found in macrophages and neutrophils. While the bacterial counts in the spleen of lactating females confirmed a well-established infection, only 50% of the pups harboured brucellae in their spleen, including the spleen of an uninfected pup fed by an infected foster mother. In conclusion, the murine model of infection may contribute to a better understanding of the zoonotic transmission of brucellosis.

Pathogenic potential of Brucella ovis field isolates with different genotypic profile and protection provided by the vaccine strain B. ovis ΔabcBA against B. ovis field isolates in mice

ABSTRACT: Brucella ovis causes economic and reproductive losses in sheep herds. The goal of this study was to characterize infection with B. ovis field isolates in a murine model, and to evaluate protection induced by the candidate vaccine strain B. ovis ΔabcBA in mice challenged with these field isolates. B. ovis field strains were able to colonize and cause lesions in the liver and spleen of infected mice. After an initial screening, two strains were selected for further characterization (B. ovis 94 AV and B. ovis 266 L). Both strains had in vitro growth kinetics that was similar to that of the reference strain B. ovis ATCC 25840. Vaccination with B. ovis ΔabcBA encapsulated with 1% alginate was protective against the challenge with field strains, with the following protection indexes: 0.751, 1.736, and 2.746, for mice challenged with B. ovis ATCC25840, B. ovis 94 AV, and B. ovis 266 L, respectively. In conclusion, these results demonstrated that B. ovis field strains were capable of infecting and inducing lesions in experimentally infected mice. The attenuated vaccine strain B. ovis ΔabcBA induced protection in mice challenged with different B. ovis field isolates, resulting in higher protection indexes against more pathogenic strains.

Multilocus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA)-typing of Brucella abortus isolates of India reveals limited genetic diversity

Multilocus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) technique has wide applications in studying phylogenies and short-term epidemiology of pathogens. The technique has been extensively used worldwide in molecular epidemiology of Brucella genus. Only one study on this aspect is reported from India despite its economic and public health significance in country. The present study isolated B. abortus from domesticated bovines of Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir state, India, and applied MLVA for 16 loci (MLVA-16). MLVA results were compared with the results of a previous study and with MLVA data of Indian isolates present in http://microbesgenotyping.i2bc.paris-saclay.fr/database. In the study, 136 samples from bovines (cattle and buffaloes) of 47 farms of Jammu region were processed for isolation. Eleven isolates of B. abortus biovar 1 from 6 farms were obtained. In MLVA-16 analysis, although the isolates were classified in a single cluster, 5 genotypes were obtained with a specific genotype being prevalent on each farm. The study identifies that MLVA-16 is capable to differentiate B. abortus strains in an area having high genetic similarity among isolates. On comparing the results with previous study and database, the isolates were found to have high genetic similarity indicating that the genetic diversity of B. abortus in India is very limited. It probably indicates that India is contaminated recently with B. abortus. To test this hypothesis, analysis of whole genome sequencing data of diverse collection of Indian B. abortus strains is required.

Identification of Staphylococcus species isolated from preputium of Aceh cattle based on 16S rRNA gene sequences analysis

Aim:

This research aimed to identify Staphylococcus species isolated from preputial swabs of healthy Aceh cattle, based on 16S ribosomal RNA gene analysis.

Materials and Methods:

The bacterium was isolated from preputial swabs of healthy Aceh cattle. The total DNA from the isolated bacteria was extracted using the Genomic DNA Mini Kit followed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the 16S rRNA gene. The product of PCR amplification was then sequenced and aligned to the known sequences in the GenBank database by multiple alignments and was also analyzed by bioinformatics software to construct a phylogenetic tree.

Results:

The results revealed that the bacterial isolate 3A had genetically closed relation to Staphylococcus pasteuri with <97% maximum identity. Data derived from the phylogenetic tree revealed that the bacterial isolate 3A was also related to Staphylococcus warneri, yet, it shows a different evolutionary distance with the ancestors (S. pasteuri).

Conclusion:

The results of this research suggested that the bacterium 3A, isolated from preputial swabs of healthy Aceh cattle, is a Staphylococcus species.

Modelling the immunopathophysiology of Brucella melitensis and its lipopolysaccharide in mice infected via oral route of exposure

Brucella melitensis is one of the leading zoonotic pathogens with significant economic implications in animal industry worldwide. Lipopolysaccharide, however, remains by far the major virulence with substantial role in diseases pathogenesis. Nonetheless, the effect of B. melitensis and its lipopolysaccharide on immunopathophysiological aspects largely remains an enigma. This study examines the effect of B.melitensis and its lipopolysaccharide on immunopathophysiological parameters following experimental infection using mouse model. Eighty four (n = 84) mice, BALB/c, both sexes with equal gender distribution and 6-8 weeks-old were randomly assigned into three groups. Group 1-2 (n = 72) were orally inoculated with 0.4 mL containing 10⁹ CFU/mL of B. melitensis and its LPS, respectively. Group 3 (n = 12) was challenged orally with phosphate buffered saline and served as a control group. Animals were observed for clinical signs, haematological and histopathological analysis for a period of 24 days post-infection. We hereby report that B.melitensis infected group demonstrated significant clinical signs and histopathological changes than LPS infected group. However, both infected groups showed elevated levels of interleukins (IL-1β and IL-6) and antibody levels (IgM and IgG) with varying degrees of predominance in LPS infected group than B. melitensis infected group. For hormone analysis, low levels of progesterone, estradiol and testosterone were observed in both B. melitensis and LPS groups throughout the study period. Moreover, in B. melitensis infected group, the organism was re-isolated from the organs and tissues of gastrointestinal, respiratory and reproductive systems thereby confirming the infection and transmission dynamics. This report is the first detailed investigation comparing the infection progression and host responses in relation to the immunopathophysiological aspects in a mouse model after oral inoculation with B. melitensis and its lipopolysaccharide.

Brucella abortus Infection of Placental Trophoblasts Triggers Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Cell Death and Fetal Loss via Type IV Secretion System-Dependent Activation of CHOP

Subversion of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function is a feature shared by multiple intracellular bacteria and viruses, and in many cases this disruption of cellular function activates pathways of the unfolded protein response (UPR). In the case of infection with Brucella abortus, the etiologic agent of brucellosis, the unfolded protein response in the infected placenta contributes to placentitis and abortion, leading to pathogen transmission. Here we show that B. abortus infection of pregnant mice led to death of infected placental trophoblasts in a manner that depended on the VirB type IV secretion system (T4SS) and its effector VceC. The trophoblast death program required the ER stress-induced transcription factor CHOP. While NOD1/NOD2 expression in macrophages contributed to ER stress-induced inflammation, these receptors did not play a role in trophoblast death. Both placentitis and abortion were independent of apoptosis-associated Speck-like protein containing a caspase activation and recruitment domain (ASC). These studies show that B. abortus uses its T4SS to induce cell-type-specific responses to ER stress in trophoblasts that trigger placental inflammation and abortion. Our results suggest further that in B. abortus the T4SS and its effectors are under selection as bacterial transmission factors.IMPORTANCEBrucella abortus infects the placenta of pregnant cows, where it replicates to high levels and triggers abortion of the calf. The aborted material is highly infectious and transmits infection to both cows and humans, but very little is known about how B. abortus causes abortion. By studying this infection in pregnant mice, we discovered that B. abortus kills trophoblasts, which are important cells for maintaining pregnancy. This killing required an injected bacterial protein (VceC) that triggered an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response in the trophoblast. By inhibiting ER stress or infecting mice that lack CHOP, a protein induced by ER stress, we could prevent death of trophoblasts, reduce inflammation, and increase the viability of the pups. Our results suggest that B. abortus injects VceC into placental trophoblasts to promote its transmission by abortion.

HMGB1 release from trophoblasts contributes to inflammation during Brucella melitensis infection

Brucella melitensis infection causes acute necrotizing inflammation in pregnant animals; however, the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to placentitis are unknown. Here, we demonstrate that high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) acts as a mediator of placenta inflammation in B. melitensis-infected pregnant mice model. HMGB1 levels were increased in trophoblasts or placental explant during B. melitensis infection. Inhibition of HMGB1 activity with neutralising antibody significantly reduced the secretion of inflammatory cytokines in B. melitensis-infected trophoblasts or placenta, whereas administration of recombinant HMGB1 (rHMGB1) increased the inflammatory response. Mechanistically, this decreased inflammatory response results from inhibition of HMGB1 activity, which cause the suppression of both mitogen-activated protein kinases and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) activation. Moreover, neutralising antibody to HMGB1 prevented B. melitensis infection-induced activation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase in trophoblasts. In contrast, in vitro stimulation of trophoblasts with rHMGB1 caused activation of NADPH oxidase and increased the production of ROS, which contributes to high bacterial burden within trophoblasts or placenta. In vivo, treatment with anti-HMGB1 antibody increases the number of Brucella survival within placenta in B. melitensis-infected pregnant mice but successfully reduced the severity of placentitis and abortion.

The NOD-scid IL2rγnull Mouse Model Is Suitable for the Study of Osteoarticular Brucellosis and Vaccine Safety

Osteoarticular brucellosis is the most common complication in Brucella-infected humans regardless of age, sex, or immune status. The mechanism of bone destruction caused by Brucella species remained partially unknown due to the lack of a suitable animal model. Here, to study this complication, we explored the suitability of the use of the NOD-scid IL2rγ^null mouse to study osteoarticular brucellosis and examined the potential use of this strain to evaluate the safety of live attenuated vaccine candidates. Mice were inoculated intraperitoneally with a single dose of 1 × 10⁴, 1 × 10⁵, or 1 × 10⁶ CFU of B. abortus S19 or the vaccine candidate B. abortus S19ΔvjbR and monitored for the development of side effects, including osteoarticular disease, for 13 weeks. Decreased body temperature, weight loss, splenomegaly, and deformation of the tails were observed in mice inoculated with B. abortus S19 but not in those inoculated with S19ΔvjbR Histologically, all S19-inoculated mice had a severe dose-dependent inflammatory response in multiple organs. The inflammatory response at the tail was characterized by the recruitment of large numbers of neutrophils, macrophages, and osteoclasts with marked bone destruction. These lesions histologically resembled what is typically observed in Brucella-infected patients. In contrast, mice inoculated with B. abortus S19ΔvjbR did not show significant bone changes. Immunofluorescence, in situ hybridization, and confocal imaging demonstrated the presence of Brucella at the sites of inflammation, both intra- and extracellularly, and large numbers of bacteria were observed within mature osteoclasts. These results demonstrate the potential use of the NOD-scid IL2rγ^null mouse model to evaluate vaccine safety and further study osteoarticular brucellosis.

Molecular, serological, pathological, immunohistochemical and microbiological investigation of Brucella spp. in marine mammals of Brazil reveals new cetacean hosts

Brucella-exposure and infection is increasingly recognized in marine mammals worldwide. To better understand the epidemiology and health impacts of Brucella spp. in marine mammals of Brazil, molecular (conventional PCR and/or real-time PCR), serological (Rose Bengal Test [RBT], Competitive [c]ELISA, Serum Agglutination Test [SAT]), pathological, immunohistochemical (IHC) and/or microbiological investigations were conducted in samples of 129 stranded or by-caught marine mammals (orders Cetartiodactyla [n = 124], Carnivora [n = 4] and Sirenia [n = 1]). Previous serological tests performed on available sera of 27 of the 129 animals (26 cetaceans and one manatee), indicated 10 seropositive cetaceans. Conventional PCR and/or real-time PCR performed in cases with available organs (n = 119) and/or blood or swabs (n = 10) revealed 4/129 (3.1%) Brucella-infected cetaceans (one of them with positive serology; the remaining three with no available sera). Pathological, IHC and/or microbiological analyses conducted in PCR/real-time PCR and/or seropositive cases (n = 13) revealed Brucella-type lesions, including meningitis/meningoencephalitis, pneumonia, necrotizing hepatitis, pericarditis and osteoarthritis in some of those animals, and positive IHC was found in all of them (excepting two live-stranded animals without available organs). Brucella spp. culture attempts were unsuccessful. Our results demonstrated exposure, asymptomatic, acute and chronic Brucella sp. infection in several cetacean species in the Brazilian coast, highlighting the role of this pathogen in stranding and/or death, particularly in Clymene dolphin (Stenella clymene) and short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) off Ceará State. Novel hosts susceptible to Brucella included the franciscana (Pontoporia blainvillei), the Guiana dolphin (Sotalia guianensis) and the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris). Additionally, three coinfection cases involving Brucella spp. and cetacean morbillivirus, Edwarsiella tarda and Proteus mirabilis were detected. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first long-term and large-scale survey of Brucella spp. in marine mammals of South America, widening the spectrum of susceptible hosts and geographical distribution range of this agent with zoonotic potential.

Type IV Effector Secretion and Subversion of Host Functions by Bartonella and Brucella Species

Bartonella and Brucella species comprise closely related genera of the order Rhizobiales within the class α-proteobacteria. Both groups of bacteria are mammalian pathogens with a facultative intracellular lifestyle and are capable of causing chronic infections, but members of each genus have evolved broadly different infection and transmission strategies. While Brucella spp. transmit in general via the reproductive tract in their natural hosts, the Bartonella spp. have evolved to transmit via arthropod vectors. However, a shared feature of both groups of pathogens is their reliance on type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) to interact with cells in their mammalian hosts. The genomes of Bartonella spp. encode three types of T4SS, Trw, Vbh/TraG, and VirB/VirD4, whereas those of Brucella spp. uniformly contain a single T4SS of the VirB type. The VirB systems of Bartonella and Brucella are associated with distinct groups of effector proteins that collectively mediate interactions with host cells. This chapter discusses recent findings on the role of T4SS in the biology of Bartonella spp. and Brucella spp. with emphasis on effector repertoires, on recent advances in our understanding of their evolution, how individual effectors function at the molecular level, and on the consequences of these interactions for cellular and immune responses in the host.

Attenuated Salmonella secreting Brucella protective antigens confer dual-faceted protection against brucellosis and salmonellosis in a mouse model

We demonstrated the use of attenuated Salmonella strains secreting Brucella antigens SodC, Omp19, BLS, and PrpA as live vaccine candidates against Brucella abortus infection and presented their cross-protection against Salmonella infections using a BALB/c mice model. Here, a single immunization with each individual strain was capable of establishing significantly high (p < 0.05) Brucella-specific systemic immunoglobulin (Ig)G and secretory IgA (sIgA) responses compared to control mice. Upon stimulation of the splenocytes harvested from immunized mice with the respective antigens SodC, Omp19, BLS, and PrpA, significant increases in splenocyte proliferative responses against all four antigens versus PBS and vector controls were observed (p < 0.05). Additionally, interferon-γ and interleukin-4 secretion clearly demonstrated an uplift of these cytokines in all four strains upon immunization compared to the control groups. However, a significantly high response was noted in the mice groups immunized with Salmonella secreting SodC and Omp19 only. Upon virulent Brucella abortus 544 challenge, all four antigens presented a significantly high protection index (PI) in the spleen, as follows: 0.85 for SodC; 0.96 for Omp19; 0.6 for BLS; and 0.66 for PrpA. In contrast, in the liver, the same antigens resulted in PI values of 1.37, 1.14, 1.12, and 1.81, respectively. Immunological profiling of immunized mice against Salmonella-specific immune responses also showed significant elicitation of both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses as measured by IgG, sIgA, splenocyte proliferation, and cytokine induction. In addition, full protection against virulent Salmonella challenge was shown with no mortality in immunized mice, whereas 100% (8/8) mortality was observed in control mice over a two-week post-Salmonella challenge. In conclusion, we show that the live attenuated Salmonella delivering Brucella protective antigens may efficiently confer dual protection against both brucellosis and salmonellosis in immunized mice.

Brucella neotomae Recapitulates Attributes of Zoonotic Human Disease in a Murine Infection Model

Members of the genus Brucella are Gram-negative pathogens that cause chronic systemic infection in farm animals and zoonotic infection in humans. Study of the genus Brucella has been hindered by the need for biosafety level 3 select agent containment. Brucella neotomae, originally isolated from the desert pack rat, presented an opportunity to develop an alternative, non-select agent experimental model. Our prior in vitro work indicated that the cell biology and type IV secretion system (T4SS) dependence of B. neotomae intracellular replication were similar to observations for human-pathogenic select agent Brucella species. Therefore, here, we investigated the pathobiology of B. neotomae infection in the BALB/c mouse. During a sustained infectious course, B. neotomae replicated and persisted in reticuloendothelial organs. Bioluminescent imaging and histopathological and PCR-based analysis demonstrated that the T4SS contributed to efficient early infection of the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes; granuloma formation and hepatosplenomegaly; and early induction of Th1-associated cytokine gene expression. The infectious course and pathologies in the murine model showed similarity to prior observations of primate and native host infection with zoonotic Brucella species. Therefore, the B. neotomae BALB/c infection model offers a promising system to accelerate and complement experimental work in the genus Brucella.

Brucella-associated cervical bursitis in cattle

Bovine brucellosis poses a risk to human health and causes serious economic losses for the animal industry. This report describes the use of different diagnostic methods for the diagnosis of brucellosis in cattle affected by cervical bursitis from a slaughterhouse located in São Luís, Maranhão, Brazil. Serum samples from a total of 47 cattle with bursitis were collected and submitted to the Rose Bengal Test (RBT), and RBT-positive samples were further confirmed by the 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) assay. RBT indicated 85.1% (40/47) of positive samples, from which 78.7% (37/47) were confirmed by 2-ME. Immunohistochemistry detected Brucella spp. in 34.0% (16/47) of tissues with bursitis. PCR and/or bacterial isolation demonstrated that 63.8% (30/47) of samples were positive and morphologically compatible with Brucella sp. All colonies suggestive of Brucella sp. were confirmed by PCR. Isolates were further characterized by PCR Multiplex AMOS-ENHANCED, which indicated that the isolates corresponded to biovar 1, 2, 4 (43.33%). This study evidences an association between cervical bursitis and Brucella spp. infection in cattle, and that different biovars of Brucella circulate in bovine herds in Maranhão.

Diagnosis of Q Fever and Brucellosis in Aborted Ovine Fetuses by Microbiological, Pathological and Immunohistochemical Methods

Brucellosis and Q fever, two zoonoses, are important causes of abortion in ruminants, as well as economically significant diseases caused by a gram-negative bacterium. Determination of these diseases is therefore of great importance. In this study, the organs of 35 naturally infected and aborted ovine fetuses were examined for the presence of changes resulting from infections by Brucella melitensis and Coxiella burnetii, according to macroscopic, bacteriological, histopathological and immunohistochemical methods. B. melitensis was observed in 21 cases, and C. burnetii was observed in 8 cases of the aborted ovine fetuses, and these were determined with immunohistochemical methods. Brucellosis was observed in 18 of the aborted ovine fetuses, and this was determined by microbiological methods. Negative (-) results were found for all of the other fetuses. The Brucella antigen was determined to be localized as intracytoplasmic in mainly alveolar macrophages, bronchi, bronchioles, glandular epithelial cells around bronchial glands, neutrophils, hepatocytes and Kupffer cells. The Coxiella antigen was found to be localized in the alveolar macrophages in the lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveolus, and in the cytoplasms of bronchial gland epithelial cells, and in the cytoplasms of hepatocytes and Kupffer cells in the liver. Immunohistochemical and microbiological diagnoses of brucellosis and coxiellosis were compared; it was concluded that immunohistochemical methods were more safely applied than microbiological methods.

Evaluation of the General Organization of Veterinary Services control program of animal brucellosis in Egypt: An outbreak investigation of brucellosis in buffalo

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Brucellosis is a major constraint to livestock production in Egypt as well as many developing countries worldwide. Bovine brucellosis is an economically important disease with reproductive failure as a principal manifestation resulting in abortion, premature birth and decreased milk production in females, and orchitis and epididymitis in males. In spite of the efforts of Egyptian veterinary services to overcome brucellosis, the disease is still prevalent in both animals and humans and represents one of the most important public health hazards in Egypt. The aim of the present work was to investigate the efficacy of the control program implemented by the General Organization of Veterinary Services in Brucella infected buffalo farm on serological, molecular, cultural, and histopathological basis. Brucella melitensis biovar 3 was recovered from 6 buffalo-cows.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Blood samples were collected from a total of 750 non-vaccinated lactating buffalo-cows. These animals were proved positive for Brucella by the Egyptian brucellosis national program. Sera were tested using buffered acidified plate antigen test and rose Bengal test as screening tests and complement fixation test as a confirmatory test. Positive animals were separated for slaughtering under the supervision of the Egyptian veterinary authorities. Remaining animals were tested every 3 weeks with slaughtering of positive cases and this continued until the remaining animals revealed three successive negative serological tests. Different lymph nodes (prescapular, prefemoral, mediastinal, retropharyngeal, and supramammary) were collected from 11 Brucella seropositive buffalo-cows slaughtered after being confirmed serologically as Brucella infected cases. Samples were collected and processed for bacterial isolation and nucleic acid detection using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Parts of these specimens were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 48 h then processed by paraffin embedding technique.

RESULTS

"Test and slaughter" policy was applied on Brucella infected dairy buffalo farm. The program continued for 6 months with slaughtering of positive cases until the herd was proved Brucella free. B. melitensis biovar 3 could be recovered from six buffalo-cows. Universal PCR confirmed Brucella on genus level and Bruce-ladder multiplex, PCR confirmed the presence of B. melitensis on the species level. Histopathological examination of Brucella-infected lymph nodes revealed massive rarified and depleted lymphoid areas of both sub-capsular and deep cortical lymphoid follicles, macrophage cells granulomatous reaction, as well as fat, infiltrates, and chronic vasculitis. The chronic nature of Brucella lesions has been confirmed in this study as indicated by the chronic vasculitis and collagen deposition.

CONCLUSION

Freedom status from brucellosis in this study required 6 months which are considered long time allowing the spread of infection to other localities especially under unhygienic conditions, husbandry system favoring mixed populations of different ages, sex, aborted and pregnant, and lack of controlled movement of animals. Therefore, effective control of animal brucellosis requires surveillance to identify infected animal herds, elimination of the reservoirs, and vaccination of young heifers. B. melitensis biovar 3 is the cause of the Brucella outbreak in buffalo which still remains the prevalent type of Brucella in Egypt. The disease runs a chronic course allowing further spread of infection.

Tissue distribution and cell tropism of Brucella canis in naturally infected canine foetuses and neonates

Brucella canis infection is an underdiagnosed zoonotic disease. Knowledge about perinatal brucellosis in dogs is extremely limited, although foetuses and neonates are under risk of infection due to vertical transmission. In this study, immunohistochemistry was used to determine tissue distribution and cell tropism of B. canis in canine foetuses and neonates. Diagnosis of B. canis in tissues of naturally infected pups was based on PCR and sequencing of amplicons, bacterial isolation, and immunohistochemistry, whose specificity was confirmed by laser capture microdissection. PCR positivity among 200 puppies was 21%, and nine isolates of B. canis were obtained. Tissues from 13 PCR-positive puppies (4 stillborn and 9 neonates) presented widespread immunolabeling. Stomach, intestines, kidney, nervous system, and umbilicus were positive in all animals tested. Other frequently infected organs included the liver (92%), lungs (85%), lymph nodes (69%), and spleen (62%). Immunolabeled coccobacilli occurred mostly in macrophages, but they were also observed in erythrocytes, epithelial cells of gastrointestinal mucosa, renal tubules, epidermis, adipocytes, choroid plexus, ependyma, neuroblasts, blood vessels endothelium, muscle cells, and in the intestinal lumen. These results largely expand our knowledge about perinatal brucellosis in the dog, clearly demonstrating a pantropic distribution of B. canis in naturally infected foetuses and neonates.

Lectin binding patterns and immunohistochemical antigen detection in placenta and lungs of Brucella abortus-bovine infected fetuses

Lectin binding relies on the affinity of these substances for specific terminal sugars. The method facilitates the identification of complex structures to which the terminal sugar attaches and may reveal physiological or pathological changes in cells, intracellular interactions or extracellular transport pathways. This study was carried out to investigate the effect of infection with Brucella abortus on the pattern of lectin binding in bovine fetal lungs (n=6) and bovine placentas (n=5). Fetal lungs and placenta from heifers experimentally inoculated with B. abortus, strain 2308 were examined by histological, lectin-histochemical, immunohistochemical and cultural techniques. B. abortus antigens were immunohistochemically detected in fetal lungs and placenta. An increase in the labeling with UEA-1, DBA, PNA, RCA-1 and SBA was found in the lungs and an increase in the labeling with UEA-1, ConA, PNA, DBA was found in the placentas. The present lectin histochemical study revealed a distinctive pattern of oligosaccharide distribution in the lungs and placenta of B. abortus-infected fetuses.

Border Disease Virus Infection of Bovine Placentas

Subsequent to a previous study of border disease virus (BDV) horizontal transmission from a persistently BDV-infected calf to 6 seronegative pregnant heifers, the heifers were slaughtered 60 days after exposure to the infected calf, and their fetuses and placentas were examined. Immunohistochemical examination of fetal organs and placenta showed positive labeling of moderate intensity for pestivirus antigen in 3 of 6 heifers. BDV infection in these 3 animals was confirmed by the detection of BDV RNA in different organs using reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction. In the placenta, the positive cells were visualized mostly on the fetal side. In those 3 heifers that harbored an infected fetus, the placental tissue in the placentome region showed a moderate to severe mononuclear and fibrosing placentitis and, in severe cases, necrotic areas. The inflammatory population was composed predominantly of T and B cells, a substantial number of macrophages, and, to a lesser extent, plasma cells. This is a novel report of placentitis in persistently BDV-infected fetuses from pregnant heifers that became acutely infected by cohousing with a calf persistently infected with BDV, which extends previous reports on bovine viral diarrhea virus-infected and BDV-infected cattle and sheep, respectively.

Abortions in an organized dairy farm from North India reveal the possibility of breed susceptibility to Bovine Brucellosis

The present study was undertaken over a three year period (2012-2014) in an organized dairy farm located in North India to ascertain Brucella abortus as the putative cause of abortion. The dairy farm maintained cattle of Frieswal, Crossbred and Sahiwal breeds and followed calf-hood vaccination with Brucella abortus Strain 19 live vaccine in all the heifers. Even with the recommended vaccination schedule and good managemental practices in place, 88 cases of abortions clinically suspected of bovine brucellosis (40 from Frieswal breed, 17 from Crossbred cattle and 31 from Sahiwal breed) were reported from this farm. From these abortion cases, bacteriological isolation was possible in only four dams while 16 dams were found to be serologically positive in Serum Tube Agglutination Test (STAT). Molecular screening by PCR assay (specific for the bcsp31 gene of B. abortus) revealed that 24 dams were positive, out of which 20 were from Frieswal breed and rest four were from Crossbred herd. Prominently, all Sahiwal dams were found to be negative in bacteriological isolation and also in PCR assay. These results thus indicate towards the possibility of breed predisposition to abortions due to B. abortus infection. Statistical analysis by Fischer exact test (p < 0.01) too substantiated that breed susceptibility exists among these PCR positive cases. This study is novel as breed variation in abortions due to B. abortus in cattle is being documented for the first time. Seven representative PCR amplicons generated during the study were also sequenced and submitted to NCBI GenBank. Moreover, this study also accentuates the importance of PCR screening especially in vaccinated herd and raises concerns on over-dependence of serological assays when intensive vaccination is practised without any concomitant DIVA strategy. Thus, besides assisting in planning pragmatic control strategies against bovine brucellosis these findings are also imperative from 'One Health' context, also.

Bioluminescence Imaging of Colonization and Clearance Dynamics of Brucella Suis Vaccine Strain S2 in Mice and Guinea Pigs

PURPOSE

The goal of this study was to develop a plasmid-based lux bio-reporter for use to obtain in vivo images of Brucella suis vaccine strain 2 (B.suis S2) infection with high resolution and good definition.

PROCEDURES

The pBBR-lux (pBBR1MCS-2-lxCDABE) plasmid that carries the luxCDABE operon was introduced into B. suis S2 by electroporation yielding B. suis S2-lux. The spatial and temporal transit of B. suis S2 in mice and guinea pigs was monitored by bioluminescence imaging.

RESULTS

The plasmid pBBR-lux is stable in vivo and does not appear to impact the virulence or growth of bacteria. This sensitive luciferase reporter could represent B. suis S2 survival in real time. B. suis S2 mainly colonized the lungs, liver, spleen, and uterus in mice and guinea pigs as demonstrated by bioluminescence imaging.

CONCLUSION

The plasmid-based lux bioreporter strategy can be used to obtain high resolution in vivo images of B. suis S2 infection in mice and guinea pigs.

Chronic Bacterial Pathogens: Mechanisms of Persistence

Many bacterial pathogens can cause acute infections that are cleared with the onset of adaptive immunity, but a subset of these pathogens can establish persistent, and sometimes lifelong, infections. While bacteria that cause chronic infections are phylogenetically diverse, they share common features in their interactions with the host that enable a protracted period of colonization. This article will compare the persistence strategies of two chronic pathogens from the Proteobacteria, Brucella abortus and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi, to consider how these two pathogens, which are very different at the genomic level, can utilize common strategies to evade immune clearance to cause chronic intracellular infections of the mononuclear phagocyte system.

Brucellosis in Endangered Hector's Dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori)

Brucella spp infections of marine mammals are often asymptomatic but have been associated with reproductive losses and deaths. Zoonotic infections originating from marine isolates have also been described. Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori) are an endangered species with a declining population, and the role of infectious disease in population dynamics is not fully understood. In this study, 27 Hector's dolphins found dead around the New Zealand coastline between November 2006 and October 2010 were evaluated for lesions previously associated with cetacean brucellosis. Tissues were examined using histological, immunohistochemical, and molecular (polymerase chain reaction [PCR]) techniques. Seven of 27 dolphins (26%) had at least 1 tissue that was positive on PCR for Brucella spp. Lesions consistent with brucellosis were present in 10 of 27 (37%) dolphins, but in 8 of these dolphins Brucella infection could not be demonstrated in lesional tissues. Two dolphins (7%) were diagnosed with active brucellosis: 1 female with placentitis and metritis, and 1 stillborn male fetus. Brucella identified in these 2 dolphins had genetic similarity (99%) to Brucella pinnipedialis. The omp2a gene amplicon from the uterus of the female had 100% homology with ST27 genotype isolates from a human in New Zealand and a bottlenose dolphin of Pacific origin. The remaining 5 PCR-positive dolphins were assessed as having asymptomatic or latent infection. While most Brucella infections identified in this study appeared to be subclinical, the finding of 2 dolphins with reproductive disease due to Brucella infection suggests that this disease has the potential to affect reproductive success in this species.

Brucellosis in water buffaloes

ABSTRACT: The domestication of water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) originated in India and China and spread throughout the world and represents an important source of food of high biological value. Given the importance and relevance of brucellosis for buffalo production, this article reviews the history, etiopathogenesis, epidemiology, clinical signs, anatomopathological findings, diagnosis and control of the disease, focusing on data from studies on water buffaloes performed in different countries and the Brazilian Amazon biome.