Advances in liposomal drug delivery to cancer: An overview

Oral administration of liposome-encapsulated thymol could alleviate the inflammatory parameters in serum and hippocampus in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Neuroinflammation is closely related to Alzheimer's Disease (AD) pathology, hence supplements with anti-inflammatory property could help attenuate the progression of AD. This study was conducted to evaluate the potential anti-inflammatory effects of liposome encapsulated thymol (LET), administered orally, in prevention of Alzheimer in a rat model by anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

METHODS

The rats were grouped into six groups (n = 10 animals per group), including Control healthy (Con), Alzheimer's disease (AD) model, AD model treated with free thymol in 40 and 80 mg/kg body weight (TH40 and TH80), AD model treated with LET in 40 and 80 mg/kg of body weight (LET40 and LET80). The behavioral response of step through latency (Passive Avoidance Test), concentrations of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were assessed in serum and hippocampus.

RESULTS

The results showed that significant increase in concentrations of IL-1β (P = 0.001), IL-6 (P = 0.001), TNF-α (P = 0.001) and COX-2 (P = 0.001) in AD group compared with healthy control rats. AD induction significantly reduced step through latency and revealed deficits in passive avoidance performance. The results also showed the treatment with free thymol especially in higher concentrations and also LTE could decrease serum concentrations of IL-1β (P < 0.05), IL-6 (P < 0.05), TNF-α (P < 0.05), and COX-2 (P < 0.05) and increase BDNF (P < 0.05) compared with control Alzheimer rats in hippocampus and serum. There were also significant correlations between serum and hippocampus concentrations of IL-1β (r2 = 0.369, P = 0.001), IL-6 (r2 = 0.386, P = 0.001), TNF-α (r2 = 0.412, P = 0.001), and COX-2 (r2 = 0.357, P = 0.001). It means a closed and positive relation between serum and hippocampus concentrations of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2.

CONCLUSIONS

LET demonstrates its ability to attenuate neuroinflammatory reaction in AD model through suppression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α and COX-2 indicators. Hence, it can ameliorate AD pathogenesis by declining inflammatory reaction.

Recent advances in liposome-based targeted cancer therapy

Nano-drug delivery systems have opened new pathways for tumor treatment by overcoming some of the limitations of conventional drugs, such as physiological degradation, short half-life, and rapid release. Liposomes are promising nanocarrier systems due to their biocompatibility, low toxicity, and high inclusivity, as well as their enhanced drug bioavailability. Various strategies for active targeting of liposomal formulations have been investigated to achieve the highest drug efficacy. This review aims to summarize current developments in novel liposomal formulations, particularly ligand-targeted liposomes (such as folate, transferrin, hyaluronic acid, antibodies, aptamer, and peptide, etc.) used for the therapy of various cancers and provide an insight on the challenges and future of liposomes for scientists and pharmaceutical companies.

Revolution in Cancer Treatment: How Are Intelligently Designed Nanostructures Changing the Game?

Nanoparticles (NPs) are extremely important tools to overcome the limitations imposed by therapeutic agents and effectively overcome biological barriers. Smart designed/tuned nanostructures can be extremely effective for cancer treatment. The selection and design of nanostructures and the adjustment of size and surface properties are extremely important, especially for some precision treatments and drug delivery (DD). By designing specific methods, an important era can be opened in the biomedical field for personalized and precise treatment. Here, we focus on advances in the selection and design of nanostructures, as well as on how the structure and shape, size, charge, and surface properties of nanostructures in biological fluids (BFs) can be affected. We discussed the applications of specialized nanostructures in the therapy of head and neck cancer (HNC), which is a difficult and aggressive type of cancer to treat, to give an impetus for novel treatment approaches in this field. We also comprehensively touched on the shortcomings, current trends, and future perspectives when using nanostructures in the treatment of cancer.

Enhancing Curcumin's therapeutic potential in cancer treatment through ultrasound mediated liposomal delivery

Improving the efficacy of chemotherapy remains a key challenge in cancer treatment, considering the low bioavailability, high cytotoxicity, and undesirable side effects of some clinical drugs. Targeted delivery and sustained release of therapeutic drugs to cancer cells can reduce the whole-body cytotoxicity of the agent and deliver a safe localized treatment to the patient. There is growing interest in herbal drugs, such as curcumin, which is highly noted as a promising anti-tumor drug, considering its wide range of bioactivities and therapeutic properties against various tumors. Conversely, the clinical efficacy of curcumin is limited because of poor oral bioavailability, low water solubility, instability in gastrointestinal fluids, and unsuitable pH stability. Drug-delivery colloid vehicles like liposomes and nanoparticles combined with microbubbles and ultrasound-mediated sustained release are currently being explored as effective delivery modes in such cases. This study aimed to synthesize and study the properties of curcumin liposomes (CLs) and optimize the high-frequency ultrasound release and uptake by a human breast cancer cell line (HCC 1954) through in vitro studies of culture viability and cytotoxicity. CLs were effectively prepared with particles sized at 81 ± 2 nm, demonstrating stability and controlled release of curcumin under ultrasound exposure. In vitro studies using HCC1954 cells, the combination of CLs, ultrasound, and Definity microbubbles significantly improved curcumin's anti-tumor effects, particularly under specific conditions: 15 s of continuous ultrasound at 0.12 W/cm2 power density with 0.6 × 107 microbubbles/mL. Furthermore, the study delved into curcumin liposomes' cytotoxic effects using an Annexin V/PI-based apoptosis assay. The treatment with CLs, particularly in conjunction with ultrasound and microbubbles, amplified cell apoptosis, mainly in the late apoptosis stage, which was attributed to heightened cellular uptake within cancer cells.

Nanoscale strides: exploring innovative therapies for breast cancer treatment

Breast cancer (BC) is a predominant malignancy in women that constitutes approximately 30% of all cancer cases and has a mortality rate of 14% in recent years. The prevailing therapies include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, each with its own limitations and challenges. Despite oral or intravenous administration, there are numerous barriers to accessing anti-BC agents before they reach the tumor site, including physical, physiological, and biophysical barriers. The complexity of BC pathogenesis, attributed to a combination of endogenous, chronic, intrinsic, extrinsic and genetic factors, further complicates its management. Due to the limitations of existing cancer treatment approaches, there is a need to explore novel, efficacious solutions. Nanodrug delivery has emerged as a promising avenue in cancer chemotherapy, aiming to enhance drug bioavailability while mitigating adverse effects. In contrast to conventional chemotherapy, cancer nanotechnology leverages improved permeability to achieve comprehensive disruption of cancer cells. This approach also presented superior pharmacokinetic profiles. The application of nanotechnology in cancer therapeutics includes nanotechnological tools, but a comprehensive review cannot cover all facets. Thus, this review concentrates specifically on BC treatment. The focus lies in the successful implementation of systematic nanotherapeutic strategies, demonstrating their superiority over conventional methods in delivering anti-BC agents. Nanotechnology-driven drug delivery holds immense potential in treating BC. By surmounting multiple barriers and capitalizing on improved permeability, nanodrug delivery has demonstrated enhanced efficacy and reduced adverse effects compared to conventional therapies. This review highlights the significance of systematic nanotherapy approaches, emphasizing the evolving landscape of BC management.

Tumor Supplying Artery Injection of Liposome@Sunitinib Could Effectively Inhibit the Progression of Kidney Tumor

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is one of the most common malignancies in the urinary system and is not sensitive to chemotherapy or radiotherapy in its advanced stages. Sunitinib is recommended as a first-line target drug for unresectable and metastatic RCC by targeting tyrosine kinase-related signaling pathways, but its therapeutic effect is unsatisfactory. Recently, nanomaterials have shown great prospects in the medical field because of their unique physicochemical properties. Particularly, liposomes are considered as ideal drug delivery systems due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and ideal drug-loading efficiency. Considering that tumor supplying artery injection can directly distribute drugs into tumor tissues, in this study, liposomes were employed to encapsulate water-insoluble sunitinib to construct the liposome@sunitinib (Lipo@Suni) complex, so that the drug could directly target and distribute into tumor tissue, and effectively trapped in tumor tissues after tumor supplying artery injection for the advantage of the physicochemical properties of liposomes, thereby achieving a better therapeutic effect on advanced RCC. Here, we found that compared with the peripheral intravenous administration, trans-renal arterial administration increases the content and prolongs the retention time of liposomes in tumor tissues; accordingly, more sunitinib is dispersed and retained in tumor tissues. Ultimately, trans-renal arterial administration of Lipo@Suni exerts a better suppressive effect on RCC progression than peripheral intravenous administration, even better than the conventional oral administration of sunitinib.

pH-responsive niosome-based nanocarriers of antineoplastic agents

Differences in pH between the tumour interstitium and healthy tissues can be used to induce conformational changes in the nanocarrier structure, thereby triggering drug release at the desired site. In the present study, novel pH-responsive nanocarriers were developed by modifying conventional niosomes with hexadecyl-poly(acrylic acid)n copolymers (HD-PAAn). Niosomal vesicles were prepared by the thin film hydration method using Span 60, Span 60/Tween 60 and cholesterol as main constituents, and HD-PAA modifiers of different concentrations (0.5, 1, 2.5, 5 mol%). Next, two model substances, a water-soluble fluorescent dye (calcein) and a hydrophobic agent with pronounced antineoplastic activity (curcumin), were loaded in the aqueous core and hydrophobic membrane of the elaborated niosomes, respectively. Physicochemical properties of blank and loaded nanocarriers such as hydrodynamic diameter (Dh), size distribution, zeta potential, morphology and pH-responsiveness were investigated in detail. The cytotoxicity of niosomal curcumin was evaluated against human malignant cell lines of different origins (MJ, T-24, HUT-78), and the mechanistic aspects of proapoptotic effects were elucidated. The formulation composed of Span 60/Tween 60/cholesterol/2.5% HD-PAA17 exhibited optimal physicochemical characteristics (Dh 302 nm; ζ potential -22.1 mV; high curcumin entrapment 83%), pH-dependent drug release and improved cytotoxic and apoptogenic activity compared to free curcumin.

Review of recent preclinical and clinical research on ligand-targeted liposomes as delivery systems in triple negative breast cancer therapy

Triple-negative breast Cancer (TNBC) is one of the deadliest types, making up about 20% of all breast cancers. Chemotherapy is the traditional manner of progressed TNBC treatment; however, it has a short-term result with a high reversibility pace. The lack of targeted treatment limited and person-dependent treatment options for those suffering from TNBC cautions to be the worst type of cancer among breast cancer patients. Consequently, appropriate treatment for this disease is considered a major clinical challenge. Therefore, various treatment methods have been developed to treat TNBC, among which chemotherapy is the most common and well-known approach recently studied. Although effective methods are chemotherapies, they are often accompanied by critical limitations, especially the lack of specific functionality. These methods lead to systematic toxicity and, ultimately, the expansion of multidrug-resistant (MDR) cancer cells. Therefore, finding novel and efficient techniques to enhance the targeting of TNBC treatment is an essential requirement. Liposomes have demonstrated that they are an effective method for drug delivery; however, among a large number of liposome-based drug delivery systems annually developed, a small number have just received authorization for clinical application. The new approaches to using liposomes target their structure with various ligands to increase therapeutic efficiency and diminish undesired side effects on various body tissues. The current study describes the most recent strategies and research associated with functionalizing the liposomes' structure with different ligands as targeted drug carriers in treating TNBCs in preclinical and clinical stages.

Nanoparticles as carriers of photosensitizers to improve photodynamic therapy in cancer

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as a promising non invasive therapeutic approach for cancer treatment, offering unique advantages over conventional treatments. The combination of light activation and photosensitizing agents allows for targeted and localized destruction of cancer cells, reducing damage to surrounding healthy tissues. In recent years, the integration of nanoparticles with PDT has garnered significant attention due to their potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes. This review article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in utilizing nanoparticles for photodynamic therapy in cancer treatment. We summarized various nanoparticle-based approaches, their properties, and their implications in optimizing PDT efficacy, and discussed challenges and prospects in the field.

Lipid Horizons: Recent Advances and Future Prospects in LBDDS for Oral Administration of Antihypertensive Agents

The lipid-based drug delivery system (LBDDS) is a well-established technique that is anticipated to bring about comprehensive transformations in the pharmaceutical field, impacting the management and administration of drugs, as well as treatment and diagnosis. Various LBDDSs verified to be an efficacious mechanism for monitoring hypertension systems are SEDDS (self-nano emulsifying drug delivery), nanoemulsion, microemulsions, vesicular systems (transferosomes and liposomes), and solid lipid nanoparticles. LBDDSs overcome the shortcomings that are associated with antihypertensive agents because around fifty percent of the antihypertensive agents experience a few drawbacks including short half-life because of hepatic first-pass metabolism, poor aqueous solubility, low permeation rate, and undesirable side effects. This review emphasizes antihypertensive agents that were encapsulated into the lipid carrier to improve their poor oral bioavailability. Incorporating cutting-edge technologies such as nanotechnology and targeted drug delivery, LBDDS holds promise in addressing the multifactorial nature of hypertension. By fine-tuning drug release profiles and enhancing drug uptake at specific sites, LBDDS can potentially target renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system components, sympathetic nervous system pathways, and endothelial dysfunction, all of which play crucial roles in hypertension pathophysiology. The future of hypertension management using LBDDS is promising, with ongoing reviews focusing on precision medicine approaches, improved biocompatibility, and reduced toxicity. As we delve deeper into understanding the intricate mechanisms underlying hypertension, LBDDS offers a pathway to develop next-generation antihypertensive therapies that are safer, more effective, and tailored to individual patient needs.

Nanotechnology as a Promising Method in the Treatment of Skin Cancer

The incidence of skin cancer continues to grow. There are an estimated 1.5 million new cases each year, of which nearly 350,000 are melanoma, which is often fatal. Treatment is challenging and often ineffective, with conventional chemotherapy playing a limited role in this context. These disadvantages can be overcome by the use of nanoparticles and may allow for the early detection and monitoring of neoplastic changes and determining the effectiveness of treatment. This article briefly reviews the present understanding of the characteristics of skin cancers, their epidemiology, and risk factors. It also outlines the possibilities of using nanotechnology, especially nanoparticles, for the transport of medicinal substances. Research over the previous decade on carriers of active substances indicates that drugs can be delivered more accurately to the tumor site, resulting in higher therapeutic efficacy. The article describes the application of liposomes, carbon nanotubes, metal nanoparticles, and polymer nanoparticles in existing therapies. It discusses the challenges encountered in nanoparticle therapy and the possibilities of improving their performance. Undoubtedly, the use of nanoparticles is a promising method that can help in the fight against skin cancer.

Antibody-decorated chitosan-iodoacetamide-coated nanocarriers for the potential delivery of doxorubicin to breast cancer cells

Using an active targeting approach of chemotherapeutics-loaded nanocarriers (NCs) with monoclonal antibodies is a potential strategy to improve the specificity of the delivery systems and reduce adverse reactions of chemotherapeutic drugs. Specific targeting of the human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2), expressed excessively in HER-2-positive breast cancer cells, can be achieved by conjugating NCs with an anti-HER-2 monoclonal antibody. We constructed trastuzumab-conjugated chitosan iodoacetamide-coated NCs containing doxorubicin (Tras-Dox-CHI-IA-NCs) as a tumor-targeted drug delivery system, during the study. Chitosan-iodoacetamide (CHI-IA) was synthesized and utilized to prepare trastuzumab-conjugated NCs (Tras-NCs). The morphology, physicochemical properties, drug loading, drug release, and biological activities of the NCs were elucidated. The Tras-NCs were spherical, with a particle size of approximately 76 nm, and had a positive zeta potential; after incorporating the drug, the size of the Tras-NC increased. A prolonged, 24-h drug release from the NCs was achieved. The Tras-NCs exhibited high cellular accumulation and significantly higher antitumor activity against HER-2-positive breast cancer cells than the unconjugated NCs and the drug solution. Therefore, Tras-Dox-CHI-IA-NCs could be a promising nanocarrier for HER-2-positive breast cancer.

An antibody fragment-decorated liposomal conjugate targets Philadelphia-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Philadelphia-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph-like ALL) is an aggressive B-ALL malignancy associated with high rates of relapse and inferior survival rate. While targeted treatments against the cell surface proteins CD22 or CD19 have been transformative in the treatment of refractory B-ALL, patients may relapse due to antigen loss, necessitating targeting alternative antigens. Cytokine receptor-like factor 2 (CRLF2) is overexpressed in half of Ph-like ALL cases conferring chemoresistance and enhancement of leukemia cell survival. Therefore, targeting CRLF2 may reduce the likelihood of relapse associated with antigen loss. We developed a CRLF2-targeting single-chain variable fragment modified by the fragment crystallizable region (CRLF2 scFv-Fc) conjugated to a drug maytansinoid 1 (DM1)-DOPC liposomal conjugate, creating homogeneous CRLF2-targeted liposomes (CRLF2-DM1 LIP). Cellular association and internalization studies in a Ph-like ALL cell line, MHH-CALL-4, compared to its lentivirally transduced CRLF2-knockdown counterpart (KD-CALL-4) revealed excellent CRLF2-targeting efficiency of CRLF2-DM1 LIP. Moreover, CRLF2-DM1 LIP showed selective association and internalization ex vivo using Ph-like ALL patient-derived xenograft (PDX) cells with minimal reactivity with non-target cells. Cell apoptosis assays demonstrated the CRLF2-dependent potency of CRLF2-DM1 LIP in Ph-like ALL cell lines. This study is the first to highlight the therapeutic potential of a CRLF2-directed scFv-Fc-liposomal conjugate for targeting Ph-like ALL.

Quality by Design Assisted Development of Luliconazole Transethosomes in Gel for the Management of Candida albicans Infection

The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate a novel vesicular formulation of luliconazole (LUL) for the management of Candida albicans infection through a topical route. LUL-loaded transethosomes (LUL-TE) were prepared by the film hydration method and various independent and dependent variables were optimized using the Box-Behnken design. Selected critical material attributes were the content of phospholipids (X1), concentration of ethanol (X2), and amount of sodium cholate (X3). Formulated LUL-TE were characterized for percent entrapment efficiency, percent drug loading, vesicle size, and polydispersity index (PDI) and were incorporated into the carbomer gel base and further evaluated for gel characterizations. The prepared transethosomal gel (LUL-TE-CHG) was evaluated for pH, spreadability, viscosity, antifungal activity, and in vitro study. From the observed results, it was evident that the prepared LUL-TE-CHG was in the desired pH (6.2 ± 0.45), spreadability [8.3 ± 0.42 g/(cm·s)], viscosity (236.1-19.2.26 mPa·s), nanovesicle size (252 ± 9.82), entrapment efficiency (85% ± 5.24%), zeta potential (-34.05 ± 3.52 mV), and PDI (0.233 ± 0.002). The zone of inhibition results suggested that the LUL-TE-CHG formulation has the highest antifungal activity, that is, 5.83 ± 0.15 mm3. The in vitro results showed that drug release within 2 h was 18.1% ± 2.0% and after that sustained release action, 83.2% ± 1.7% within 8 h. Finally, to confirm the therapeutic efficacy of the developed formulation, fungal infection was induced by using C. albicans in Wistar rats. In vivo, skin irritation study and histopathology studies were performed in the disease-induced model. Animal experiments revealed that LUL-TE-CHG has significantly improved the diseased condition in Wistar rats. The results observed from the skin permeation and skin deposition profile ensure that the prepared novel LUL-loaded TE system had a higher permeation rate and increased retention time compared with LUL-CHG. The hydrogel incorporated with LUL could be a novel approach with safe and effective fungal treatment.

Multifunctional nanoparticle-mediated combining therapy for human diseases

Combining existing drug therapy is essential in developing new therapeutic agents in disease prevention and treatment. In preclinical investigations, combined effect of certain known drugs has been well established in treating extensive human diseases. Attributed to synergistic effects by targeting various disease pathways and advantages, such as reduced administration dose, decreased toxicity, and alleviated drug resistance, combinatorial treatment is now being pursued by delivering therapeutic agents to combat major clinical illnesses, such as cancer, atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, myocarditis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, metabolic disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. Combinatorial therapy involves combining or co-delivering two or more drugs for treating a specific disease. Nanoparticle (NP)-mediated drug delivery systems, i.e., liposomal NPs, polymeric NPs and nanocrystals, are of great interest in combinatorial therapy for a wide range of disorders due to targeted drug delivery, extended drug release, and higher drug stability to avoid rapid clearance at infected areas. This review summarizes various targets of diseases, preclinical or clinically approved drug combinations and the development of multifunctional NPs for combining therapy and emphasizes combinatorial therapeutic strategies based on drug delivery for treating severe clinical diseases. Ultimately, we discuss the challenging of developing NP-codelivery and translation and provide potential approaches to address the limitations. This review offers a comprehensive overview for recent cutting-edge and challenging in developing NP-mediated combination therapy for human diseases.

Terpenes-Modified Lipid Nanosystems for Temozolomide, Improving Cytotoxicity against Glioblastoma Human Cancer Cells In Vitro

Currently, increasing the efficiency of glioblastoma treatment is still an unsolved problem. In this study, a combination of promising approaches was proposed: (i) an application of nanotechnology approach to create a new terpene-modified lipid system (7% w/w), using soybean L-α-phosphatidylcholine, N-carbonyl-methoxypolyethylene glycol-2000)-1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine for delivery of the chemotherapy drug, temozolomide (TMZ, 1 mg/mL); (ii) use of TMZ associated with natural compounds-terpenes (1% w/w) abietic acid and Abies sibirica Ledeb. resin (A. sibirica). Different concentrations and combinations of terpene-lipid systems were employed to treat human cancer cell lines T 98G (glioblastoma), M-Hela (carcinoma of the cervix) and human liver cell lines (Chang liver). The terpene-lipid systems appeared to be unilamellar and of spherical shape under transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The creation of a TMZ-loaded terpene-lipid nanosystem was about 100 nm in diameter with a negative surface charge found by dynamic light scattering. The 74% encapsulation efficiency allowed the release time of TMZ to be prolonged. The modification by terpenes of TMZ-loaded lipid nanoparticles improved by four times the cytotoxicity against human cancer T 98G cells and decreased the cytotoxicity against human normal liver cells. Terpene-modified delivery lipid systems are of potential interest as a combination therapy.

Liposomal form of 2-alkylthioimidazolone-based copper complexes for combined cancer therapy

Aim: To develop an optimized approach for encapsulating a 2-alkylthioimidazolone-based copper coordination compound within liposomes, which could offer treatment of cancer and bacterial infections by reactive oxygen species generation toxicity mechanisms. Materials & methods: For drug-loaded liposome preparation, lipids and drug mixture in organic solvents was injected into copper salt solution, forming a coordination compound simultaneously embedded in the lipid bilayer. In vitro tests were performed on MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Results: Liposomes had a loading capacity of up to 1.75% (molar drug-to-lipid ratio). In vitro tests showed increased viability and accumulation of the liposomal formulation compared with free drug as well as lack of cytotoxicity in hepatocytes. Conclusion: This optimized technique for encapsulating large copper complexes in liposomes could be used to improve their delivery and better treat cancer and bacterial infections.

pH-sensitive liposomes bearing a chemotherapeutic agent and a natural apoptosis modulator for effective intracellular delivery to the solid tumor

The intracellular delivery of the drug to the solid tumor is a major challenge in the treatment of solid tumors. This project aims to increase cytosolic drug delivery using the endosomal escape of drugs. Topotecan (TPT) and capsaicin were used for the treatment of solid tumors. The pH-dependent conversion of active lactone form to inactive carboxylic form is a major problem of TPT that limits its therapeutic use. Liposomal encapsulation of TPT improved the stability of active lactone form and increased the therapeutic efficacy of TPT. Endosomal degradation of liposomes may reduce the content in the target cells. To solve these problems, pH-sensitive liposomes (pSLPs) were developed which improved the intracellular drug delivery by the endosomal escape of drugs. The liposomes (LPs) bearing the drug(s) were prepared using the cast film method and optimized for various formulation and process variables using the Design-Expert 7 software by employing the Box-Behnken design (BBD). The developed hyaluronic acid (HA)-conjugated pSLPs (HA-pSLPs) displayed a vesicle size of 166.5 ± 2.31 nm, zeta potential - 30.53 ± 0.91, and entrapment efficiency of 44.39 ± 1.78%, and 73.48 ± 2.15% for TPT and CAP, respectively. HA-pSLPs displayed better cytotoxicity in comparison to free drugs either single or in combination on the MCF-7 cell line. The apoptosis and cellular uptake of HA-pSLPs were increased ⁓ 4.45-fold and ⁓ 6.95-fold as compared to unconjugated pSLPs, respectively. The pharmacokinetic studies in Balb/c mice demonstrated that HA-pSLPs increased the half-life, MRT, and AUC in comparison to the free drug solution. The HA-pSLPs formulation has shown remarkable tumor regression as compared to PpSLPs, pSLPs, and free drug combinations. These results demonstrated that TPT- and CAP-loaded HA-pSLPs offer a potential platform for targeted drug delivery to solid tumors.

Nanoparticle-Based Approaches for Treatment of Hematological Malignancies: a Comprehensive Review

Blood cancer, also known as hematological malignancy, is one of the devastating types of cancer that has significantly paved its mortality mark globally. It persists as an extremely deadly cancer type and needs utmost attention owing to its negligible overall survival rate. Major challenges in the treatment of blood cancer include difficulties in early diagnosis, as well as severe side effects resulting from chemotherapy. In addition, immunotherapies and targeted therapies can be prohibitively expensive. Over the past two decades, scientists have devised a few nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems aimed at overcoming this challenge. These therapeutic strategies are engineered to augment the cellular uptake, pharmacokinetics, and effectiveness of anticancer drugs. However, there are still numerous types of nanoparticles that could potentially improve the efficacy of blood cancer treatment, while also reducing treatment costs and mitigating drug-related side effects. To the best of our knowledge, there has been limited reviews published on the use of nano-based drug delivery systems for the treatment of hematological malignancies. Therefore, we have made a concerted effort to provide a comprehensive review that draws upon recent literature and patents, with a focus on the most promising results regarding the use of nanoparticle-based approaches for the treatment of hematological malignancies. All these crucial points covered under a common title would significantly help researchers and scientists working in the area.

Nanoparticle-based materials in anticancer drug delivery: Current and future prospects

The past decade has witnessed a breakthrough in novel strategies to treat cancer. One of the most common cancer treatment modalities is chemotherapy which involves administering anti-cancer drugs to the body. However, these drugs can lead to undesirable side effects on healthy cells. To overcome this challenge and improve cancer cell targeting, many novel nanocarriers have been developed to deliver drugs directly to the cancerous cells and minimize effects on the healthy tissues. The majority of the research studies conclude that using drugs encapsulated in nanocarriers is a much safer and more effective alternative than delivering the drug alone in its free form. This review provides a summary of the types of nanocarriers mainly studied for cancer drug delivery, namely: liposomes, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, magnetic nanoparticles, mesoporous nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and quantum dots. In this review, the synthesis, applications, advantages, disadvantages, and previous studies of these nanomaterials are discussed in detail. Furthermore, the future opportunities and possible challenges of translating these materials into clinical applications are also reported.

Application of Nanoparticles in Cancer Treatment: A Concise Review

Timely diagnosis and appropriate antitumoral treatments remain of utmost importance, since cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide. Within this context, nanotechnology offers specific benefits in terms of cancer therapy by reducing its adverse effects and guiding drugs to selectively target cancer cells. In this comprehensive review, we have summarized the most relevant novel outcomes in the range of 2010-2023, covering the design and application of nanosystems for cancer therapy. We have established the general requirements for nanoparticles to be used in drug delivery and strategies for their uptake in tumor microenvironment and vasculature, including the reticuloendothelial system uptake and surface functionalization with protein corona. After a brief review of the classes of nanovectors, we have covered different classes of nanoparticles used in cancer therapies. First, the advances in the encapsulation of drugs (such as paclitaxel and fisetin) into nanoliposomes and nanoemulsions are described, as well as their relevance in current clinical trials. Then, polymeric nanoparticles are presented, namely the ones comprising poly lactic-co-glycolic acid, polyethylene glycol (and PEG dilemma) and dendrimers. The relevance of quantum dots in bioimaging is also covered, namely the systems with zinc sulfide and indium phosphide. Afterwards, we have reviewed gold nanoparticles (spheres and anisotropic) and their application in plasmon-induced photothermal therapy. The clinical relevance of iron oxide nanoparticles, such as magnetite and maghemite, has been analyzed in different fields, namely for magnetic resonance imaging, immunotherapy, hyperthermia, and drug delivery. Lastly, we have covered the recent advances in the systems using carbon nanomaterials, namely graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, and carbon dots. Finally, we have compared the strategies of passive and active targeting of nanoparticles and their relevance in cancer theranostics. This review aims to be a (nano)mark on the ongoing journey towards realizing the remarkable potential of different nanoparticles in the realm of cancer therapeutics.

Exploiting Pharma 4.0 Technologies in the Non-Biological Complex Drugs Manufacturing: Innovations and Implications

The pharmaceutical industry has entered an era of transformation with the emergence of Pharma 4.0, which leverages cutting-edge technologies in manufacturing processes. These hold tremendous potential for enhancing the overall efficiency, safety, and quality of non-biological complex drugs (NBCDs), a category of pharmaceutical products that pose unique challenges due to their intricate composition and complex manufacturing requirements. This review attempts to provide insight into the application of select Pharma 4.0 technologies, namely machine learning, in silico modeling, and 3D printing, in the manufacturing process of NBCDs. Specifically, it reviews the impact of these tools on NBCDs such as liposomes, polymeric micelles, glatiramer acetate, iron carbohydrate complexes, and nanocrystals. It also addresses regulatory challenges associated with the implementation of these technologies and presents potential future perspectives, highlighting the incorporation of digital twins in this field of research as it seems to be a very promising approach, namely for the optimization of NBCDs manufacturing processes.

The Potential of Nano-Based Photodynamic Treatment as a Therapy against Oral Leukoplakia: A Narrative Review

Oral leukoplakia is a predominantly white lesion of the oral mucosa that cannot be classified as any other definable lesion with the risk of progressing into malignancy. Despite the advancements in conventional therapy, the rates of malignant transformation remain notably high, affecting 4.11% of adults, due to the difficulty of accurate diagnosis and indistinct treatment. Photodynamic therapy (PDT), being a minimally invasive surgical intervention, employs a variety of factors, including light, nano-photosensitizers (PSs) and oxygen in the management of precancerous lesions. PDT faces limitations in administering photosensitizers (PSs) because of their low water solubility. However, these challenges could be effectively resolved through the incorporation of PSs in nanostructured drug delivery systems, such as gold nanoparticles, micelles, liposomes, metal nanoparticles, dendrimers and quantum dots. This review will give an overview of the different innovative PS approaches in the management of premalignant lesions, highlighting the most recent advancements. From a clinical perspective, it is expected that nanotechnology will overcome barriers faced by traditional therapeutics and will address critical gaps in clinical cancer care.

Fisetin-In Search of Better Bioavailability-From Macro to Nano Modifications: A Review

As secondary plant metabolites, polyphenols are abundant in fruits and vegetables. They are in high demand because of their many health benefits. However, their low bioavailability makes them complex compounds to use for therapeutic purposes. Due to the limited solubility of phytocompounds, dietary supplements made from them may only be partially effective. Such molecules include fisetin, found in strawberries, and have shown great promise in treating Alzheimer's disease and cancer. Unfortunately, because of their limited water solubility, low absorption, and poor bioavailability, the assistance of nanotechnology is required to allow them to fulfil their potential fully. Here, we provide evidence that nanodelivery methods and structure modifications can improve fisetin bioavailability, which is linked to improvements in therapeutic efficacy. An open question remains as to which nanocarrier should be chosen to meet the abovementioned requirements and be able to enhance fisetin's therapeutic potential to treat a particular disease.

Particle Metrology Approach to Understanding How Storage Conditions Affect Long-Term Liposome Stability

Lipid nanoparticles are a generic type of nanomaterial with broad applicability in medicine as drug delivery vehicles. Liposomes are a subtype of lipid nanoparticles and, as a therapeutic platform, can be loaded with a genetic material or pharmaceutical agents for use as drug treatments. An open question for these types of lipid nanoparticles is what factor(s) affect the long-term stability of the particles. The stability of the particle is of great interest to understand and predict the effective shelf-life and storage requirements. In this report, we detail a one-year study of liposome stability as a function of lipid composition, buffer composition/pH, and storage temperature. This was done in aqueous solution without freezing. The effect of lipid composition is shown to be a critical factor when evaluating stability of the measured particle size and number concentration. Other factors (i.e., storage temperature and buffer pH/composition) were shown to be less critical but still have some effect. The stability of these particles informs formulation and optimal storage requirements and assists with future developmental planning of a NIST liposome-based reference material. This work also highlights the complex nature of long-term soft particle storage in biopharmaceutical applications.

Nanotechnology innovations for increasing the productivity of poultry and the prospective of nanobiosensors

Nanotechnology is an innovative, promising technology with a great scope of applications and socioeconomic potential in the poultry industry sector. Nanoparticles (NPs) show the advantages of high absorption and bioavailability with more effective delivery to the target tissue than their bulk particles. Various nanomaterials are available in different forms, sizes, shapes, applications, surface modifications, charges and natures. Nanoparticles can be utilised in the delivery of medicines, targeting them to their right effective site in the body and, at the same time, decreasing their toxicity and side effects. Furthermore, nanotechnology can be beneficial in the diagnosis of diseases and prevention of them and in enhancing the quality of animal products. There are different mechanisms through which NPs could exert their action. Despite the vast benefits of NPs in poultry production, some concerns about their safety and hazardous effects should be considered. Therefore, this review article focuses on NPs' types, manufacture, mechanism of action and applications regarding safety and hazard impact.

Recent advances in nanoparticle applications in respiratory disorders: a review

Various nanoparticles are used in the discovery of new nanomedicine to overcome the shortages of conventional drugs. Therefore, this article presents a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the effects of nanoparticle-based drugs in the treatment of respiratory disorders, including both basic and clinical studies. Databases, including PubMed, Web of Knowledge, and Scopus, were searched until the end of August 2022 regarding the effect of nanoparticles on respiratory diseases. As a new tool, nanomedicine offered promising applications for the treatment of pulmonary diseases. The basic composition and intrinsic characteristics of nanomaterials showed their effectiveness in treating pulmonary diseases. The efficiency of different nanomedicines has been demonstrated in experimental animal models of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary fibrosis (PF), lung cancer, lung infection, and other lung disorders, confirming their function in the improvement of respiratory disorders. Various types of nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, polymeric nanomaterials, liposomes, quantum dots, and metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, have demonstrated therapeutic effects on respiratory disorders, which may lead to new possible remedies for various respiratory illnesses that could increase drug efficacy and decrease side effects.

Imine-Linked Covalent Organic Frameworks: A Biocompatible and pH-Dependent Carrier for In Vitro Sustained Release of Doxorubicin

Among the novel drug delivery systems (DDSs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs) show promising features in pharmaceutical science. In this paper, an imine-linked COF with hexagonal topology was synthesized using the autoclave condition. Then, the prepared COF (APB-COF) was used as a pH-dependent carrier for in vitro release of doxorubicin (DOX). The intrinsic properties of APB-COF caused reaching an excellent drug encapsulation efficiency. DOX@APB-COF shows an exemplary pH-dependent release in two different pHs. DOX release at pH = 7.4 was 32%, which increased to 54% by changing the pH to the cancer cell pH (pH = 5.4). Moreover, the cytotoxicity of APB-COF and DOX@APB-COF was studied using the standard MTT test against MCF10 (normal breast cell line) and MDAmb231 cells (breast cancer cell line), respectively. It was observed that the APB-COF does not affect cell proliferation, whereas the DOX@APB-COF only limits cancer cell proliferation. Using APB-COF as the drug carrier can pave the way for using COFs in innovative DDSs.

DNA-AgNC Loaded Liposomes for Measuring Cerebral Blood Flow Using Two-Photon Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy

Unraveling the transport of drugs and nanocarriers in cerebrovascular networks is important for pharmacokinetic and hemodynamic studies but is challenging due to the complexity of sensing individual particles within the circulatory system of a live animal. Here, we demonstrate that a DNA-stabilized silver nanocluster (DNA-Ag16NC) that emits in the first near-infrared window upon two-photon excitation in the second NIR window can be used for multiphoton in vivo fluorescence correlation spectroscopy for the measurement of cerebral blood flow rates in live mice with high spatial and temporal resolution. To ensure bright and stable emission during in vivo experiments, we loaded DNA-Ag16NCs into liposomes, which served the dual purposes of concentrating the fluorescent label and protecting it from degradation. DNA-Ag16NC-loaded liposomes enabled the quantification of cerebral blood flow velocities within individual vessels of a living mouse.

Liposome-Micelle-Hybrid (LMH) Carriers for Controlled Co-Delivery of 5-FU and Paclitaxel as Chemotherapeutics

Paclitaxel (PTX) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) are clinically relevant chemotherapeutics, but both suffer a range of biopharmaceutical challenges (e.g., either low solubility or permeability and limited controlled release from nanocarriers), which reduces their effectiveness in new medicines. Anticancer drugs have several major limitations, which include non-specificity, wide biological distribution, a short half-life, and systemic toxicity. Here, we investigate the potential of liposome-micelle-hybrid (LMH) carriers (i.e., drug-loaded micelles encapsulated within drug-loaded liposomes) to enhance the co-formulation and delivery of PTX and 5-FU, facilitating new delivery opportunities with enhanced chemotherapeutic performance. We focus on the combination of liposomes and micelles for co-delivery of PTX and 5_FU to investigate increased drug loading, improved solubility, and transport/permeability to enhance chemotherapeutic potential. Furthermore, combination chemotherapy (i.e., containing two or more drugs in a single formulation) may offer improved pharmacological performance. Compared with individual liposome and micelle formulations, the optimized PTX-5FU-LMH carriers demonstrated increased drug loading and solubility, temperature-sensitive release, enhanced permeability in a Caco-2 cell monolayer model, and cancer cell eradication. LMH has significant potential for cancer drug delivery and as a next-generation chemotherapeutic.

The role of bacterial infections in rheumatoid arthritis development and novel therapeutic interventions: Focus on oral infections

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) represents a primary public health challenge, which is a major source of pain, disability, and socioeconomic effects worldwide. Several factors contribute to its pathogenesis. Infections are an important concern in RA patients, which play a key role in mortality risk. Despite major advances in the clinical treatment of RA, long-term use of disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs can cause serious adverse effects. Therefore, effective strategies for developing novel prevention and RA-modifying therapeutic interventions are sorely needed.

OBJECTIVE

This review investigates the available evidence on the interplay between various bacterial infections, particularly oral infections and RA, and focuses on some potential interventions such as probiotics, photodynamic therapy, nanotechnology, and siRNA that can have therapeutic effects.

Polymeric core-crosslinked particles prepared via a nanoemulsion-mediated process: from particle design and structural characterization to in vivo behavior in chemotherapy

Various polymeric nanoparticles have been used as drug carriers in drug delivery systems (DDSs). Most of them were constructed from dynamic self-assembly systems formed via hydrophobic interactions and from structures that are unstable in an in vivo environment owing to their relatively weak formation forces. As a solution to this issue, physically stabilized core-crosslinked particles (CP) with chemically crosslinked cores have received attention as alternatives to the dynamic nanoparticles. This focused review summarizes recent advances in the construction, structural characterization, and in vivo behavior of polymeric CPs. First, we introduce a nanoemulsion-mediated method to create polyethylene glycol (PEG)-bearing CPs and their structural characterization. The relationship between the PEG chain conformations in the particle shell and the in vivo fate of the CPs is also discussed. After that, the development and advantages of zwitterionic amino acid-based polymer (ZAP)-bearing CPs are presented to address the poor penetration and the internalization of PEG-based CPs into tumor tissues and cells, respectively. Finally, we conclude and discuss prospects for application of polymeric CPs in the DDS field.

Multifunctional targetable liposomal drug delivery system in the management of leukemia: Potential, opportunities, and emerging strategies

The concern impeding the success of chemotherapy in leukemia treatment is descending efficacy of drugs because of multiple drug resistance (MDR). The previous failure of traditional treatment methods is primarily responsible for the present era of innovative agents to treat leukemia effectively. The treatment option is a chemotherapeutic agent in most available treatment strategies, which unfortunately leads to high unavoidable toxicities. As a result of the recent surge in marketed products, theranostic nanoparticles, i.e., multifunctional targetable liposomes (MFTL), have been approved for improved and more successful leukemia treatment that blends therapeutic and diagnostic characteristics. Since they broadly offer the required characteristics to get past the traditional/previous limitations, such as the absence of site-specific anti-cancer therapeutic delivery and ongoing real-time surveillance of the leukemia target sites while administering therapeutic activities. To prepare MFTL, suitable targeting ligands or tumor-specific antibodies are required to attach to the surface of the liposomes. This review exhaustively covered and summarized the liposomal-based formulation in leukemia treatment, emphasizing leukemia types; regulatory considerations, patents, and clinical portfolios to overcome clinical translation hurdles have all been explored.

Design of Folate-Containing Liposomal Nucleic Acid Delivery Systems for Antitumor Therapy

The delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids is a prospective method for the treatment of both inherited and acquired diseases including cancer. To achieve maximal delivery efficiency and selectivity, nucleic acids should be targeted to the cells of interest. In the case of cancer, such targeting may be provided through folate receptors overexpressed in many tumor cells. For this purpose, folic acid and its lipoconjugates are used. Compared to other targeting ligands, folic acid provides low immunogenicity, rapid tumor penetration, high affinity to a wide range of tumors, chemical stability, and easy production. Different delivery systems can utilize targeting by folate ligand including liposomal forms of anticancer drugs, viruses, and lipid and polymer nanoparticles. This review focuses on the liposomal gene delivery systems that provide targeted nucleic acid transport into tumor cells due to folate lipoconjugates. Moreover, important development step, such as rational design of lipoconjugates, folic acid content, size, and ζ-potential of lipoplexes are discussed.

Enhancing the targeting performance and prolonging the antibacterial effects of clove essential oil liposomes to Campylobacter jejuni by antibody modification

The application of plant essential oil liposomes to prevent and control food safety risks caused by Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) still faces challenges such as lack of targeting and low release rate. Here, a bacteria-targeted and protease-activated antibacterial liposome (ACCLPs) was successfully synthesized through encapsulation of clove essential oil (CEO) by film dispersion method, embedding of casein by freeze-thaw method, and conjugation of C. jejuni antibody on the liposome membrane by post-insertion method. The average particle size, the essential oil encapsulation rate, the casein mosaic rate, and the antibody coupling efficiency of ACCLPs were determined as185.87 nm,16.9%,70.1% and 87.5%, respectively. The modification with C. jejuni antibody could significantly improve the targeting of ACCLPs to C. jejuni. Controlled release experiments showed that the exocrine protease from C. jejuni could hydrolyze the embedded casein and perforation on the ACCLPs, thus leading to a bacteria-dependent CEO release and significant prolonging the antibacterial effects of ACCLPs. Application results of ACCLPs on C. jejuni-contaminated foods showed that ACCLPs could effectively inhibit C. jejuni in a variety of meat products, fruits and vegetables and extend their shelf life without significantly affecting food quality. The results above in this work would provide a new view for the development of high efficient liposome-based antibacterial system of plant essential oil.

Lactoferrin and Nanotechnology: The Potential for Cancer Treatment

Lactoferrin (Lf)-a glycoprotein of the transferrin family-has been investigated as a promising molecule with diverse applications, including infection inhibition, anti-inflammation, antioxidant properties and immune modulation. Along with that, Lf was found to inhibit the growth of cancerous tumors. Owing to unique properties such as iron-binding and positive charge, Lf could interrupt the cancer cell membrane or influence the apoptosis pathway. In addition, being a common mammalian excretion, Lf offers is promising in terms of targeting delivery or the diagnosis of cancer. Recently, nanotechnology significantly enhanced the therapeutic index of natural glycoproteins such as Lf. Therefore, in the context of this review, the understanding of Lf is summarized and followed by different strategies of nano-preparation, including inorganic nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles and polymer-based nanoparticles in cancer management. At the end of the study, the potential future applications are discussed to pave the way for translating Lf into actual usage.

A Recent Review on Cancer Nanomedicine

Cancer is one of the most prevalent diseases globally and is the second major cause of death in the United States. Despite the continuous efforts to understand tumor mechanisms and various approaches taken for treatment over decades, no significant improvements have been observed in cancer therapy. Lack of tumor specificity, dose-related toxicity, low bioavailability, and lack of stability of chemotherapeutics are major hindrances to cancer treatment. Nanomedicine has drawn the attention of many researchers due to its potential for tumor-specific delivery while minimizing unwanted side effects. The application of these nanoparticles is not limited to just therapeutic uses; some of them have shown to have extremely promising diagnostic potential. In this review, we describe and compare various types of nanoparticles and their role in advancing cancer treatment. We further highlight various nanoformulations currently approved for cancer therapy as well as under different phases of clinical trials. Finally, we discuss the prospect of nanomedicine in cancer management.

An Overview of the Stability and Delivery Challenges of Commercial Nucleic Acid Therapeutics

Nucleic acid (NA)-based biopharmaceuticals have emerged as promising therapeutic modalities. NA therapeutics are a diverse class of RNA and DNA and include antisense oligonucleotides, siRNA, miRNA, mRNA, small activating RNA, and gene therapies. Meanwhile, NA therapeutics have posed significant stability and delivery challenges and are expensive. This article discusses the challenges and opportunities for achieving stable formulations of NAs with novel drug delivery systems (DDSs). Here we review the current progress in the stability issues and the significance of novel DDSs associated with NA-based biopharmaceuticals, as well as mRNA vaccines. We also highlight the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved NA-based therapeutics with their formulation profiles. NA therapeutics could impact future markets if the remaining challenges and requirements are addressed. Regardless of the limited information available for NA therapeutics, reviewing and collating the relevant facts and figures generates a precious resource for formulation experts familiar with the NA therapeutics' stability profile, their delivery challenges, and regulatory acceptance.

Engineered Cancer-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicle-Liposome Hybrid Delivery System for Targeted Treatment of Breast Cancer

Cancer-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) may be a promising drug delivery system that targets cancer cells due to their unique features, such as native homing ability, biological barrier crossing capability, and low immune response. However, the oncogenic cargos within them pose safety concerns, hence limiting their application thus far. We proposed using an electroporation-based strategy to extract the endogenous cargos from cancer-derived sEVs and demonstrated that their homing ability was still retained. A membrane fusion technique was used to fuse these sEVs with liposomes to form hybrid particles, which possessed both benefits of sEVs and liposomes. Anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies were modified on the hybrid particles to improve their targeting ability further. The engineered hybrid particles showed higher drug loading ability that is 33.75 and 43.88% higher than that of liposomes and sEVs, respectively, and improved targeting ability by 52.23% higher than hybrid particles without modification. This delivery system showed >90% cell viability and enhanced treatment efficiency with 91.58 and 79.26% cell migration inhibition rates for the miR-21 inhibitor and gemcitabine, respectively.

Polymeric and Composite Carriers of Protein and Non-Protein Biomolecules for Application in Bone Tissue Engineering

Conventional intake of drugs and active substances is most often based on oral intake of an appropriate dose to achieve the desired effect in the affected area or source of pain. In this case, controlling their distribution in the body is difficult, as the substance also reaches other tissues. This phenomenon results in the occurrence of side effects and the need to increase the concentration of the therapeutic substance to ensure it has the desired effect. The scientific field of tissue engineering proposes a solution to this problem, which creates the possibility of designing intelligent systems for delivering active substances precisely to the site of disease conversion. The following review discusses significant current research strategies as well as examples of polymeric and composite carriers for protein and non-protein biomolecules designed for bone tissue regeneration.

Curcumin in the treatment of liver cancer: From mechanisms of action to nanoformulations

Liver cancer is the sixth most prevalent cancer and ranks third in cancer-related death, after lung and colorectal cancer. Various natural products have been discovered as alternatives to conventional cancer therapy strategies, including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery. Curcumin (CUR) with antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor activities has been associated with therapeutic benefits against various cancers. It can regulate multiple signaling pathways, such as PI3K/Akt, Wnt/β-catenin, JAK/STAT, p53, MAPKs, and NF-ĸB, which are involved in cancer cell proliferation, metastasis, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and autophagy. Due to its rapid metabolism, poor oral bioavailability, and low solubility in water, CUR application in clinical practices is restricted. To overcome these limitations, nanotechnology-based delivery systems have been applied to use CUR nanoformulations with added benefits, such as reducing toxicity, improving cellular uptake, and targeting tumor sites. Besides the anticancer activities of CUR in combating various cancers, especially liver cancer, here we focused on the CUR nanoformulations, such as micelles, liposomes, polymeric, metal, and solid lipid nanoparticles, and others, in the treatment of liver cancer.

Cellular Localization, Aggregation, and Cytotoxicity of Bicelle-Quantum Dot Nanocomposites

Bicelles are discoidal lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) in which the planar bilayer and curved rim are, respectively, composed of long- and short-chain lipids. Bicellar LNPs have a hydrophobic core, allowing hydrophobic molecules and large molecular complexes such as quantum dots (QDs) to be encapsulated. In this study, CdSe/ZnS QDs were encapsulated in bicelles made of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine, dihexanoyl phosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoyl phosphatidylglycerol, and distearoyl phosphatidylethanolamine conjugated with polyethylene glycerol amine 2000 to form a well-defined bicelle-QD nanocomplex (known as NANO²-QD or bicelle-QD). The bicelle-QD was then incubated with Hek293t cells and HeLa cells for different periods of time to determine changes in their cellular localization. Bicelle-QDs readily penetrated Hek293t cell membranes within 15 min of incubation, localized to the cytoplasm, and associated with mitochondria and intracellular vesicles. After 1 h, the bicelle-QDs enter the cell nucleus. Large aggregates form throughout the cell after 2 h and QDs are nearly absent from the nucleus by 4 h. Previous reports have demonstrated that CdSe/ZnS QDs can be toxic to cells, and we have found that encapsulating QDs in bicelles can attenuate but did not eliminate cytotoxicity. The present research outcome demonstrates the time-resolved pathway of bicelle-encapsulated QDs in Hek293t cells, morphological evolution in cells over time, and cytotoxicity of the bicelle-QDs, providing important insight into the potential application of the nanocomplex for cellular imaging.

Recent Advances in Intranasal Liposomes for Drug, Gene, and Vaccine Delivery

Liposomes are safe, biocompatible, and biodegradable spherical nanosized vesicles produced from cholesterol and phospholipids. Recently, liposomes have been widely administered intranasally for systemic and brain delivery. From the nasal cavity, liposome-encapsulated drugs and genes enter the systemic circulation primarily via absorption in the respiratory region, whereas they can be directly transported to the brain via the olfactory pathway. Liposomes can protect drugs and genes from enzymatic degradation, increase drug absorption across the nasal epithelium, and prolong the residence time in the nasal cavity. Intranasal liposomes are also a potential approach for vaccine delivery. Liposomes can be used as a platform to load antigens and as vaccine adjuvants to induce a robust immune response. With the recent interest in intranasal liposome formulations, this review discusses various aspects of liposomes that make them suitable for intranasal administration. We have summarized the latest advancements and applications of liposomes and evaluated their performance in the systemic and brain delivery of drugs and genes administered intranasally. We have also reviewed recent advances in intranasal liposome vaccine development and proposed perspectives on the future of intranasal liposomes.

Current advances in the use of exosomes, liposomes, and bioengineered hybrid nanovesicles in cancer detection and therapy

Three major approaches of cancer therapy can be enunciated as delivery of biotherapeutics, tumor image analysis, and immunotherapy. Liposomes, artificial fat bubbles, are long known for their capacity to encapsulate a diverse range of bioactive molecules and release the payload in a sustained, stimuli-responsive manner. They have already been widely explored as a delivery vehicle for therapeutic drugs as well as imaging agents. They are also extensively being used in cancer immunotherapy. On the other hand, exosomes are naturally occurring nanosized extracellular vesicles that serve an important role in cell-cell communication. Importantly, the exosomes also have proven their capability to carry an array of active pharmaceuticals and diagnostic molecules to the tumor cells. Exosomes, being enriched with tumor antigens, have numerous immunomodulatory effects. Much to our intrigue, in recent times, efforts have been directed toward developing smart, bioengineered, exosome-liposome hybrid nanovesicles, which are augmented by the benefits of both vesicular systems. This review attempts to summarize the contemporary developments in the use of exosome and liposome toward cancer diagnosis, therapy, as a vehicle for drug delivery, diagnostic carrier for tumor imaging, and cancer immunotherapy. We shall also briefly reflect upon the recent advancements of the exosome-liposome hybrids in cancer therapy. Finally, we put forward future directions for the use of exosome/liposome and/or hybrid nanocarriers for accurate diagnosis and personalized therapies for cancers.

Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Diseases Managements

Liposomes are tiny lipid-based vesicles composed of one or more lipid bilayers, which facilitate the encapsulation of hydrophilic, lipophilic, and amphiphilic biological active agents. The description of the physicochemical properties, formulation methods, characteristics, mechanisms of action, and large-scale manufacturing of liposomes as delivery systems are deeply discussed. The benefits, toxicity, and limitations of the use of liposomes in pharmacotherapeutics including in diagnostics, brain targeting, eye and cancer diseases, and in infections are provided. The experimental approaches that may reduce, or even bypass, the use of liposomal drug drawbacks is described. The application of liposomes in the treatment of numerous diseases is discussed.

A New Class of Tunable Acid-Sensitive Linkers for Native Drug Release Based on the Trityl Protecting Group

Core-cross-linked polymeric micelles (CCPMs) are a promising nanoparticle platform due to favorable properties such as their long circulation and tumor disposition exploiting the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Sustained release of covalently linked drugs from the hydrophobic core of the CCPM can be achieved by a biodegradable linker that connects the drug and the core. This study investigates the suitability of trityl-based linkers for the design of acid-triggered native active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) release from CCPMs. Trityl linker derivatives with different substituent patterns were synthesized and conjugated to model API compounds such as DMXAA-amine, doxorubicin, and gemcitabine, and their release kinetics were studied. Hereafter, API release from CCPMs based on mPEG-b-pHPMAmLac block copolymers was investigated. Variation of the trityl substitution pattern showed tunability of the API release rate from the trityl-based linker with t_1/2 varying from <1.0 to 5.0 h at pH 5.0 and t_1/2 from 6.5 to >24 h at pH 7.4, all at 37 °C. A clear difference in release kinetics was found between gemcitabine and doxorubicin, with gemcitabine showing no detectable release for 72 h at pH 5.0 and doxorubicin showing a t_1/2 of less than 1 h. Based on these findings, we show that the reaction mechanism of trityl deprotection plays an important role in the API release kinetics. The first step in this mechanism, which is protonation of the trityl-bound amine, is pK_a-dependent, which explains the difference in release rate. In conclusion, acid-sensitive and tunable trityl linkers are highly promising for the design of linker–API conjugates and for their use in CCPMs.

Advances in biomaterials for the treatment of retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma is the most common primary intraocular malignancy in children. Although traditional chemotherapy has shown some success in retinoblastoma management, there are several shortcomings to this approach, including inadequate pharmacokinetic parameters, multidrug resistance, low therapeutic efficiency, nonspecific targeting, and the need for adjuvant therapy, among others. The revolutionary developments in biomaterials for drug delivery have enabled breakthroughs in cancer management. Today, biomaterials are playing a crucial role in developing more efficacious retinoblastoma treatments. The key goal in the evolution of drug delivery biomaterials for retinoblastoma therapy is to resolve delivery-associated obstacles and lower nonlocal exposure while ameliorating certain adverse effects. In this review, we will first delve into the historical perspective of retinoblastoma with a focus on the classical treatments currently used in clinics to enhance patients' quality of life and survival rate. As we move along, we will discuss biomaterials for drug delivery applications. Various aspects of biomaterials for drug delivery will be dissected, including their features and recent advances. In accordance with the current advances in biomaterials, we will deliver a synopsis on the novel chemotherapeutic drug delivery strategies and evaluate these approaches to gain new insights into retinoblastoma treatment.

Challenges and opportunities in metastatic breast cancer treatments: Nano-drug combinations delivered preferentially to metastatic cells may enhance therapeutic response

Despite advances in breast cancer treatments and related 5-year survival outcomes, metastatic breast cancer cures remain elusive. The current standard of care includes a combination of surgery, radiation therapy and drug therapy. However, even the most advanced procedures and treatments do not prevent breast cancer recurrence and metastasis. Once metastasis occurs, patient prognosis is poor. Recent elucidation of the spatiotemporal transit of metastatic cancer cells from primary tumor sites to distant sites provide an opportunity to integrate knowledge of drug disposition in our effort to enhance drug localization and exposure in cancer laden tissues . Novel technologies have been developed, but could be further refined to facilitate the distribution of drugs to target cancer cells and tissues. The purpose of this review is to highlight the challenges in metastatic breast cancer treatment and focus on novel drug combination and nanotechnology approaches to overcome the challenges. With improved definition of metastatic tissue target, directed localization and retention of multiple, pharmacologically active drugs to tissues and cells of interest may overcome the limitations in breast cancer treatment that may lead to a cure for breast cancer.

Phytofabricated Nanoparticle Formulation for Cancer Treatment: A Comprehensive Review

In recent times, nanotechnology has made significant advances in the field of cancer. The majority of chemotherapeutic drugs do not selectively target cancer cells, and they might cause side effects and damage to healthy cells, resulting in a variety of adverse effects. Having a thorough understanding of nanoparticles may improve drug targeting and administration. The nano-engineering of pharmacological and natural compounds can improve the diagnosis and treatment. Polymeric micelles, liposomes, and dendrimers are examples of innovative cancer therapeutic nano-formulations. It has been demonstrated that quantum dots, nano-suspensions, and gold nanoparticles can improve drug delivery. Nanomedicines may be delivered more effectively, focusing on cancerous cells instead of healthy tissues, which minimizes undesirable side effects and drug resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. However, limited water solubility, low stability, poor absorption, and quick metabolism limit their therapeutic effectiveness. Nanotechnology has generated unique formulations to optimise the potential use of phytochemicals in anticancer therapy. Nanocomposites can improve phytochemical solubility and bioavailability, extend their half-life in circulation, and even transport phytochemicals to specific locations. The progress in using phytochemical-based nanoparticles in cancer treatment is summarized in this paper.

Involvement of Resveratrol against Brain Cancer: A Combination Strategy with a Pharmaceutical Approach

A brain tumor (BT) is a condition in which there is growth or uncontrolled development of the brain cells, which usually goes unrecognized or is diagnosed at the later stages. Since the mechanism behind BT is not clear, and the various physiological conditions are difficult to diagnose, the success rate of BT is not very high. This is the central issue faced during drug development and clinical trials with almost all types of neurodegenerative disorders. In the first part of this review, we focus on the concept of brain tumors, their barriers, and the types of delivery possible to target the brain cells. Although various treatment methods are available, they all have side effects or toxic effects. Hence, in the second part, a correlation was made between the use of resveratrol, a potent antioxidant, and its advantages for brain diseases. The relationship between brain disease and the blood–brain barrier, multi-drug resistance, and the use of nanomedicine for treating brain disorders is also mentioned. In short, a hypothetical concept is given with a background investigation into the use of combination therapy with resveratrol as an active ingredient, the possible drug delivery, and its formulation-based approach.