1
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Sayyad PW, Park SJ, Ha TJ. Recent advances in biosensors based on metal-oxide semiconductors system-integrated into bioelectronics. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 259:116407. [PMID: 38776800 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2024.116407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Metal-oxide semiconductors (MOSs) have emerged as pivotal components in technology related to biosensors and bioelectronics. Detecting biomarkers in sweat provides a glimpse into an individual's metabolism without the need for sample preparation or collection steps. The distinctive attributes of this biosensing technology position it as an appealing option for biomedical applications beyond the scope of diagnosis and healthcare monitoring. This review encapsulates ongoing developments of cutting-edge biosensors based on MOSs. Recent advances in MOS-based biosensors for human sweat analyses are reviewed. Also discussed is the progress in sweat-based biosensing technologies to detect and monitor diseases. Next, system integration of biosensors is demonstrated ultimately to ensure the accurate and reliable detection and analysis of target biomarkers beyond individual devices. Finally, the challenges and opportunities related to advanced biosensors and bioelectronics for biomedical applications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasha W Sayyad
- Department of Electronic Materials Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, 01897, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Joon Park
- Department of Electronic Materials Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, 01897, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Jun Ha
- Department of Electronic Materials Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, 01897, Republic of Korea.
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2
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Pan Y, Zhang J, Guo X, Li Y, Li L, Pan L. Recent Advances in Conductive Polymers-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Biomedical and Environmental Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1597. [PMID: 38891543 PMCID: PMC11174834 DOI: 10.3390/polym16111597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Electrochemical sensors play a pivotal role in various fields, such as biomedicine and environmental detection, due to their exceptional sensitivity, selectivity, stability, rapid response time, user-friendly operation, and ease of miniaturization and integration. In addition to the research conducted in the application field, significant focus is placed on the selection and optimization of electrode interface materials for electrochemical sensors. The detection performance of these sensors can be significantly enhanced by modifying the interface of either inorganic metal electrodes or printed electrodes. Among numerous available modification materials, conductive polymers (CPs) possess not only excellent conductivity exhibited by inorganic conductors but also unique three-dimensional structural characteristics inherent to polymers. This distinctive combination allows CPs to increase active sites during the detection process while providing channels for rapid ion transmission and facilitating efficient electron transfer during reaction processes. This review article primarily highlights recent research progress concerning CPs as an ideal choice for modifying electrochemical sensors owing to their remarkable features that make them well-suited for biomedical and environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youheng Pan
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Xin Guo
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Yarou Li
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Lanlan Li
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Lijia Pan
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
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3
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Davis N, Heikenfeld J, Milla C, Javey A. The challenges and promise of sweat sensing. Nat Biotechnol 2024; 42:860-871. [PMID: 38212492 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-023-02059-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
The potential of monitoring biomarkers in sweat for health-related applications has spurred rapid growth in the field of wearable sweat sensors over the past decade. Some of the key challenges have been addressed, including measuring sweat-secretion rate and collecting sufficient sample volumes for real-time, continuous molecular analysis without intense exercise. However, except for assessment of cystic fibrosis and regional nerve function, the ability to accurately measure analytes of interest and their physiological relevance to health metrics remain to be determined. Although sweat is not a crystal ball into every aspect of human health, we expect sweat measurements to continue making inroads into niche applications involving active sweating, such as hydration monitoring for athletes and physical laborers and later for medical and casual health monitoring of relevant drugs and hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelle Davis
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Carlos Milla
- The Stanford Cystic Fibrosis Center, Center for Excellence in Pulmonary Biology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA.
| | - Ali Javey
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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4
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Saha T, Mukherjee S, Dickey MD, Velev OD. Harvesting and manipulating sweat and interstitial fluid in microfluidic devices. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:1244-1265. [PMID: 38197332 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00874f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
Microfluidic devices began to be used to facilitate sweat and interstitial fluid (ISF) sensing in the mid-2010s. Since then, numerous prototypes involving microfluidics have been developed in different form factors for sensing biomarkers found in these fluids under in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo (on-body) settings. These devices transport and manipulate biofluids using microfluidic channels composed of silicone, polymer, paper, or fiber. Fluid flow transport and sample management can be achieved by controlling the flow rate, surface morphology of the channel, and rate of fluid evaporation. Although many devices have been developed for estimating sweat rate, electrolyte, and metabolite levels, only a handful have been able to proceed beyond laboratory testing and reach the stage of clinical trials and commercialization. To further this technology, this review reports on the utilization of microfluidics towards sweat and ISF management and transport. The review is distinguished from other recent reviews by focusing on microfluidic principles of sweat and ISF generation, transport, extraction, and management. Challenges and prospects are highlighted, with a discussion on how to transition such prototypes towards personalized healthcare monitoring systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamoghna Saha
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Sneha Mukherjee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Michael D Dickey
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Orlin D Velev
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
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5
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Xu C, Song Y, Sempionatto JR, Solomon SA, Yu Y, Nyein HYY, Tay RY, Li J, Heng W, Min J, Lao A, Hsiai TK, Sumner JA, Gao W. A physicochemical-sensing electronic skin for stress response monitoring. NATURE ELECTRONICS 2024; 7:168-179. [PMID: 38433871 PMCID: PMC10906959 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-023-01116-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Approaches to quantify stress responses typically rely on subjective surveys and questionnaires. Wearable sensors can potentially be used to continuously monitor stress-relevant biomarkers. However, the biological stress response is spread across the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems, and the capabilities of current sensors are not sufficient for condition-specific stress response evaluation. Here we report an electronic skin for stress response assessment that non-invasively monitors three vital signs (pulse waveform, galvanic skin response and skin temperature) and six molecular biomarkers in human sweat (glucose, lactate, uric acid, sodium ions, potassium ions and ammonium). We develop a general approach to prepare electrochemical sensors that relies on analogous composite materials for stabilizing and conserving sensor interfaces. The resulting sensors offer long-term sweat biomarker analysis of over 100 hours with high stability. We show that the electronic skin can provide continuous multimodal physicochemical monitoring over a 24-hour period and during different daily activities. With the help of a machine learning pipeline, we also show that the platform can differentiate three stressors with an accuracy of 98.0%, and quantify psychological stress responses with a confidence level of 98.7%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhao Xu
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Yu Song
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Juliane R. Sempionatto
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Samuel A. Solomon
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - You Yu
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Hnin Y. Y. Nyein
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Roland Yingjie Tay
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Jiahong Li
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Wenzheng Heng
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Jihong Min
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Alison Lao
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Tzung K. Hsiai
- Division of Cardiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer A. Sumner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Wei Gao
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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6
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Watkins Z, McHenry A, Heikenfeld J. Wearing the Lab: Advances and Challenges in Skin-Interfaced Systems for Continuous Biochemical Sensing. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 187:223-282. [PMID: 38273210 DOI: 10.1007/10_2023_238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Continuous, on-demand, and, most importantly, contextual data regarding individual biomarker concentrations exemplify the holy grail for personalized health and performance monitoring. This is well-illustrated for continuous glucose monitoring, which has drastically improved outcomes and quality of life for diabetic patients over the past 2 decades. Recent advances in wearable biosensing technologies (biorecognition elements, transduction mechanisms, materials, and integration schemes) have begun to make monitoring of other clinically relevant analytes a reality via minimally invasive skin-interfaced devices. However, several challenges concerning sensitivity, specificity, calibration, sensor longevity, and overall device lifetime must be addressed before these systems can be made commercially viable. In this chapter, a logical framework for developing a wearable skin-interfaced device for a desired application is proposed with careful consideration of the feasibility of monitoring certain analytes in sweat and interstitial fluid and the current development of the tools available to do so. Specifically, we focus on recent advancements in the engineering of biorecognition elements, the development of more robust signal transduction mechanisms, and novel integration schemes that allow for continuous quantitative analysis. Furthermore, we highlight the most compelling and promising prospects in the field of wearable biosensing and the challenges that remain in translating these technologies into useful products for disease management and for optimizing human performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach Watkins
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Adam McHenry
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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7
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Clark KM, Ray TR. Recent Advances in Skin-Interfaced Wearable Sweat Sensors: Opportunities for Equitable Personalized Medicine and Global Health Diagnostics. ACS Sens 2023; 8:3606-3622. [PMID: 37747817 PMCID: PMC11211071 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c01512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in skin-interfaced wearable sweat sensors enable the noninvasive, real-time monitoring of biochemical signals associated with health and wellness. These wearable platforms leverage microfluidic channels, biochemical sensors, and flexible electronics to enable the continuous analysis of sweat-based biomarkers such as electrolytes, metabolites, and hormones. As this field continues to mature, the potential of low-cost, continuous personalized health monitoring enabled by such wearable sensors holds significant promise for addressing some of the formidable obstacles to delivering comprehensive medical care in under-resourced settings. This Perspective highlights the transformative potential of wearable sweat sensing for providing equitable access to cutting-edge healthcare diagnostics, especially in remote or geographically isolated areas. It examines the current understanding of sweat composition as well as recent innovations in microfluidic device architectures and sensing strategies by showcasing emerging applications and opportunities for innovation. It concludes with a discussion on expanding the utility of wearable sweat sensors for clinically relevant health applications and opportunities for enabling equitable access to innovation to address existing health disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylee M. Clark
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawai’i at Mãnoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - Tyler R. Ray
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawai’i at Mãnoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, John. A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai’i at Mãnoa, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
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8
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Garland NT, Schmieder J, Johnson ZT, Hjort RG, Chen B, Andersen C, Sanborn D, Kjeldgaard G, Pola CC, Li J, Gomes C, Smith EA, Angus H, Meyer J, Claussen JC. Wearable Flexible Perspiration Biosensors Using Laser-Induced Graphene and Polymeric Tape Microfluidics. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:38201-38213. [PMID: 37526921 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c04665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Wearable biosensors promise real-time measurements of chemicals in human sweat, with the potential for dramatic improvements in medical diagnostics and athletic performance through continuous metabolite and electrolyte monitoring. However, sweat sensing is still in its infancy, and questions remain about whether sweat can be used for medical purposes. Wearable sensors are focused on proof-of-concept designs that are not scalable for multisubject trials, which could elucidate the utility of sweat sensing for health monitoring. Moreover, many wearable sensors do not include the microfluidics necessary to protect and channel consistent and clean sweat volumes to the sensor surface or are not designed to be disposable to prevent sensor biofouling and inaccuracies due to repeated use. Hence, there is a need to produce low-cost and single-use wearable sensors with integrated microfluidics to ensure reliable sweat sensing. Herein, we demonstrate the convergence of laser-induced graphene (LIG) based sensors with soft tape polymeric microfluidics to quantify both sweat metabolites (glucose and lactate) and electrolytes (sodium) for potential hydration and fatigue monitoring. Distinct LIG-electrodes were functionalized with glucose oxidase and lactate oxidase for selective sensing of glucose and lactate across physiological ranges found in sweat with sensitivities of 26.2 and 2.47 × 10-3 μA mM-1 cm-2, detection limits of 8 and 220 μM, and linear response ranges of 0-1 mM and 0-32 mM, respectively. LIG-electrodes functionalized with a sodium-ion-selective membrane displayed Nernstian sensitivity of 58.8 mV decade-1 and a linear response over the physiological range in sweat (10-100 mM). The sensors were tested in a simulated sweating skin microfluidic system and on-body during cycling tests in a multisubject trial. Results demonstrate the utility of LIG integrated with microfluidics for real-time, continuous measurements of biological analytes in sweat and help pave the way for the development of personalized wearable diagnostic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nate T Garland
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Jacob Schmieder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Zachary T Johnson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Robert G Hjort
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Bolin Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Cole Andersen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Delaney Sanborn
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Gabriel Kjeldgaard
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Cicero C Pola
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Jingzhe Li
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
- The Ames Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Carmen Gomes
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Emily A Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
- The Ames Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Hector Angus
- Department of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Jacob Meyer
- Department of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Jonathan C Claussen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
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9
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Min J, Demchyshyn S, Sempionatto JR, Song Y, Hailegnaw B, Xu C, Yang Y, Solomon S, Putz C, Lehner L, Schwarz JF, Schwarzinger C, Scharber M, Sani ES, Kaltenbrunner M, Gao W. An autonomous wearable biosensor powered by a perovskite solar cell. NATURE ELECTRONICS 2023; 6:630-641. [PMID: 38465017 PMCID: PMC10923186 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-023-00996-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Wearable sweat sensors can potentially be used to continuously and non-invasively monitor physicochemical biomarkers that contain information related to disease diagnostics and fitness tracking. However, the development of such autonomous sensors faces a number of challenges including achieving steady sweat extraction for continuous and prolonged monitoring, and addressing the high power demands of multifunctional and complex analysis. Here we report an autonomous wearable biosensor that is powered by a perovskite solar cell and can provide continuous and non-invasive metabolic monitoring. The device uses a flexible quasi-two-dimensional perovskite solar cell module that provides ample power under outdoor and indoor illumination conditions (power conversion efficiency exceeding 31% under indoor light illumination). We show that the wearable device can continuously collect multimodal physicochemical data - glucose, pH, sodium ions, sweat rate, and skin temperature - across indoor and outdoor physical activities for over 12 hours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihong Min
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Stepan Demchyshyn
- Division of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- Soft Materials Lab, Linz Institute of Technology, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Juliane R. Sempionatto
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Yu Song
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Bekele Hailegnaw
- Division of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- Soft Materials Lab, Linz Institute of Technology, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Changhao Xu
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Yiran Yang
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Samuel Solomon
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Christoph Putz
- Division of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- Soft Materials Lab, Linz Institute of Technology, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Lukas Lehner
- Division of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- Soft Materials Lab, Linz Institute of Technology, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Julia Felicitas Schwarz
- Institute for Chemical Technology of Organic Materials, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Clemens Schwarzinger
- Institute for Chemical Technology of Organic Materials, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Markus Scharber
- Linz Institute for Organic Solar Cells, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Ehsan Shirzaei Sani
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Martin Kaltenbrunner
- Division of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- Soft Materials Lab, Linz Institute of Technology, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Wei Gao
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
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10
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Liu Y, Li J, Xiao S, Liu Y, Bai M, Gong L, Zhao J, Chen D. Revolutionizing Precision Medicine: Exploring Wearable Sensors for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Personalized Therapy. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:726. [PMID: 37504123 PMCID: PMC10377150 DOI: 10.3390/bios13070726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Precision medicine, particularly therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM), is essential for optimizing drug dosage and minimizing toxicity. However, current TDM methods have limitations, including the need for skilled operators, patient discomfort, and the inability to monitor dynamic drug level changes. In recent years, wearable sensors have emerged as a promising solution for drug monitoring. These sensors offer real-time and continuous measurement of drug concentrations in biofluids, enabling personalized medicine and reducing the risk of toxicity. This review provides an overview of drugs detectable by wearable sensors and explores biosensing technologies that can enable drug monitoring in the future. It presents a comparative analysis of multiple biosensing technologies and evaluates their strengths and limitations for integration into wearable detection systems. The promising capabilities of wearable sensors for real-time and continuous drug monitoring offer revolutionary advancements in diagnostic tools, supporting personalized medicine and optimal therapeutic effects. Wearable sensors are poised to become essential components of healthcare systems, catering to the diverse needs of patients and reducing healthcare costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqiao Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Junmin Li
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Shenghao Xiao
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Yanhui Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Mingxia Bai
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Lixiu Gong
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Jiaqian Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Dajing Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310007, China
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11
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Gong L, Bonmarin M, Spano F, Shen Y, Shen L, Han G, Wei S, Zhang Q, Chen Z, Zhao F. Integrated Device Based on a Sudomotor Nanomaterial for Sweat Detection. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 37318096 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c03401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The compositions of sweat and blood are related. Therefore, sweat is an ideal noninvasive test body fluid that could replace blood for linear detection of many biomarkers, especially blood glucose. However, access to sweat samples remains limited to physical exercise, thermal stimulation, or electrical stimulation. Despite intensive research, a continuous, innocuous, and stable method for sweat stimulation and detection has not yet been developed. In this study, a nanomaterial for a sweat-stimulating gel based on the transdermal drug delivery system is presented, which transports acetylcholine chloride into the receptors of sweat glands to achieve the function of biological stimulation of skin sweating. The nanomaterial was applied to a suitable integrated sweat glucose detection device for noninvasive blood glucose monitoring. The total amount of evaporated sweat enabled by the nanomaterial is up to 35 μL·cm-2 for 24 h, and the device detects up to 17.65 μM glucose under optimal conditions, showing stable performance regardless of the user's activity level. In addition, the in vivo test was performed and compared with several studies and products, which showed excellent detection performance and osmotic relationship. The nanomaterial and associated integrated device represent a significant advance in continuous passive sweat stimulation and noninvasive sweat glucose measurement for point-of-care applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liuyu Gong
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
| | - Mathias Bonmarin
- School of Engineering, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Technikumstrasse 9, Winterthur, Zurich 8400, Switzerland
| | - Fabrizio Spano
- School of Engineering, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Technikumstrasse 9, Winterthur, Zurich 8400, Switzerland
| | - Ya Shen
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
| | - Lin Shen
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
| | - Guocheng Han
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
| | - Shanshan Wei
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
| | - Qihan Zhang
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
| | - Zhencheng Chen
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
| | - Feijun Zhao
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
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12
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Chen Y, Ma B, Zuo Y, Chen G, Hao Q, Zhao C, Liu H. Versatile sweat bioanalysis on demand with hydrogel-programmed wearables. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 235:115412. [PMID: 37236013 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Wearable sweat bioanalysis is promising for non-invasive diagnostics of diseases. However, collection of representative sweat samples without disturbing daily life and wearable bioanalysis of targets that are clinically significant are still challenging. In this work, we report on a versatile method for the sweat bioanalysis. The method is based on a thermoresponsive hydrogel which can imperceptibly absorb slowly secreted sweat without stimulation such as heat or sport exercise. The wearable bioanalysis is accomplished by programmed electric heating of hydrogel modules to 42°C to release absorbed sweat or preloaded reagents into a microfluidic detection channel. Using our method, not only one-step detection of glucose but also multi-step immunoassay of cortisol is accomplished within 1 h, even at a very low sweat rate. Our test results are also compared with those obtained with conventional blood samples and stimulated sweat samples to evaluate the applicability of our method to non-invasive clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichen Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Biao Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China.
| | - Yinxiu Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Gangsheng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Qing Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Chao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Hong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China.
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13
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Moonen EJM, Ul Islam T, van Kemenade S, Pelssers E, Heikenfeld J, den Toonder JMJ. A versatile artificial skin platform for sweat sensor development. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:2268-2275. [PMID: 37043225 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00109a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Research targeting the development of on-body sensors has been significantly growing in recent years - an example is on-skin sweat sensing. However, the wide inter and intra person variability of skin characteristics make in vivo testing of these sensors and included materials such as skin adhesives difficult, which hampers especially the initial development phase of such wearables. Besides the development of wearable sweat sensors, companies developing deodorants, cosmetics, medical adhesives and wearable textiles now need to perform expensive human subjects testing with little control over the exact sweat mechanisms. Hence, there is a need for a realistic, adaptable and stable test platform, or artificial skin. We present a versatile artificial skin platform that faithfully recapitulates skin topography, active sweat pores, skin wetting behaviour and sweat rate, and that can be tuned to mimic the specifications of the targeted body location and sweating characteristics. The developed artificial skin is capable of generating sweat rates as low as 0.1 nL min-1 pore-1 and as high as 100 nL min-1 pore-1, spanning the whole range of physiological sweat rates. Specifically, the platform can be used for the development of sweat sensors for sedentary persons whose sweat rates are commonly lower than currently delivered by any other artificial skin platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma J M Moonen
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Tanveer Ul Islam
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Sebastiaan van Kemenade
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Eduard Pelssers
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Philips Research, Royal Philips, High Tech Campus, 5656 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Novel Devices Laboratory, Biomedical Engineering Dept., Univ. of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA
| | - Jaap M J den Toonder
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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14
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Xu Z, Qiao X, Tao R, Li Y, Zhao S, Cai Y, Luo X. A wearable sensor based on multifunctional conductive hydrogel for simultaneous accurate pH and tyrosine monitoring in sweat. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 234:115360. [PMID: 37126874 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Flexible and wearable sweat sensors have drawn extensive attention by virtue of their continuous and real-time monitoring of molecular level information. However, current sweat-based sensors still pose several challenges, such as low accuracy for analytes detection, susceptibility to microorganism and poor mechanical performance. Herein, we demonstrated a noninvasive wearable sweat sensing patch composed of an electrochemical sensing system, and a pilocarpine-based iontophoretic system to stimulate sweat secretion. The electrochemical sensor based on tannic acid-Ag-carbon nanotube-polyaniline (TA-Ag-CNT-PANI) composite hydrogel was designed for on-body detection of pH and tyrosine (Tyr), a disease marker associated with multiple disorders, such as tyrosinemia and bulimia nervosa. The wearable sweat sensor can not only monitor the pH and Tyr in sweat simultaneously, but also further calibrate Tyr detection results with the measured pH value, so as to eliminate the effect of Tyr response variance at different pH and enhance the accuracy of the sensor. Furthermore, the presence of tannic acid chelated-Ag nanoparticles (TA-Ag NPs) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) significantly improved the conductivity and flexibility of the hydrogel and endowed the composite hydrogel with antibacterial capability. Of note, the constructed wearable sensor was capable of monitoring Tyr with enhanced accuracy in various sweats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenying Xu
- Key Laboratory of Optic-electric Sensing and Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, MOE, Shandong Key Laboratory of Biochemical Analysis, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266042, China
| | - Xiujuan Qiao
- Key Laboratory of Optic-electric Sensing and Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, MOE, Shandong Key Laboratory of Biochemical Analysis, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266042, China
| | - Runzhang Tao
- Key Laboratory of Optic-electric Sensing and Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, MOE, Shandong Key Laboratory of Biochemical Analysis, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266042, China
| | - Yanxin Li
- Key Laboratory of Optic-electric Sensing and Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, MOE, Shandong Key Laboratory of Biochemical Analysis, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266042, China
| | - Shuju Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Optic-electric Sensing and Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, MOE, Shandong Key Laboratory of Biochemical Analysis, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266042, China
| | - Yuchen Cai
- Key Laboratory of Optic-electric Sensing and Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, MOE, Shandong Key Laboratory of Biochemical Analysis, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266042, China
| | - Xiliang Luo
- Key Laboratory of Optic-electric Sensing and Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, MOE, Shandong Key Laboratory of Biochemical Analysis, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266042, China.
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15
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Min J, Tu J, Xu C, Lukas H, Shin S, Yang Y, Solomon SA, Mukasa D, Gao W. Skin-Interfaced Wearable Sweat Sensors for Precision Medicine. Chem Rev 2023; 123:5049-5138. [PMID: 36971504 PMCID: PMC10406569 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
Wearable sensors hold great potential in empowering personalized health monitoring, predictive analytics, and timely intervention toward personalized healthcare. Advances in flexible electronics, materials science, and electrochemistry have spurred the development of wearable sweat sensors that enable the continuous and noninvasive screening of analytes indicative of health status. Existing major challenges in wearable sensors include: improving the sweat extraction and sweat sensing capabilities, improving the form factor of the wearable device for minimal discomfort and reliable measurements when worn, and understanding the clinical value of sweat analytes toward biomarker discovery. This review provides a comprehensive review of wearable sweat sensors and outlines state-of-the-art technologies and research that strive to bridge these gaps. The physiology of sweat, materials, biosensing mechanisms and advances, and approaches for sweat induction and sampling are introduced. Additionally, design considerations for the system-level development of wearable sweat sensing devices, spanning from strategies for prolonged sweat extraction to efficient powering of wearables, are discussed. Furthermore, the applications, data analytics, commercialization efforts, challenges, and prospects of wearable sweat sensors for precision medicine are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihong Min
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Jiaobing Tu
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Changhao Xu
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Heather Lukas
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Soyoung Shin
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Yiran Yang
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Samuel A. Solomon
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Daniel Mukasa
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
| | - Wei Gao
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91125, USA
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16
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Shen G, Moua KTY, Perkins K, Johnson D, Li A, Curtin P, Gao W, McCune JS. Precision sirolimus dosing in children: The potential for model-informed dosing and novel drug monitoring. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1126981. [PMID: 37021042 PMCID: PMC10069443 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1126981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The mTOR inhibitor sirolimus is prescribed to treat children with varying diseases, ranging from vascular anomalies to sporadic lymphangioleiomyomatosis to transplantation (solid organ or hematopoietic cell). Precision dosing of sirolimus using therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) of sirolimus concentrations in whole blood drawn at the trough (before the next dose) time-point is the current standard of care. For sirolimus, trough concentrations are only modestly correlated with the area under the curve, with R 2 values ranging from 0.52 to 0.84. Thus, it should not be surprising, even with the use of sirolimus TDM, that patients treated with sirolimus have variable pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and effectiveness. Model-informed precision dosing (MIPD) will be beneficial and should be implemented. The data do not suggest dried blood spots point-of-care sampling of sirolimus concentrations for precision dosing of sirolimus. Future research on precision dosing of sirolimus should focus on pharmacogenomic and pharmacometabolomic tools to predict sirolimus pharmacokinetics and wearables for point-of-care quantitation and MIPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guofang Shen
- Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Sciences, City of Hope, and Department of Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Kao Tang Ying Moua
- Alfred E. Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Kathryn Perkins
- Alfred E. Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Deron Johnson
- Clinical Informatics, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Arthur Li
- Division of Biostatistics, City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Peter Curtin
- Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Sciences, City of Hope, and Department of Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Wei Gao
- Division of Engineering and Applied Science, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, United States
| | - Jeannine S. McCune
- Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Sciences, City of Hope, and Department of Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, CA, United States
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17
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On-Body Hypoxia Monitor Based on Lactate Biosensors with a Tunable Concentration Range. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2023.117330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
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18
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Yuan X, Li C, Yin X, Yang Y, Ji B, Niu Y, Ren L. Epidermal Wearable Biosensors for Monitoring Biomarkers of Chronic Disease in Sweat. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:313. [PMID: 36979525 PMCID: PMC10045998 DOI: 10.3390/bios13030313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Biological information detection technology is mainly used for the detection of physiological and biochemical parameters closely related to human tissues and organ lesions, such as biomarkers. This technology has important value in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of chronic diseases in their early stages. Wearable biosensors can be integrated with the Internet of Things and Big Data to realize the detection, transmission, storage, and comprehensive analysis of human physiological and biochemical information. This technology has extremely wide applications and considerable market prospects in frontier fields including personal health monitoring, chronic disease diagnosis and management, and home medical care. In this review, we systematically summarized the sweat biomarkers, introduced the sweat extraction and collection methods, and discussed the application and development of epidermal wearable biosensors for monitoring biomarkers in sweat in preclinical research in recent years. In addition, the current challenges and development prospects in this field were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xichen Yuan
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Systems for Aerospace, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Chen Li
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo 315103, China
| | - Xu Yin
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Low-Grade Energy Utilization Technologies and Systems, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Bowen Ji
- Unmanned System Research Institute, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Yinbo Niu
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Li Ren
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo 315103, China
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19
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Ibrahim NFA, Sabani N, Johari S, Manaf AA, Wahab AA, Zakaria Z, Noor AM. A Comprehensive Review of the Recent Developments in Wearable Sweat-Sensing Devices. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:7670. [PMID: 36236769 PMCID: PMC9573257 DOI: 10.3390/s22197670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Sweat analysis offers non-invasive real-time on-body measurement for wearable sensors. However, there are still gaps in current developed sweat-sensing devices (SSDs) regarding the concerns of mixing fresh and old sweat and real-time measurement, which are the requirements to ensure accurate the measurement of wearable devices. This review paper discusses these limitations by aiding model designs, features, performance, and the device operation for exploring the SSDs used in different sweat collection tools, focusing on continuous and non-continuous flow sweat analysis. In addition, the paper also comprehensively presents various sweat biomarkers that have been explored by earlier works in order to broaden the use of non-invasive sweat samples in healthcare and related applications. This work also discusses the target analyte's response mechanism for different sweat compositions, categories of sweat collection devices, and recent advances in SSDs regarding optimal design, functionality, and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Fatin Adini Ibrahim
- Faculty of Electronic Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
| | - Norhayati Sabani
- Faculty of Electronic Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
- Center of Excellance Micro System Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
| | - Shazlina Johari
- Faculty of Electronic Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
- Center of Excellance Micro System Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
| | - Asrulnizam Abd Manaf
- Collaborative Microelectronic Design Excellence Centre, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800, Malaysia
| | - Asnida Abdul Wahab
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia
| | - Zulkarnay Zakaria
- Faculty of Electronic Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
- Sports Engineering Research Center, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
| | - Anas Mohd Noor
- Faculty of Electronic Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
- Center of Excellance Micro System Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
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20
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Laffitte Y, Gray BL. Potentiometric pH Sensor Based on Flexible Screen-Printable Polyaniline Composite for Textile-Based Microfluidic Applications. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:1376. [PMID: 36143999 PMCID: PMC9503819 DOI: 10.3390/mi13091376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Skin pH can be used for monitoring infections in a healing wound, the onset of dermatitis, and hydration in sports medicine, but many challenges exist in integrating conventional sensing materials into wearable platforms. We present the development of a flexible, textile-based, screen-printed electrode system for biosensing applications, and demonstrate flexible polyaniline (PANI) composite-based potentiometric sensors on a textile substrate for real-time pH measurement. The pH response of the optimized PANI/dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid/screen-printing ink composite is compared to electropolymerized and drop-cast PANI sensors via open circuit potential measurements. High sensitivity was observed for all sensors between pH 3-10, with a composite based on PANI emeraldine base, demonstrating sufficient response time and a linear sensitivity of -27.9 mV/pH. This exceeded prior flexible screen-printed pH sensors in which all parts of the sensor, including the pH sensing material, are screen-printed. Even better sensitivity was observed for a PANI emeraldine salt composite (-42.6 mV/pH), although the response was less linear. Furthermore, the sensor was integrated into a screen-printed microfluidic channel demonstrating sample isolation during measurement for wearable, micro cloth-based analytical devices. This is the first fully screen-printed flexible PANI composite pH sensor demonstrated on a textile substrate that can additionally be integrated with textile-based microfluidic channels.
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21
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Daboss EV, Tikhonov DV, Shcherbacheva EV, Karyakin AA. Ultrastable Lactate Biosensor Linearly Responding in Whole Sweat for Noninvasive Monitoring of Hypoxia. Anal Chem 2022; 94:9201-9207. [PMID: 35687799 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
We report on the lactate biosensor with linear calibration range from 0.5 to 100 mM, which encircles possible levels of this metabolite concentration in both human sweat and blood. The linear calibration range at high analyte concentrations, which exceeds the Michaelis constant of lactate oxidase by several orders of magnitude, is provided by an additional perfluorosulfonated ionomer diffusion membrane. In contrast to the known lactate biosensors, which retain their response within less than a couple of hours, the reported system displays 100% response for dozens of hours even upon high analyte concentrations. The biosensors with an additional diffusion-limiting membrane have been validated for lactate detection both in human blood serum and in undiluted human sweat shortly after its secretion. Both linear response in the entire range of blood and sweat lactate concentrations and ultrahigh operational stability would provide the use of the elaborated biosensor in wearable devices for the monitoring of hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V Daboss
- Chemistry Faculty of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitrii V Tikhonov
- Chemistry Faculty of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Arkady A Karyakin
- Chemistry Faculty of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University 119991 Moscow, Russia
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22
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Yang Q, Rosati G, Abarintos V, Aroca MA, Osma JF, Merkoçi A. Wearable and fully printed microfluidic nanosensor for sweat rate, conductivity, and copper detection with healthcare applications. Biosens Bioelectron 2022; 202:114005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2022.114005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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23
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Sim D, Brothers MC, Slocik JM, Islam AE, Maruyama B, Grigsby CC, Naik RR, Kim SS. Biomarkers and Detection Platforms for Human Health and Performance Monitoring: A Review. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2104426. [PMID: 35023321 PMCID: PMC8895156 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202104426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Human health and performance monitoring (HHPM) is imperative to provide information necessary for protecting, sustaining, evaluating, and improving personnel in various occupational sectors, such as industry, academy, sports, recreation, and military. While various commercially wearable sensors are on the market with their capability of "quantitative assessments" on human health, physical, and psychological states, their sensing is mostly based on physical traits, and thus lacks precision in HHPM. Minimally or noninvasive biomarkers detectable from the human body, such as body fluid (e.g., sweat, tear, urine, and interstitial fluid), exhaled breath, and skin surface, can provide abundant additional information to the HHPM. Detecting these biomarkers with novel or existing sensor technologies is emerging as critical human monitoring research. This review provides a broad perspective on the state of the art biosensor technologies for HHPM, including the list of biomarkers and their physiochemical/physical characteristics, fundamental sensing principles, and high-performance sensing transducers. Further, this paper expands to the additional scope on the key technical challenges in applying the current HHPM system to the real field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sim
- Air Force Research Laboratory711th Human Performance WingWright‐Patterson Air Force BaseOH 45433USA
- Research Associateship Program (RAP)the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and MedicineWashingtonDC20001USA
- Integrative Health & Performance Sciences DivisionUES Inc.DaytonOH45432USA
| | - Michael C. Brothers
- Air Force Research Laboratory711th Human Performance WingWright‐Patterson Air Force BaseOH 45433USA
- Integrative Health & Performance Sciences DivisionUES Inc.DaytonOH45432USA
| | - Joseph M. Slocik
- Air Force Research LaboratoryMaterials and Manufacturing DirectorateWright‐Patterson Air Force BaseOH 45433USA
| | - Ahmad E. Islam
- Air Force Research LaboratorySensors DirectorateWright‐Patterson Air Force BaseOH 45433USA
| | - Benji Maruyama
- Air Force Research LaboratoryMaterials and Manufacturing DirectorateWright‐Patterson Air Force BaseOH 45433USA
| | - Claude C. Grigsby
- Air Force Research Laboratory711th Human Performance WingWright‐Patterson Air Force BaseOH 45433USA
| | - Rajesh R. Naik
- Air Force Research Laboratory711th Human Performance WingWright‐Patterson Air Force BaseOH 45433USA
| | - Steve S. Kim
- Air Force Research Laboratory711th Human Performance WingWright‐Patterson Air Force BaseOH 45433USA
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24
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Drexelius A, Fehr D, Vescoli V, Heikenfeld J, Bonmarin M. A simple non-contact optical method to quantify in-vivo sweat gland activity and pulsation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2022; 69:2638-2645. [PMID: 35171763 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2022.3151938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Most methods for monitoring sweat gland activity use simple gravimetric methods, which merely measure the average sweat rate of multiple sweat glands over a region of skin. It would be extremely useful to have a method which could quantify individual gland activity in order to improve the treatment of conditions which use sweat tests as a diagnostic tool, such as hyperhidrosis, cystic fibrosis, and peripheral nerve degeneration. METHODS An optical method using an infrared camera to monitor the skin surface temperature was developed. A thermodynamics computer model was then implemented to utilize these skin temperature values along with other environmental parameters, such as ambient temperature and relative humidity, to calculate the sweat rates of individual glands using chemically stimulated and unstimulated sweating. The optical method was also used to monitor sweat pulsation patterns of individual sweat glands. RESULTS In this preliminary study, the feasibility of the optical approach was demonstrated by measuring sweat rates of individual glands at various bodily locations. Calculated values from this method agree with expected sweat rates given values found in literature. In addition, a lack of pulsatile sweat expulsion was observed during chemically stimulated sweating, and a potential explanation for this phenomenon was proposed. CONCLUSION A simple, non-contact optical method to quantify sweat gland activity in-vivo was presented. SIGNIFICANCE This method allows researchers and clinicians to investigate several sweat glands simultaneously, which has the potential to provide more accurate diagnoses and treatment as well as increase the potential utility for wearable sweat sensors.
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25
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Abe Y, Nishizawa M. Electrical aspects of skin as a pathway to engineering skin devices. APL Bioeng 2021; 5:041509. [PMID: 34849444 PMCID: PMC8604566 DOI: 10.1063/5.0064529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin is one of the indispensable organs for life. The epidermis at the outermost surface provides a permeability barrier to infectious agents, chemicals, and excessive loss of water, while the dermis and subcutaneous tissue mechanically support the structure of the skin and appendages, including hairs and secretory glands. The integrity of the integumentary system is a key for general health, and many techniques have been developed to measure and control this protective function. In contrast, the effective skin barrier is the major obstacle for transdermal delivery and detection. Changes in the electrical properties of skin, such as impedance and ionic activity, is a practical indicator that reflects the structures and functions of the skin. For example, the impedance that reflects the hydration of the skin is measured for quantitative assessment in skincare, and the current generated across a wound is used for the evaluation and control of wound healing. Furthermore, the electrically charged structure of the skin enables transdermal drug delivery and chemical extraction. This paper provides an overview of the electrical aspects of the skin and summarizes current advances in the development of devices based on these features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuina Abe
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Matsuhiko Nishizawa
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
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26
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Diniz AFA, de Oliveira Claudino BF, Duvirgens MV, da Silva Souza PP, Ferreira PB, Júnior FFL, Alves AF, da Silva BA. Spirulina platensis Consumption Prevents Obesity and Improves the Deleterious Effects on Intestinal Reactivity in Rats Fed a Hypercaloric Diet. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:3260789. [PMID: 34367461 PMCID: PMC8337120 DOI: 10.1155/2021/3260789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of hypercaloric diets is related to the development of obesity, favoring the etiology of gastrointestinal disorders. In this context, Spirulina platensis (SP), some blue-green algae with antioxidant action, appears as a potential therapeutic alternative to prevent obesity and associated intestinal disorders. Thus, the present study is aimed at evaluating the deleterious effects of the hypercaloric diet on the contractile and relaxing reactivity of the ileum of rats, as well as the possible preventive mechanisms of dietary supplementation with SP. Wistar rats were divided into three groups: fed a standard diet (SD), a hypercaloric diet (HCD), and/or supplemented with 25 mg/kg SP (HCD + SP25) for 8 weeks. The hypercaloric diet was effective in promoting obesity in rats, as well as decreasing potency and ileal relaxing and contractile efficacy. In contrast, dietary supplementation with SP was able to prevent some of the parameters of experimental obesity. In addition, SP prevented the reduction of intestinal reactivity, possibly due to a positive modulation of voltage-gated calcium channels (CaV) and negative regulation of muscarinic receptors (M3). Thus, food supplementation with Spirulina platensis becomes a promising alternative in the prevention of gastrointestinal diseases induced and/or aggravated by obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson Fellyp Avelino Diniz
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Products Bioactive/Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Paula Benvindo Ferreira
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Products Bioactive/Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Francisco Fernandes Lacerda Júnior
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Products Bioactive/Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Adriano Francisco Alves
- General Pathology Laboratory-Health Sciences Center-Department of Physiology and Pathology, Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Bagnólia Araújo da Silva
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Products Bioactive/Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Department/Health Sciences Center/Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
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Flexible Enzymatic Glucose Electrochemical Sensor Based on Polystyrene-Gold Electrodes. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:mi12070805. [PMID: 34357215 PMCID: PMC8306220 DOI: 10.3390/mi12070805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic disorders such as the highly prevalent disease diabetes require constant monitoring. The health status of patients is linked to glucose levels in blood, which are typically measured invasively, but can also be correlated to other body fluids such as sweat. Aiming at a reliable glucose biosensor, an enzymatic sensing layer was fabricated on flexible polystyrene foil, for which a versatile nanoimprinting process for microfluidics was presented. For the sensing layer, a gold electrode was modified with a cysteine layer and glutaraldehyde cross-linker for enzyme conformal immobilization. Chronoamperometric measurements were conducted in PBS buffered glucose solution at two potentials (0.65 V and 0.7 V) and demonstrated a linear range between 0.025 mM to 2mM and an operational range of 0.025 mM to 25 mM. The sensitivity was calculated as 1.76µA/mM/cm2 and the limit of detection (LOD) was calculated as 0.055 mM at 0.7 V. An apparent Michaelis–Menten constant of 3.34 mM (0.7 V) and 0.445 mM (0.65 V) was computed. The wide operational range allows the application for point-of-care testing for a variety of body fluids. Yet, the linear range and low LOD make this biosensor especially suitable for non-invasive sweat sensing wearables.
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Yokus BMA, Daniele MA. Integrated non-invasive biochemical and biophysical sensing systems for health and performance monitoring: A systems perspective. Biosens Bioelectron 2021; 184:113249. [PMID: 33895689 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Advances in materials, bio-recognition elements, transducers, and microfabrication techniques, as well as progress in electronics, signal processing, and wireless communication have generated a new class of skin-interfaced wearable health monitoring systems for applications in personalized medicine and digital health. In comparison to conventional medical devices, these wearable systems are at the cusp of initiating a new era of longitudinal and noninvasive sensing for the prevention, detection, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases at the molecular level. Herein, we provide a review of recent developments in wearable biochemical and biophysical systems. We survey the sweat sampling and collection methods for biochemical systems, followed by an assessment of biochemical and biophysical sensors deployed in current wearable systems with an emphasis on their hardware specifications. Specifically, we address how sweat collection and sample handling platforms may be a rate limiting technology to realizing the clinical translation of wearable health monitoring systems; moreover, we highlight the importance of achieving both longitudinal sensing and assessment of intrapersonal variation in sweat-blood correlations to have the greatest clinical impact. Lastly, we assess a snapshot of integrated wireless wearable systems with multimodal sensing capabilities, and we conclude with our perspective on the state-of-the-art and the required developments to achieve the next-generation of integrated wearable health and performance monitoring systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- By Murat A Yokus
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, 890 Oval Dr., Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Michael A Daniele
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, 890 Oval Dr., Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA; Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 911 Oval Dr., Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA.
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Rabost-Garcia G, Farré-Lladós J, Casals-Terré J. Recent Impact of Microfluidics on Skin Models for Perspiration Simulation. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11020150. [PMID: 33670063 PMCID: PMC7926414 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11020150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Skin models offer an in vitro alternative to human trials without their high costs, variability, and ethical issues. Perspiration models, in particular, have gained relevance lately due to the rise of sweat analysis and wearable technology. The predominant approach to replicate the key features of perspiration (sweat gland dimensions, sweat rates, and skin surface characteristics) is to use laser-machined membranes. Although they work effectively, they present some limitations at the time of replicating sweat gland dimensions. Alternative strategies in terms of fabrication and materials have also showed similar challenges. Additional research is necessary to implement a standardized, simple, and accurate model representing sweating for wearable sensors testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genís Rabost-Garcia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, MicroTech Lab, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), C/Colom 7-11, 08222 Terrassa, Spain; (J.F.-L.); (J.C.-T.)
- Onalabs Inno-hub S.L., C/de la Llibertat 11, 08012 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Josep Farré-Lladós
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, MicroTech Lab, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), C/Colom 7-11, 08222 Terrassa, Spain; (J.F.-L.); (J.C.-T.)
| | - Jasmina Casals-Terré
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, MicroTech Lab, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), C/Colom 7-11, 08222 Terrassa, Spain; (J.F.-L.); (J.C.-T.)
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Ji W, Zhu J, Wu W, Wang N, Wang J, Wu J, Wu Q, Wang X, Yu C, Wei G, Li L, Huo F. Wearable Sweat Biosensors Refresh Personalized Health/Medical Diagnostics. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2021; 2021:9757126. [PMID: 34778790 PMCID: PMC8557357 DOI: 10.34133/2021/9757126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/18/2021] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Sweat contains a broad range of critical biomarkers including ions, small molecules, and macromolecules that may indirectly or directly reflect the health status of the human body and thereby help track disease progression. Wearable sweat biosensors enable the collection and analysis of sweat in situ, achieving real-time, continuous, and noninvasive monitoring of human biochemical parameters at the molecular level. This review summarizes the physiological/pathological information of sweat and wearable sweat biosensors. First, the production of sweat pertaining to various electrolytes, metabolites, and proteins is described. Then, the compositions of the wearable sweat biosensors are summarized, and the design of each subsystem is introduced in detail. The latest applications of wearable sweat biosensors for outdoor, hospital, and family monitoring are highlighted. Finally, the review provides a summary and an outlook on the future developments and challenges of wearable sweat biosensors with the aim of advancing the field of wearable sweat monitoring technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Ji
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Jingyu Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Wanxia Wu
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Nanxiang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Jiqing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Jiansheng Wu
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Qiong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Xuewen Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Changmin Yu
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Gaofeng Wei
- Naval Medical Department, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Lin Li
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
- The Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE, Future Technologies), Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Fengwei Huo
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
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Biscay J, Findlay E, Dennany L. Electrochemical monitoring of alcohol in sweat. Talanta 2020; 224:121815. [PMID: 33379040 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Rapid, periodic monitoring and detection of ethanol (EtOH) after consumption via a non-invasive measurement has been an area of increased research in recent years. Current point-of-care or on-site detection strategies rely on single use sensors which are inadequate for monitoring during a longer period. A low cost, portable and novel approach is developed here for real-time monitoring over several days utilising electrochemical techniques. The sensor shows oxidation of the ethanol in phosphate buffer and artificial sweat using the amperometric response from the application of +0.9 V to the polyaniline modified screen printed electrode using 1 mM EtOH as the averaged amount of EtOH eliminated in sweat after the consumption of one alcoholic beverage. Our enzyme based electrochemical sensor exhibits a qualitative assessment of the presence of EtOH in small volumes (≤40 μL) of 0.1 M sodium bicarbonate and subsequently artificial sweat, with 50 measurements taken daily over 11 days. While quantitative information is not obtained, the sensor system exhibits excellent stability after 3 months' dried storage in this complex biological matrix in an oxygen free cabinet. This addresses one of the key challenges for enzyme based electrochemical sensors, namely, the ability for real-time monitoring in complex biological matrices. The qualitative response illustrates the potential for this sensor to be exploited by non-experts which suggests the promise for their wider application in next-generation wearable electronics necessary for alcohol monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Biscay
- WestChem, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Technology and Innovation Centre, 99 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1RD, UK; Stirling University Innovation Park, Buddi Ltd, Unit 14, Scion House, Stirling, FK9 4NF, UK
| | - Ewan Findlay
- Stirling University Innovation Park, Buddi Ltd, Unit 14, Scion House, Stirling, FK9 4NF, UK
| | - Lynn Dennany
- WestChem, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Technology and Innovation Centre, 99 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1RD, UK.
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32
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Moonen EJ, Haakma JR, Peri E, Pelssers E, Mischi M, den Toonder JM. Wearable sweat sensing for prolonged, semicontinuous, and nonobtrusive health monitoring. VIEW 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/viw.20200077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Emma J.M. Moonen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS) Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Jelte R. Haakma
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Laboratory of Biomedical Diagnostics Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Elisabetta Peri
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Laboratory of Biomedical Diagnostics Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Eduard Pelssers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
- Philips Research Royal Philips High Tech Campus Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Massimo Mischi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Laboratory of Biomedical Diagnostics Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M.J. den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS) Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
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Electrochemical multi-analyte point-of-care perspiration sensors using on-chip three-dimensional graphene electrodes. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 413:763-777. [PMID: 32989512 PMCID: PMC7809000 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02939-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Multi-analyte sensing using exclusively laser-induced graphene (LIG)-based planar electrode systems was developed for sweat analysis. LIG provides 3D structures of graphene, can be manufactured easier than any other carbon electrode also on large scale, and in form of electrodes: hence, it is predestinated for affordable, wearable point-of-care sensors. Here, it is demonstrated that LIG facilitates all three electrochemical sensing strategies (voltammetry, potentiometry, impedance) in a multi-analyte system for sweat analysis. A potentiometric potassium-ion-selective electrode in combination with an electrodeposited Ag/AgCl reference electrode (RE) enabled the detection of potassium ions in the entire physiologically relevant range (1 to 500 mM) with a fast response time, unaffected by the presence of main interfering ions and sweat-collecting materials. A kidney-shaped interdigitated LIG electrode enabled the determination of the overall electrolyte concentration by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy at a fixed frequency. Enzyme-based strategies with amperometric detection share a common RE and were realized with Prussian blue as electron mediator and biocompatible chitosan for enzyme immobilization and protection of the electrode. Using glucose and lactate oxidases, lower limits of detection of 13.7 ± 0.5 μM for glucose and 28 ± 3 μM for lactate were obtained, respectively. The sensor showed a good performance at different pH, with sweat-collecting tissues, on a model skin system and furthermore in synthetic sweat as well as in artificial tear fluid. Response time for each analytical cycle totals 75 s, and hence allows a quasi-continuous and simultaneous monitoring of all analytes. This multi-analyte all-LIG system is therefore a practical, versatile, and most simple strategy for point-of-care applications and has the potential to outcompete standard screen-printed electrodes. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Teymourian H, Parrilla M, Sempionatto JR, Montiel NF, Barfidokht A, Van Echelpoel R, De Wael K, Wang J. Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for the Monitoring and Screening of Drugs. ACS Sens 2020; 5:2679-2700. [PMID: 32822166 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Wearable electrochemical sensors capable of noninvasive monitoring of chemical markers represent a rapidly emerging digital-health technology. Recent advances toward wearable continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems have ignited tremendous interest in expanding such sensor technology to other important fields. This article reviews for the first time wearable electrochemical sensors for monitoring therapeutic drugs and drugs of abuse. This rapidly emerging class of drug-sensing wearable devices addresses the growing demand for personalized medicine, toward improved therapeutic outcomes while minimizing the side effects of drugs and the related medical expenses. Continuous, noninvasive monitoring of therapeutic drugs within bodily fluids empowers clinicians and patients to correlate the pharmacokinetic properties with optimal outcomes by realizing patient-specific dose regulation and tracking dynamic changes in pharmacokinetics behavior while assuring the medication adherence of patients. Furthermore, wearable electrochemical drug monitoring devices can also serve as powerful screening tools in the hands of law enforcement agents to combat drug trafficking and support on-site forensic investigations. The review covers various wearable form factors developed for noninvasive monitoring of therapeutic drugs in different body fluids and toward on-site screening of drugs of abuse. The future prospects of such wearable drug monitoring devices are presented with the ultimate goals of introducing accurate real-time drug monitoring protocols and autonomous closed-loop platforms toward precise dose regulation and optimal therapeutic outcomes. Finally, current unmet challenges and existing gaps are discussed for motivating future technological innovations regarding personalized therapy. The current pace of developments and the tremendous market opportunities for such wearable drug monitoring platforms are expected to drive intense future research and commercialization efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazhir Teymourian
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Marc Parrilla
- AXES Research Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Juliane R. Sempionatto
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Noelia Felipe Montiel
- AXES Research Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Abbas Barfidokht
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Robin Van Echelpoel
- AXES Research Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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A programmable epidermal microfluidic valving system for wearable biofluid management and contextual biomarker analysis. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4405. [PMID: 32879320 PMCID: PMC7467936 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18238-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Active biofluid management is central to the realization of wearable bioanalytical platforms that are poised to autonomously provide frequent, real-time, and accurate measures of biomarkers in epidermally-retrievable biofluids (e.g., sweat). Accordingly, here, a programmable epidermal microfluidic valving system is devised, which is capable of biofluid sampling, routing, and compartmentalization for biomarker analysis. At its core, the system is a network of individually-addressable microheater-controlled thermo-responsive hydrogel valves, augmented with a pressure regulation mechanism to accommodate pressure built-up, when interfacing sweat glands. The active biofluid control achieved by this system is harnessed to create unprecedented wearable bioanalytical capabilities at both the sensor level (decoupling the confounding influence of flow rate variability on sensor response) and the system level (facilitating context-based sensor selection/protection). Through integration with a wireless flexible printed circuit board and seamless bilateral communication with consumer electronics (e.g., smartwatch), contextually-relevant (scheduled/on-demand) on-body biomarker data acquisition/display was achieved. Wearable biosensors have been used successfully for biomarker analysis, however, a lack of control over sampling limits applications. Here, the authors report a programmable microfluidic valve to control flow rate, sampling times and allow for biofluid routing and compartmentalisation.
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36
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Bariya M, Li L, Ghattamaneni R, Ahn CH, Nyein HYY, Tai LC, Javey A. Glove-based sensors for multimodal monitoring of natural sweat. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eabb8308. [PMID: 32923646 PMCID: PMC7455190 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abb8308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Sweat sensors targeting exercise or chemically induced sweat have shown promise for noninvasive health monitoring. Natural thermoregulatory sweat is an attractive alternative as it can be accessed during routine and sedentary activity without impeding user lifestyles and potentially preserves correlations between sweat and blood biomarkers. We present simple glove-based sensors to accumulate natural sweat with minimal evaporation, capitalizing on high sweat gland densities to collect hundreds of microliters in just 30 min without active sweat stimulation. Sensing electrodes are patterned on nitrile gloves and finger cots for in situ detection of diverse biomarkers, including electrolytes and xenobiotics, and multiple gloves or cots are worn in sequence to track overarching analyte dynamics. Direct integration of sensors into gloves represents a simple and low-overhead scheme for natural sweat analysis, enabling sweat-based physiological monitoring to become practical and routine without requiring highly complex or miniaturized components for analyte collection and signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mallika Bariya
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Lu Li
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Rahul Ghattamaneni
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Christine Heera Ahn
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Hnin Yin Yin Nyein
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Li-Chia Tai
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Ali Javey
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Qiao L, Benzigar MR, Subramony JA, Lovell NH, Liu G. Advances in Sweat Wearables: Sample Extraction, Real-Time Biosensing, and Flexible Platforms. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:34337-34361. [PMID: 32579332 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c07614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Wearable biosensors for sweat-based analysis are gaining wide attention due to their potential use in personal health monitoring. Flexible wearable devices enable sweat analysis at the molecular level, facilitating noninvasive monitoring of physiological states via real-time monitoring of chemical biomarkers. Advances in sweat extraction technology, real-time biosensors, stretchable materials, device integration, and wireless digital technologies have led to the development of wearable sweat-biosensing devices that are light, flexible, comfortable, aesthetic, affordable, and informative. Herein, we summarize recent advances of sweat wearables from the aspects of sweat extraction, fabrication of stretchable biomaterials, and design of biosensing modules to enable continuous biochemical monitoring, which are essential for a biosensing device. Key chemical components of sweat, sweat capture methodologies, and considerations of flexible substrates for integrating real-time biosensors with electronics to bring innovations in the art of wearables are elaborated. The strategies and challenges involved in improving the wearable biosensing performance and the perspectives for designing sweat-based wearable biosensing devices are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laicong Qiao
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Mercy Rose Benzigar
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - J Anand Subramony
- Antibody Discovery and Protein Engineering, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Nigel H Lovell
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Guozhen Liu
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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Lin S, Wang B, Zhao Y, Shih R, Cheng X, Yu W, Hojaiji H, Lin H, Hoffman C, Ly D, Tan J, Chen Y, Di Carlo D, Milla C, Emaminejad S. Natural Perspiration Sampling and in Situ Electrochemical Analysis with Hydrogel Micropatches for User-Identifiable and Wireless Chemo/Biosensing. ACS Sens 2020; 5:93-102. [PMID: 31786928 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b01727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in microelectronics, microfluidics, and electrochemical sensing platforms have enabled the development of an emerging class of fully integrated personal health monitoring devices that exploit sweat to noninvasively access biomarker information. Despite such advances, effective sweat sampling remains a significant challenge for reliable biomarker analysis, with many existing methods requiring active stimulation (e.g., iontophoresis, exercise, heat). Natural perspiration offers a suitable alternative as sweat can be collected with minimal effort on the part of the user. To leverage this phenomenon, we devised a thin hydrogel micropatch (THMP), which simultaneously serves as an interface for sweat sampling and a medium for electrochemical sensing. To characterize the performance of the THMP, caffeine and lactate were selected as two representative target molecules. We demonstrated the suitability of the sampling method to track metabolic patterns, as well as to render sample-to-answer biomarker data for personal monitoring (through coupling with an electrochemical sensing system). To inform its potential application, this biomarker sampling and sensing system is incorporated within a distributed terminal-based sensing network, which uniquely capitalizes on the fingertip as a site for simultaneous biomarker data sampling and user identification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Carlos Milla
- The Stanford Cystic Fibrosis Center, Center for Excellence in Pulmonary Biology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California 94305, United States
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Zhao FJ, Bonmarin M, Chen ZC, Larson M, Fay D, Runnoe D, Heikenfeld J. Ultra-simple wearable local sweat volume monitoring patch based on swellable hydrogels. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:168-174. [PMID: 31796944 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00911f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Quantifiably monitoring sweat rate and volume is important to assess the stress level of individuals and/or prevent dehydration, but despite intense research, a convenient, continuous, and low-cost method to monitor sweat rate and total sweat volume loss remains an un-met need. We present here an ultra-simple wearable sensor capable of measuring sweat rate and volume accurately. The device continuously monitors sweat rate by wicking the produced sweat into hydrogels that measurably swell in their physical geometry. The device has been designed as a simple to fabricate, low-cost, disposable patch. This patch exhibits stable and predictable operation over the maximum variable chemistry expected for sweat (pH 4-9 and salinity 0-100 mM NaCl). Preliminary in vivo testing of the patch has been achieved during aerobic exercise, and the sweat rates measured via the patch accurately follow actual sweat rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Zhao
- College of Electronic Engineering and Automation, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China and Novel Devices Laboratory, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA
| | - M Bonmarin
- Novel Devices Laboratory, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA and School of Engineering, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Technikumstrasse 9, Winterthur, Zurich 8400, Switzerland
| | - Z C Chen
- College of Electronic Engineering and Automation, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China
| | - M Larson
- Eccrine Systems Inc., 1775 Mentor Ave, Cincinnati, Ohio 45212, USA
| | - D Fay
- Eccrine Systems Inc., 1775 Mentor Ave, Cincinnati, Ohio 45212, USA
| | - D Runnoe
- Eccrine Systems Inc., 1775 Mentor Ave, Cincinnati, Ohio 45212, USA
| | - J Heikenfeld
- Novel Devices Laboratory, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA
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Sempionatto JR, Jeerapan I, Krishnan S, Wang J. Wearable Chemical Sensors: Emerging Systems for On-Body Analytical Chemistry. Anal Chem 2019; 92:378-396. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juliane R. Sempionatto
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Itthipon Jeerapan
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Sadagopan Krishnan
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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41
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Bandodkar AJ, Jeang WJ, Ghaffari R, Rogers JA. Wearable Sensors for Biochemical Sweat Analysis. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2019; 12:1-22. [PMID: 30786214 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-061318-114910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Sweat is a largely unexplored biofluid that contains many important biomarkers ranging from electrolytes and metabolites to proteins, cytokines, antigens, and exogenous drugs. The eccrine and apocrine glands produce and excrete sweat through microscale pores on the epidermal surface, offering a noninvasive means for capturing and probing biomarkers that reflect hydration state, fatigue, nutrition, and physiological changes. Recent advances in skin-interfaced wearable sensors capable of real-time in situ sweat collection and analytics provide capabilities for continuous biochemical monitoring in an ambulatory mode of operation. This review presents a broad overview of sweat-based biochemical sensor technologies with an emphasis on enabling materials, designs, and target analytes of interest. The article concludes with a summary of challenges and opportunities for researchers and clinicians in this swiftly growing field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amay J Bandodkar
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA;
- Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Simpson Querrey Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - William J Jeang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA;
- Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Simpson Querrey Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Roozbeh Ghaffari
- Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Simpson Querrey Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
- Epicore Biosystems, Inc., Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - John A Rogers
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA;
- Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Simpson Querrey Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
- Departments of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Neurological Surgery, Chemistry, and Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
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42
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Accessing analytes in biofluids for peripheral biochemical monitoring. Nat Biotechnol 2019; 37:407-419. [DOI: 10.1038/s41587-019-0040-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Brothers MC, DeBrosse M, Grigsby CC, Naik RR, Hussain SM, Heikenfeld J, Kim SS. Achievements and Challenges for Real-Time Sensing of Analytes in Sweat within Wearable Platforms. Acc Chem Res 2019; 52:297-306. [PMID: 30688433 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.8b00555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Physiological sensors in a wearable form have rapidly emerged on the market due to technological breakthroughs and have become nearly ubiquitous with the Apple Watch, FitBit, and other wearable devices. While these wearables mostly monitor simple biometric signatures, new devices that can report on the human readiness level through sensing molecular biomarkers are critical to optimizing the human factor in both commercial sectors and the Department of Defense. The military is particularly interested in real-time, wearable, minimally invasive monitoring of fatigue and human performance to improve the readiness and performance of the war fighter. However, very few devices have ventured into the realm of reporting directly on biomarkers of interest. Primarily this is because of the difficulties of sampling biological fluids in real-time and providing accurate readouts using highly selective and sensitive sensors. When additional restrictions to only use sweat, an excretory fluid, are enforced to minimize invasiveness, the demands on sensors becomes even greater due to the dilution of the biomarkers of interest, as well as variability in salinity, pH, and other physicochemical variables which directly impact the read-out of real-time biosensors. This Account will provide a synopsis not only on exemplary demonstrations and technological achievements toward implementation of real-time, wearable sweat sensors but also on defining problems that still remain toward implementation in wearable devices that can detect molecular biomarkers for real world applications. First, the authors describe the composition of minimally invasive biofluids and then identify what biomarkers are of interest as biophysical indicators. This Account then reviews demonstrated techniques for extracting biofluids from the site of generation and transport to the sensor developed by the authors. Included in this discussion is a detailed description on biosensing recognition elements and transducers developed by the authors to enable generation of selective electrochemical sensing platforms. The authors also discuss ongoing efforts to identify biorecognition elements and the chemistries necessary to enable high affinity, selective biorecognition elements. Finally, this Account presents the requirements for wearable, real-time sensors to be (1) highly stable, (2) portable, (3) reagentless, (4) continuous, and (5) responsive in real-time, before delving into specific methodologies to sense classes of biomarkers that have been explored by academia, government laboratories, and industry. Each platform has its areas of greatest utility, but also come with corresponding weaknesses: (1) ion selective electrodes are robust and have been demonstrated in wearables but are limited to detection of ions, (2) enzymatic sensors enable indirect detection of metabolites and have been demonstrated in wearables, but the compounds that can be detected are limited to a subset of small molecules and the sensors are sensitive to flow, (3) impedance-based sensors can detect a wide range of compounds but require further research and development for deployment in wearables. In conclusion, while substantial progress has been made toward wearable molecular biosensors, substantial barriers remain and need to be solved to enable deployment of minimally invasive, wearable biomarker monitoring devices that can accurately report on psychophysiological status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C. Brothers
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433, United States
- UES Inc., Dayton, Ohio 45432, United States
| | - Madeleine DeBrosse
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433, United States
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, United States
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Claude C. Grigsby
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Rajesh R. Naik
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Saber M. Hussain
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, United States
| | - Steve S. Kim
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433, United States
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Ray TR, Choi J, Bandodkar AJ, Krishnan S, Gutruf P, Tian L, Ghaffari R, Rogers JA. Bio-Integrated Wearable Systems: A Comprehensive Review. Chem Rev 2019; 119:5461-5533. [PMID: 30689360 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 413] [Impact Index Per Article: 82.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Bio-integrated wearable systems can measure a broad range of biophysical, biochemical, and environmental signals to provide critical insights into overall health status and to quantify human performance. Recent advances in material science, chemical analysis techniques, device designs, and assembly methods form the foundations for a uniquely differentiated type of wearable technology, characterized by noninvasive, intimate integration with the soft, curved, time-dynamic surfaces of the body. This review summarizes the latest advances in this emerging field of "bio-integrated" technologies in a comprehensive manner that connects fundamental developments in chemistry, material science, and engineering with sensing technologies that have the potential for widespread deployment and societal benefit in human health care. An introduction to the chemistries and materials for the active components of these systems contextualizes essential design considerations for sensors and associated platforms that appear in following sections. The subsequent content highlights the most advanced biosensors, classified according to their ability to capture biophysical, biochemical, and environmental information. Additional sections feature schemes for electrically powering these sensors and strategies for achieving fully integrated, wireless systems. The review concludes with an overview of key remaining challenges and a summary of opportunities where advances in materials chemistry will be critically important for continued progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler R Ray
- Northwestern University , 2145 Sheridan Road , Evanston , Illinois 60208 , United States
| | - Jungil Choi
- Northwestern University , 2145 Sheridan Road , Evanston , Illinois 60208 , United States
| | - Amay J Bandodkar
- Northwestern University , 2145 Sheridan Road , Evanston , Illinois 60208 , United States
| | - Siddharth Krishnan
- Northwestern University , 2145 Sheridan Road , Evanston , Illinois 60208 , United States
| | - Philipp Gutruf
- Department of Biomedical Engineering University of Arizona Tucson , Arizona 85721 , United States
| | - Limei Tian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Texas A&M University , College Station , Texas 77843 , United States
| | - Roozbeh Ghaffari
- Northwestern University , 2145 Sheridan Road , Evanston , Illinois 60208 , United States
| | - John A Rogers
- Northwestern University , 2145 Sheridan Road , Evanston , Illinois 60208 , United States
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Cuartero M, Parrilla M, Crespo GA. Wearable Potentiometric Sensors for Medical Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 19:E363. [PMID: 30658434 PMCID: PMC6359219 DOI: 10.3390/s19020363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Wearable potentiometric sensors have received considerable attention owing to their great potential in a wide range of physiological and clinical applications, particularly involving ion detection in sweat. Despite the significant progress in the manner that potentiometric sensors are integrated in wearable devices, in terms of materials and fabrication approaches, there is yet plenty of room for improvement in the strategy adopted for the sample collection. Essentially, this involves a fluidic sampling cell for continuous sweat analysis during sport performance or sweat accumulation via iontophoresis induction for one-spot measurements in medical settings. Even though the majority of the reported papers from the last five years describe on-body tests of wearable potentiometric sensors while the individual is practicing a physical activity, the medical utilization of these devices has been demonstrated on very few occasions and only in the context of cystic fibrosis diagnosis. In this sense, it may be important to explore the implementation of wearable potentiometric sensors into the analysis of other biofluids, such as saliva, tears and urine, as herein discussed. While the fabrication and uses of wearable potentiometric sensors vary widely, there are many common issues related to the analytical characterization of such devices that must be consciously addressed, especially in terms of sensor calibration and the validation of on-body measurements. After the assessment of key wearable potentiometric sensors reported over the last five years, with particular attention paid to those for medical applications, the present review offers tentative guidance regarding the characterization of analytical performance as well as analytical and clinical validations, thereby aiming at generating debate in the scientific community to allow for the establishment of well-conceived protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Cuartero
- Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 30, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Marc Parrilla
- Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 30, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Gaston A Crespo
- Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 30, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden.
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La Count TD, Jajack A, Heikenfeld J, Kasting GB. Modeling Glucose Transport From Systemic Circulation to Sweat. J Pharm Sci 2019; 108:364-371. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2018.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Francis J, Stamper I, Heikenfeld J, Gomez EF. Digital nanoliter to milliliter flow rate sensor with in vivo demonstration for continuous sweat rate measurement. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 19:178-185. [PMID: 30525141 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00968f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic flow rate sensors have constraints in both detection limits and dynamic range, and are not often easily integrated into lab-on-chip or wearable sensing systems. We constructed a flow rate sensor that easily couples to the outlet of a microfluidic channel, and measures the flow rate by temporarily shorting periodic droplets generated between two electrodes. The device was tested in a dynamic range as low as 25 nL min-1 and as high as 900 000 nL min-1 (36 000× range). It was tested to continuously operate up to ∼200 hours. The device is also simple to fabricate, requiring inexpensive parts, and is small enough to be integrated into wearable devices. The required input pressure is as low as 370 Pascals. An ultra-low flow rate application was demonstrated for wearable sweat biosensing where sweat generation rates (nL min-1 per gland) were accurately measured in human subjects. The digital nanoliter device provides real-time flow rates for sweat rates and may have other applications for low flow rates in microfluidic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Francis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA.
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Hauke A, Simmers P, Ojha YR, Cameron BD, Ballweg R, Zhang T, Twine N, Brothers M, Gomez E, Heikenfeld J. Complete validation of a continuous and blood-correlated sweat biosensing device with integrated sweat stimulation. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:3750-3759. [PMID: 30443648 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc01082j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
A wearable sweat biosensing device is demonstrated that stimulates sweat and continuously measures sweat ethanol concentrations at 25 s intervals, which is then correlated with blood ethanol during a >3 hour testing phase. The testing involves a baseline condition (no ethanol) followed by a rapid blood and sweat rise of ethanol (oral bolus), and finally, the physiological response of the body as ethanol concentrations return to baseline (metabolized). Data sets include multiple in vivo validation trials and careful in vitro characterization of the electrochemical enzymatic ethanol sensor against likely interferents. Furthermore, the data is analyzed through known pharmacokinetic models with a strong linear Pearson correlation of 0.9474-0.9996. The continuous nature of the data also allows analysis of blood-to-sweat lag times that range between 2.3 to 11.41 min for ethanol signal onset and 19.32 to 34.44 min for the overall pharmacokinetic curve lag time. This work represents a significant advance that builds upon a continuum of previous work. However, unresolved questions include operation for 24 hours or greater and with analytes beyond those commonly explored for sweat (electrolytes and metabolites). Regardless, this work validates that sweat biosensing can provide continuous and blood-correlated data in an integrated wearable device.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hauke
- Novel Devices Laboratory, College of Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA
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49
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Twine NB, Norton RM, Brothers MC, Hauke A, Gomez EF, Heikenfeld J. Open nanofluidic films with rapid transport and no analyte exchange for ultra-low sample volumes. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:2816-2825. [PMID: 30027962 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00186c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Moving to ultra-low (<100 nL) sample volumes presents numerous challenges, many of which can be resolved by implementation of open nanofluidic films. These nanofluidic films are fabricated using a hexagonal network of gold-coated open microchannels which capture all of the following innovative advantages: (1) sample volumes of <100 nL cm-2; (2) zero analyte exchange and loss with the film materials; (3) rapid and omni-directional wicking transport of >500 nL min-1 per square of film; (4) ultra-simple roll-to-roll fabrication; (5) stable and bio-compatible super-hydrophilicity for weeks in air by peptide surface modification. Validation includes both detailed in vitro characterization and in vivo validation with sweat transport from the human skin. Sampling times (skin-to-sensor) of <3 min were achieved, setting new benchmarks for the field of wearable sweat sensing. This work addresses significant challenges for sweat biosensing, or for any other nano-liter regime (<100 nL) fluid sampling and sensing application.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Twine
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA.
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50
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Jajack A, Brothers M, Kasting G, Heikenfeld J. Enhancing glucose flux into sweat by increasing paracellular permeability of the sweat gland. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0200009. [PMID: 30011292 PMCID: PMC6047769 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-invasive wearable biosensors provide real-time, continuous, and actionable health information. However, difficulties detecting diluted biomarkers in excreted biofluids limit practical applications. Most biomarkers of interest are transported paracellularly into excreted biofluids from biomarker-rich blood and interstitial fluid during normal modulation of cellular tight junctions. Calcium chelators are reversible tight junction modulators that have been shown to increase absorption across the intestinal epithelium. However, calcium chelators have not yet been shown to improve the extraction of biomarkers. Here we show that for glucose, a paracellularly transported biomarker, the flux into sweat can be increased by >10x using citrate, a calcium chelator, in combination with electroosmosis. Our results demonstrate a method of increasing glucose flux through the sweat gland epithelium, thereby increasing the concentration in sweat. Future work should examine if this method enhances flux for other paracellularly transported biomarkers to make it possible to detect more biomarkers with currently available biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Jajack
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Michael Brothers
- UES, Incorporated, Dayton, Ohio, United States of America
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Gerald Kasting
- James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computing Systems, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- Eccrine Systems, Incorporated, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
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