137Cs and 40K in fruiting bodies of different fungal species collected in a single forest in southern Poland

The surface of small glaciers as radioactive hotspots: Concentration of radioisotopes during predicted intensive melting in the Alps

Glaciers are considered secondary sources of pollutants, including radioisotopes such as Cesium or Plutonium, with heightened concentrations compared to other ecosystems. The predicted melting of glaciers poses a substantial risk of releasing stored radioisotopes, yet understanding the glacier-specific factors influencing their concentration remains limited. This study investigates the relationship between glacier altitude, surface area, organic matter content in dark supraglacial sediment (cryoconite), precipitation, and activity concentrations of natural (210Pb) and anthropogenic radionuclides (137Cs and 241Am) across 19 Alpine glaciers. Results indicate that radioisotope concentrations depend on organic matter content in the cryoconite, highlighting the role of biotic-abiotic interactions in pollutant accumulation on glaciers. Moreover, 210Pb activity concentration decreases with glacier altitude, likely due to atmospheric variations in 222Rn. Water precipitation events, such as during peaks in 137Cs deposition and after the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant disaster, do not impact current activity concentrations. Importantly, radioisotope concentrations in cryoconite are higher on smaller glaciers. This directly supports the hypothesis that the cryoconite retains a significant share of radioisotopes stored in the ice during intensive melting. Since many small glaciers in the Alps are predicted to disappear within the next 50 years, we anticipate release of radioisotopes to mountain ecosystems might be higher than previously forecasted.

ASSESSMENT OF DOSES FROM INGESTION OF RADIONUCLIDES 40 K, 137CS, 226RA AND 232TH IN EDIBLE COMMERCIAL MUSHROOMS FROM TAIWAN

This study analyzed activity concentration and annual effective dose of radionuclides 40K, 137Cs, 226Ra and 232Th of 44 mushrooms collected from local markets in Taiwan. The 40K activity concentrations were 1570 ± 150 Bq/kg-dw (Agaricus bisporus) > 1084 ± 183 Bq/kg-dw (Flammulina velutipe) > 736 ± 150 Bq/kg-dw (Lentinula edodes). The activity concentrations of 226Ra were 5.04 ± 2.43, 4.00 ± 2.40 and 3.43 ± 2.69 Bq/kg-dw, and 232Th were 3.96 ± 2.18, 3.86 ± 1.43 and 2.90 ± 1.99 Bq/kg-dw for F. velutipe, L. edodes and A. bisporus, respectively. In seven of the 44 samples, 137Cs activity concentrations were detected, and the samples had an average of 1.55 ± 1.75 Bq/kg-dw. The total annual effective dose ranged from 0.90 to 3.50 μSv/y, with an average of 1.94 ± 0.62 μSv/y at an ingestion rate of 0.235 kg-dw/y.

Spatial and vertical distribution of 137Cs activity concentrations in lake sediments of Turawa Lake (Poland)

The main objective of this research was to study the spatial and vertical distribution of 137Cs activity concentrations in the bottom sediments of Turawa Lake 32 years after the Chernobyl fallout to investigate possible factors responsible for the post-fallout migration and accumulation of 137Cs in the selected reservoir. The results demonstrated a strong relationship between the increasing 137Cs and 40K activity concentrations and the decreasing grain size of sediments. Significant amounts of 137Cs were detected in the bottom sediments deposited in the deeper parts of the reservoir (especially near the dam). Therefore, this research showed that Turawa Lake can be an important trap for sediments polluted with 137Cs. Moreover, disturbed vertical distribution of 137Cs activity concentrations in the sediment columns collected from the littoral zone of this lake was observed, which is probably related to the bottom erosion intensified by wind-wave action, bioturbations, and water-level fluctuations. In the profundal zone, the vertical distribution of 137Cs activity concentrations was undisturbed, which indicates stable sedimentation conditions in this part of Turawa Lake.

Effective and environmental half-lives of radiocesium in game from Poland

For the first time changes in the ¹³⁷Cs activity in game throughout Poland, including its most contaminated part known as the Opole Anomaly, were analyzed. Due to its long physical half-life, ¹³⁷Cs continuously demonstrates high activity both in soil and biota. The species of game mammals, along with forest fruit and mushrooms, tend to accumulate this radionuclide, becoming one of the main sources of secondary contamination in people. In this study the ¹³⁷Cs activity in roe deer, wild boar and red deer muscle tissue samples, within the years of 1986-2019, were studied. The effective and environmental half-lives were determined for each of the mentioned species for four regions including NE Poland and the Opole Anomaly placed in SW Poland. In all examined species at least two different phases of changes in the ¹³⁷Cs activity were distinguished, therefore the values of effective half-lives for the researched period since the Chernobyl accident do not correspond with the values from within last ten years. It was proven for the first time that within the anomalous area, featuring the highest values of gamma surface activity in Poland, the ¹³⁷Cs activity increases with time in the muscle tissues of all three species. No intraspecies, nor interspecies differences of ¹³⁷Cs activity among the studied species were found. In the light of the collected data, monitoring game considering the ¹³⁷Cs activity appears to be valid, as, due to not completely clear trophic dependencies, this radionuclide currently increased its migration to the game species despite passing its physical half-life period.

Radiocaesium in Tricholoma spp. from the Northern Hemisphere in 1971-2016

A considerable amount of data has been published on the accumulation of radiocaesium (¹³⁴Cs and particularly, ¹³⁷Cs) in wild fungi since the first anthropogenically influenced releases into the environment due to nuclear weapon testing, usage and subsequently from major accidents at nuclear power plants in Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011). Wild fungi are particularly susceptible to accumulation of radiocaesium and contamination persists for decades after pollution events. Macromycetes (fruiting bodies, popularly called mushrooms) of the edible fungal species are an important part of the human and forest animal food-webs in many global locations. This review discusses published occurrences of ¹³⁴Cs and ¹³⁷Cs in twenty four species of Tricholoma mushrooms sourced from the Northern Hemisphere over the last five decades, but also includes some recent data from Italy and Poland. Tricholoma are an ectomycorrhizal species and the interval for contamination to permeate to lower soils layers which host their mycelial networks, results in a delayed manifestation of radioactivity. Available data from Poland, over similar periods, may suggest species selective differences in accumulation, with some fruiting bodies, e.g. T. portentosum, showing lower activity levels relative to others, e.g. T. equestre. Species like T. album, T. sulphurescens and T. terreum also show higher accumulation of radiocaesium, but reported observations are few. The uneven spatial distribution of the data combined with a limited number of observations make it difficult to decipher any temporal contamination patterns from the observations in Polish regions. When data from other European sites is included, a similar variability of ¹³⁷Cs activity is apparent but the more recent Ukrainian data appears to show relatively lower activities. ⁴⁰K activity in mushrooms which is associated with essential potassium, remains relatively constant. Further monitoring of ¹³⁷Cs activity in wild mushrooms would help to consolidate these observations.

Levels of 137Cs in game and soil in Opole Anomaly, Poland in 2012-2020

Once deposited, radiocesium remains in the environment for a long time, and constantly enters the food chain. Over time, game species tend to accumulate ¹³⁷Cs by two orders of magnitude more than farm animals. This occurs especially in places heavily contaminated, thus meat products made out of local game should be treated with caution. One of such areas, known as the Opole Anomaly, is located in South-Western Poland and represents one of most ¹³⁷Cs contaminated regions across Europe after the Chernobyl accident. The aim of the study was to find out the ¹³⁷Cs activity in soil and local game, the value of the soil-to-game aggregated transfer factor and to assess the effective dose of the ionising radiation (E_eff) received by consumers of local game meat in years 2012-2019. We examined meat of three common game species: red deer, roe deer and wild boar for ¹³⁷Cs activity. ¹³⁷Cs activity in meat samples ranged from 0.14 to 592 Bq kg^-1. The aggregated transfer factor (T_ag) in game ranged from 0.006 to 0.01 m² kg^-1 f.w. for wild boar, 0.005-0.008 m² kg^-1 f.w. for roe deer, and 0.003-0.004 m² kg^-1 f.w. for red deer. The effective dose received by people who regularly consume local game meat ranged from less than 14.2 µSv y^-1 to 134 µSv y^-1, depending on the amount of differently contaminated game meat consumed annually. Even those for whom game is the only source of meat, consumption of wild boar along with local mushrooms and bilberries will, since 2012, not exceed the regulation limit of ¹³⁷Cs at the level of 1 mSv y^-1. By the best of our knowledge this is the first study regarding ¹³⁷Cs activity in game and risk assessment from the most contaminated "post-Chernobyl" area in Poland.

Natural radioactivity and total K content in wild-growing or cultivated edible mushrooms and soils from Galicia (NW, Spain)

The radioactive isotope, ⁴⁰K, of naturally occurring potassium (0.012%) is present in the Earth's crust in a low percentage of all potassium, leading to its presence in almost all foodstuffs. The impact of ⁴⁰K activity concentrations was assessed in wild and cultivated edible mushrooms and in growing substrates. Samples were analysed by gamma spectroscopy. In the wild mushroom species, the average activity concentration of ⁴⁰K was 1291 Bq kg^-1 dry weight (dw), approximately 140 Bq kg^-1 fresh weight (fw), with a range of average values per species from 748 in Lactarius deliciosus to 1848 Bq kg^-1 dw in Tricholoma portentosum. The cultivated species presented an average value of 1086 Bq kg^-1 dw; and the soils, compost of cultivation and wood of substrate are 876, 510 and 59.4 Bq kg^-1 dw, respectively. The total K content reached a maximum of 59,935 mg kg^-1 dw in T. portentosum. The transfer factors (TF > 1) suggested that mushrooms preferentially bioconcentrated ⁴⁰K. Cantharellus cibarius, Craterellus tubaeformis, Hydnum repandum and T. portentosum by most TF could be considered as bioindicators of ⁴⁰K. Taking into account that the annual radiation dose of ⁴⁰K due to the average consumption of mushrooms analysed (0.15 μSv/year) is very low, it can be concluded that the consumption of these mushrooms does not represent a toxicological risk for human health. Finally, according to the total K content, from the nutritional point of view, these mushrooms could be considered as a potential source of potassium for the human diet.

Radiocesium in Shiitake mushroom: Accumulation in living fruit bodies and leaching from dead fruit bodies

In this paper, cesium (Cs) accumulation by the saprophytic fungus Lentinula edodes (Shiitake) was investigated to contribute to the elucidation of radiocesium-cycling mechanisms in forest environments. Although the ¹³⁷Cs in the mushroom bed before culture was bioavailable, the transfer factor (TF) of Cs (¹³³Cs and ¹³⁷Cs) from the mushroom bed to fruit bodies was low (approximately 1) and the TFs of K (5) and Na (1.5) were higher. Cs and K concentrations in fruit bodies at different maturity stages were almost constant. The concentration ratio of Cs/K is constant in the pileus regardless of the pileus tissues. These results demonstrate that Shiitake non-specifically accumulates Cs while accumulating the essential element K and provide evidence that no selective Cs accumulation (or binding) sites exist within the Shiitake fruit body. Furthermore, the present results show that most accumulated Cs quickly leaches out from the dead fruit body with exposure to water. The leached Cs was largely adsorbable on clay minerals, suggesting that the Shiitake fruit body likely contains Cs in the cation form.

137Caesium, 40K and total K in Boletus edulis at different maturity stages: Effect of braising and estimated radiation dose intake

We studied activity concentrations of artificial ¹³⁷Cs and natural ⁴⁰K and concentration of total potassium (K) in Boletus edulis at different maturity stages (button, young - white, large - white and large - yellow), and the effect of braising and human dietary intake. Mushrooms were collected from the northern region of Poland in 2019. The ¹³⁷Cs activity concentration was significantly higher in raw and braised button stage samples and decreased as the fruitbody matured, but conversely, ⁴⁰K was lower in the raw button stage than in older fruitbodies. ¹³⁷Cs activity concentrations in raw, button stage B. edulis were 36 ± 1 Bq kg^-1 ww (360 ± 1 Bq kg^-1 dw), increasing to 70 ± 2 Bq kg^-1 ww (290 ± 7 Bq kg^-1 dw) when braised. This activity was around fourteen-fold higher (p < 0.0001) than at higher maturity stages which showed 2.5 ± 0.7 Bq kg^-1 ww (25 ± 7 Bq kg^-1 dw) in raw and 4.9 ± 0.7 Bq kg^-1 ww (19 ± 4 Bq kg^-1 dw) in braised fruitbodies. In comparison to raw B. edulis, braising enriched the activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs at 110 ± 69% and ⁴⁰K at 80 ± 56% on a whole (wet) weight basis.

An evaluation of the occurrence and trends in 137Cs and 40K radioactivity in King Bolete Boletus edulis mushrooms in Poland during 1995-2019

B. edulis, collected from 33 forested or woodland sites across Poland over 25 years since 1995, were analysed for radiocaesium. The results (137Cs activity range: 25 to 10,000 Bq kg-1 dry weight) provide a good indication of artificial radioactivity in this food material. The relatively higher levels detected in the earlier years, mostly in easterly location, is consistent with depositions from the projected Chernobyl incident (1986) fallout plumes. Nevertheless, the 137Cs concentrations during 1995-2010 were, on average, higher than those reported by other studies for Polish B. edulis over the period 1986-1994. The data concurs with the general hypothesis and observations that deposited 137Cs permeates slowly over time to deeper soil horizons which host the mycelial networks. This delay in availability shows that (apart from hotspots) higher contamination of fruiting bodies occurred around 10 to 20 years after the incident. Local consumers and recreational mushroomers were undoubtedly exposed, although reported 137Cs concentrations suggest that serious breaches of regulated levels were uncommon.

137Cs, 40K, and K in raw and stir-fried mushrooms from the Boletaceae family from the Midu region in Yunnan, Southwest China

The parallel batches of the same species and geographical origin mushrooms both raw and stir-fried were investigated to get an insight into the content and intake of ¹³⁷Cs, ⁴⁰K, and K from mushroom meals. The Boletaceae family species (Baorangia bicolor, Boletus bainiugan, Butyriboletus roseoflavus, Retiboletus griseus, Rugiboletus extremiorientalis, and Sutorius magnificus) were collected from the Midu County (Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture) in 2018. The activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs in the caps of dried raw mushrooms were in the range 14 ± 1 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass (db) (R. griseus) to 34 ± 2 Bq kg^-1 db (R. extremiorientalis), and in stems from 16 ± 1 Bq kg^-1 db (B. bicolor and B. bainiugan) to 23 ± 1 Bq kg^-1 db (R. extremiorientalis). The mean activity concentration in the whole fruiting bodies in all six species was 18 ± 4 Bq kg^-1 db. The activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs were roughly the same in both dehydrated materials, stir-fried, and raw mushrooms, while the contents of ⁴⁰K and stable K were around 2- to 3-fold smaller in stir-fried than raw product. The raw and stir-fried mushrooms on a whole (wet) weight basis showed activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs in the range from 1.2 to 3.2 Bq kg^-1 ww (mean 1.9 ± 0.6 Bq kg^-1 ww) and 6.0 to 9.4 Bq kg^-1 ww (mean 7.0 ± 1.2 Bq kg^-1 ww), respectively. Evidently, when expressed on a whole (wet) weight basis, the cooked mushrooms showed on average around 3.5-fold greater activity concentration of ¹³⁷Cs when compared with raw mushrooms. The ¹³⁷Cs, ⁴⁰K, and total K enrichment in stir-frying (in a whole (wet) weight basis for the meal), confronted with the results for dehydrated raw and fried mushrooms, show the direct correlation with loss of mass (largely moisture) during the cooking procedure but not much of ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K. Edible wild mushrooms from Yunnan were little contaminated with radiocaesium. As assessed, the mean radioactivity dose from natural ⁴⁰K in around 9.3-fold exceeded the dose obtained for artificial ¹³⁷Cs from stir-fried mushroom meals, which both were very low doses.

Radiotoxic 210Po and 210Pb in uncooked and cooked Boletaceae mushrooms from Yunnan (China) including intake rates and effective exposure doses

The article presents results of a study on the radioactivity and exposure from a highly toxic alpha-radiation emitter polonium ²¹⁰Po, and beta emitter lead ²¹⁰Pb in several species of Boletaceae mushrooms and stir-fried mushroom meals from China. Edible mushrooms can efficiently concentrate some elements in flesh but little is known on highly toxic alpha- and beta emitters. In this study, the absolute values of radioactivity (Bq·kg^-1 dry weight) for ²¹⁰Po were in the range 2.0 ± 2.0 to 308 ± 9 in fresh species and 22.1 ± 1.2 to 142 ± 4 in a ready to eat meals, and for ²¹⁰Pb were 3.6 ± 0.5 to 51.8 ± 2.9 and 3.0 ± 0.14 to 9.6 ± 0.5, respectively. The studied batches of a corresponding species of mushrooms - raw and cooked - were not equivalent regarding the homogeneity of the composition. However the raw mushrooms (ingredient for any cooking), showed greater radioactivity in relation to stir-fried meals, and that can imply on a partial loss of nuclides. A daily portion of 100 g of stir-fried mushrooms could provide ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb radiation in the range 0.2-2.1 μSv and 0.02-0.06 μSv, respectively. Assessed, the cumulative doses of exposure to ²¹⁰Po were 1.4-14 μSv in a week period and 75-722 μSv at annual timescale, and of ²¹⁰Pb amounted at 0.15-0.46 μSv and 8.3-24 μSv, respectively. The ²¹⁰Po can be possibly considered as a major source of ionizing radiation activity for persons with high mushroom meals consumption in SW Asia, while the number of available data is limited.

A long-term study of radionuclide concentrations in mushrooms in the 30-km zone around the Mining-and-Chemical Combine (Russia)

¹³⁷Cs concentrations were measured in mushrooms in an area affected by radioactive discharges of the Mining-and-Chemical Combine (MCC) (Rosatom, Russia) in 2002-2017. The sources of radionuclides in the study sites were global fallouts and waterborne and airborne radioactive discharges of the MCC. The mushroom species Suillus granulatus and S. luteus showed the highest ¹³⁷Cs concentrations (140-7100 Bq kg^-1) for this area. Over the entire monitoring period, no significant change in ¹³⁷Cs concentration was observed in the Suillus spp. samples collected from the sites with the aerial deposition of radionuclides. In the floodplain site with the radionuclide deposition from water and air, a significant decrease in the average ¹³⁷Cs concentration was observed in the period between 2004 and 2017: a three-fold decrease in Suillus spp. and a nine-fold decrease in Lactarius deliciosus. The effective half-lives of ¹³⁷Cs in fruiting bodies of the mushrooms L. deliciosus and Suillus spp. in this site were 3.6 ± 0.6 and 9.2 ± 2.7 years, respectively.

137Cs and 40K in Cortinarius caperatus mushrooms (1996-2016) in Poland - Bioconcentration and estimated intake: 137Cs in Cortinarius spp. from the Northern Hemisphere from 1974 to 2016

Cortinarius caperatus grows in the northern regions of Europe, North America and Asia and is widely collected by mushroom foragers across Europe. This study shows that in the last three decades since the Chernobyl nuclear accident, C. caperatus collected across much of Northern Poland exhibited high activity concentrations of radiocaesium (¹³⁷Cs) - a long-lived radionuclide. The mushroom appears to efficiently bioconcentrate ¹³⁷Cs from contaminated soil substrata followed by sequestration into its morphological parts such as the cap and stipe which are used as food. The gradual leaching of ¹³⁷Cs into the lower strata of surface soils in exposed areas are likely to facilitate higher bioavailability to the mycelia of this species which penetrate to relatively greater depths and may account for the continuing high activity levels noticed in Polish samples (e.g. activity within caps in some locations was still at 11,000 Bq kg^-1 dw in 2008 relative to a peak of 18,000 in 2002). The associated dietary intake levels of ¹³⁷Cs have often exceeded the tolerance limits set by the European Union (370 and 600 Bq kg^-1 ww for children and adults respectively) during the years 1996-2010. Human dietary exposure to ¹³⁷Cs is influenced by the method of food preparation and may be mitigated by blanching followed by disposal of the water, rather than direct consumption after stir-frying or stewing. It may be prudent to provide precautionary advice and monitor activity levels, as this mushroom continues to be foraged by casual as well as experienced mushroom hunters.

No radioactive contamination from the Chernobyl disaster in Hungarian white truffles (Tuber magnatum)

Despite being one of the most expensive gourmet foods, it remains unclear if the iconic White Truffle (Tuber magnatum Pico; hereinafter WT) accumulates radioactivity at harmful levels comparable to other fungal species. Here, we measure the active radiocaesium-137 concentration (¹³⁷Cs) in ten hypogeous WT fruitbodies from southern Hungary, and the soils in which they were growing. All WTs reveal non-significant ¹³⁷Cs values, thus providing an 'all clear' for WT hunters in the species' northernmost habitats, where corresponding soil samples occasionally exhibit slight ¹³⁷Cs concentrations. Our results are particularly relevant in the light of a rapidly increasing global demand for WTs and their subsequent trading extent and price inflation, because up to 600 kg of fresh fruitbodies are harvested each year in southern Hungary. Moreover, some of Europe's forest ecosystems, in which mushroom picking is common practise, are still contaminated with ¹³⁷Cs from the Chernobyl fallout more than 30 years ago, posing a serious threat to human health.

Isotopes of 210Po and 210Pb in Hazel bolete (Leccinellum pseudoscabrum) - bioconcentration, distribution and related dose assessment

The hazel bolete Leccinellum pseudoscabrum (Kallenb.) Mikšík 2017 specimens and beneath soil layer (0-10 cm) have been examined on the occasion of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb activity concentrations, the nuclide bioaccumulation potential by species and distribution in fruit bodies. Mushrooms and forest soils came from six geographically distant locations in the northern and central parts of Poland. The threat to humans from ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb contained in mushrooms has been also assessed. The absolute values of the ²¹⁰Po radioactivity, respectively, in caps and stems of fruit bodies were in the range 0.74 ± 0.06-8.59 ± 0.36 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass and from 0.81 ± 0.06-8.23 ± 0.37 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass, while the values of the ²¹⁰Pb radioactivity in caps and stems were in the range 0.61 ± 0.04-6.33 ± 0.22 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass and 0.83 ± 0.04-4.59 ± 0.24 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass, respectively. A potential related effective dose assessment showed that mushrooms L. pseudoscabrum can contribute at 0.89-10.3 μSv kg^-1 db from ²¹⁰Po decay and 0.42-4.37 μSv kg^-1 db from ²¹⁰Pb decay.

210Po and 210Pb in forest mushrooms of genus Leccinum and topsoil from northern Poland and its contribution to the radiation dose

Wild growing mushrooms are traditional food items for man and also an important source of nutrients for small and big wildlife. Nevertheless, they can be species - specifically vulnerable for contamination with heavy metals and radionuclides. We studied a less known phenomenon of accumulation of highly toxic, the alpha-radiation emitter such as ²¹⁰Po and the beta emitter ²¹⁰Pb by three Leccinum mushrooms: orange oak bolete L. aurantiacum (Bull.) Gray (previous name Leccinum aurantiacum var. quercinum Pilát), foxy bolete L. vulpinum Watling and slate bolete L. duriusculum (Schulzer ex Kalchbr.) Singer. Fungal and soil materials were collected from areas of a different geochemical composition in the northern regions of Poland. In parallel evaluated was the risk to human consumer due to possible intake of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb with a mushroom meal. Results showed a heterogeneous distribution of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb activity concentrations within caps and stipes of fruiting bodies. Overall activity concentration for whole dried fungi material ranged from 0.59 ± 0.38 to 3.2 ± 0.2 Bq ²¹⁰Po kg^-1 and from 0.45 ± 0.04 to 3.1 ± 0.2 Bq ²¹⁰Pb kg^-1. Evaluation showed that Leccinum mushrooms consumed by locals in typical quantity of 0.5 kg (dry biomass) can contribute into annual effective radiation dose at 0.90-3.81 μSv from ²¹⁰Po decay and 0.31-2.14 μSv from ²¹⁰Pb decay, which is a small portion of the annual effective radiation dose of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb for human inhabiting the northern regions of Poland.

Interpolated mapping and investigation of environmental radioactivity levels in soils and mushrooms in the Middle Black Sea Region of Turkey

The activity concentration of natural (²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K) and artificial (¹³⁷Cs) radionuclides was determined in 50 samples (obtained from the same station) from various species of mushrooms and soil collected from the Middle Black Sea Region (Turkey). The activities of ²³⁸U, ²³²Th, ⁴⁰K, and ¹³⁷Cs were found as 84 ± 16, 45 ± 14, 570 ± 28, and 64 ± 6 Bq kg^-1 (dry weight), respectively, in the mushroom samples and as 51 ± 6, 41 ± 6, 201 ± 11, and 44 ± 4 Bq kg^-1, respectively, in the soil samples for the entire area of study. The results of all radionuclide activity measurements, except those of ²³⁸U and ²³²Th in the mushroom samples, are consistent with previous studies. In the soil samples, the mean values of ²³⁸U and ²³²Th are above the world mean, and the activity mean of ⁴⁰K is below the world mean. Finally, the activity estimation was made with both the soil and mushroom samples for unmeasured points within the study area by using the ordinary kriging method. Radiological distribution maps were generated.

Artificial 137Cs and natural 40K in mushrooms from the subalpine region of the Minya Konka summit and Yunnan Province in China

A study on ¹³⁷Cs pollution and activity concentrations of ⁴⁰K in mushrooms of the genera Cortinarius, Leccinum, Russula, Tricholoma, Tylopilus, and Xerocomus from two neighboring regions in southwest China in 2010-2013 revealed different patterns of pollution with ¹³⁷Cs, which seemed to be highly dependent on climate conditions. Tricholoma matsutake was collected in Yunnan before and after the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear accident and showed similar contamination with ¹³⁷Cs. Mushrooms from the elevation of 2800-3480 m above sea level on the east slope of Minya Konka and forest topsoil showed higher contamination with ¹³⁷Cs than mushrooms from the highlands of Yunnan. In detail, the activity concentration of ¹³⁷Cs in caps of mushrooms from Minya Konka were in the range 62 ± 6-280 ± 150 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass and from Yunnan at < 4.4-83 ± 3 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass. The climate in the region of the Minya Konka is much colder than in Yunnan, which seems to favor deposition of ¹³⁷Cs at higher altitudes from global atmospheric circulation. The activity concentration of ⁴⁰K in mushrooms and soils highly exceeded that of ¹³⁷Cs. The assessed annual effective doses for ¹³⁷Cs in 1 kg of consumed mushrooms of the genera Leccinum and Xerocomus in Yunnan were low, i.e., in the range < 0.0043-0.049 ± 0.004 μSv, while those for ⁴⁰K were 0.26 ± 0.02-0.81 ± 0.09 μSv.

210Po and 210Pb bioaccumulation and possible related dose assessment in parasol mushroom (Macrolepiota procera)

Presented are results of a study on accumulation and distribution of 210Po and 210Pb in the fruitbodies of parasol mushroom (Macrolepiota procera) and risk to human consumer due to exposure from highly radiotoxic decay particles emitted by both radionuclides. Mushrooms were collected from 16 forested places in central and northern regions of Poland. Activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb were determined after radiochemical separation of nuclides and subsequent measurement using validated method and alpha spectrometer. Results showed on spatially heterogeneous distribution of the 210Po and 210Po activity concentrations in M. procera and two interpolation maps were prepared. Activity concentrations of nuclides in dried caps of M. procera were in the range from 3.38 ± 0.41 to 16.70 ± 0.33 Bq∙210Po ∙kg-1 and from 5.11 ± 0.21 to 13.42 ± 0.30 Bq∙210Pb ∙kg-1. Consumption of M. procera foraged in central and northern Poland should not contribute significantly to the annual effective radiation doses from 210Po and 210Pb due to amount of both nuclides accumulated by fungus in caps.

Radioactive caesium (134Cs and 137Cs) in mushrooms of the genus Boletus from the Reggio Emilia in Italy and Pomerania in Poland

Activity concentrations of ¹³⁴Cs and ¹³⁷Cs were determined in mushrooms of the Boletus species B. aereus, B. reticulatus, B. appendiculatus, B. calopus, B. edulis, B. erythropus, B. fechtneri, B. pinophilus, B. pseudoregius, B. rhodopurpureus, B. rhodoxanthus collected in the Reggio Emilia, Italy, in 1993 and 1994 and in B. edulis collected in Pomerania in northern Poland in the period from 1995-2015. Boletus edulis from the Reggio Emilia showed presence of ¹³⁷Cs at 330 ± 220 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass in 1993 and at 370 ± 180 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass in 1994. In B. edulis sampled in the Reggio Emilia in 1993 and 1994, the pre-Chernobyl ¹³⁷Cs from global fallout amounted to 39-46 % of the total activity concentrations of isotope ¹³⁷Cs. B. edulis from Pomerania contained ¹³⁷Cs in caps at 270 ± 15 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass in 1995, and in whole fruiting bodies it was found to be 470 ± 9 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass in 2015. The activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs determined in fruiting bodies of B. edulis from Pomerania fluctuated but persisted over the period from 1995 to 2015, while the maximum activity concentrations were well below the tolerance limit of 600 Bq kg^-1 fresh product.

Mushrooms: from nutrition to mycoremediation

Mushrooms are well known as important food items. The uses of mushrooms in the cuisine are manifolds and are being utilized for thousands of years in both Oriental and Occidental cultures. Medicinal properties of mushrooms show an immense potential as drugs for the treatment of various diseases as they are rich in a great variety of phytochemicals. In this review, we attempted to encompass the recent knowledge and scientific advancement about mushrooms and their utilization as food or curative properties, along with their natural ability to accumulate (heavy) metals/radionuclides, which leads to an important aspect of bioremediation. However, accumulation of heavy metals and radionuclides from natural or anthropogenic sources also involves potential nutritional hazards upon consumption. These hazards have been pointed out in this review incorporating a selection of the most recently published literature.

Radioactive artificial 137Cs and natural 40K activity in 21 edible mushrooms of the genus Boletus species from SW China

This study, for the first time, presents the results of activity concentration determinations for ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K in a high number (21 species, 87 composite samples, and 807 fruiting bodies) of mushrooms of the genus Boletus from across Yunnan in 2011-2014 and Sichuan (Boletus tomentipes) using high-resolution high-purity germanium detector. Activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs demonstrated some variability and range from <4.4 to 83 ± 3 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass in caps and from <3.8 to 37 ± 3 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass in stipes, and of ⁴⁰K, respectively, from 420 ± 41 to 1300 ± 110 and from 520 ± 61 to 1300 ± 140 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass. No significant variations were observed regarding ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K activity concentrations among the same Boletus species from different sampling sites. No activity concentrations from ¹³⁴Cs were detected in any mushrooms. Internal dose rates estimated were from intake of 1 kg of mushrooms per annum for ¹³⁷Cs range for species and regions from around <0.0031 to 0.047 ± 0.003 μSv, while those for ⁴⁰K were from around 0.22 ± 0.04 to 1.2 ± 0.1 μSv. The overall intake of ¹³⁷Cs was low since low contamination was found in Boletus species.

Radiocaesium in Cortinarius spp. mushrooms in the regions of the Reggio Emilia in Italy and Pomerania in Poland

Activity concentrations of ¹³⁴Cs and ¹³⁷Cs have been determined in 23 species of mushrooms of the genus Cortinarius (59 individual samples) collected from the Reggio Emilia in Italy 1992-1999 and in 4 species (16 composite samples and 413 individuals) from the Pomerania region in Poland from 1996 to 2015. Across all the Cortinarius species from the Reggio Emilia, the activity concentrations were relatively high in Cortinarius alboviolaceus, Cortinarius duracinus, Cortinarius orellanus, Cortinarius rapaceus, and Cortinarius subannulatus, in which ¹³⁷Cs was at 10,000 ~ 100,000 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass (db) in 1994. Smaller activity concentrations were found in Cortinarius bivelus, Cortinarius bulliardii, Cortinarius cotoneus, Cortinarius largus, Cortinarius lividoviolaceus, Cortinarius purpureus, Cortinarius rufo-olivaceus, Cortinarius torvus, and Cortinarius venetus with levels at 1000 ~ 6000 Bq kg^-1 db from 1992 to 1994, and further in Cortinarius anserinus, Cortinarius auroturbinatus, C. largus, Cortinarius praestans, Cortinarius purpurascens, Cortinarius scaurus, Cortinarius sebaceous, Cortinarius talus, and Cortinarius variecolor with activity concentrations at 100 ~ 600 Bq kg^-1 db in 1994. All the data were calculated for dehydrated fungal material corrected back to the exact date samples of collection. The greatest activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs both in Italy (1992-1999) and Poland (1996-2010) were found in the popular Cortinarius caperatus, confirming its very high capacity of radiocaesium accumulation. Besides ¹³⁷Cs, the isotope ¹³⁴Cs was detected in some species from the Reggio Emilia. An average calculated ratio of activities of ¹³⁴Cs to ¹³⁷Cs referenced to 1986 was equal to 0.38 in mushrooms from the Reggio Emilia, and this value slightly differ from that specific for Chernobyl fallout, which was 0.54. It was calculated that ¹³⁷Cs originating from Chernobyl accident constituted about 68 % of the total activity concentration of the isotope in Reggio Emilia in 1986, while as much as 32 % of ¹³⁷Cs in mushrooms were from the global fallout from nuclear bomb testing.

The influence of biotic and abiotic factors on (137)Cs accumulation in higher fungi after the accident at Chernobyl NPP

Levels of soil contamination with (137)Cs, the belonging of fungi to a certain ecological group, the localization depth of the main part of mycelium in soil are the primary factors influencing the value of (137)Cs specific activity in higher fungi after the accident at Chernobyl NPP. It has been found that the value of (137)Cs specific activity in fungi of one species could vary by more than 10 times during a vegetation period. A correlation between the changes of (137)Cs content in fungi during the vegetation period and the amount of precipitates during various periods preceding the collection of samples has not been determined. An assumption has been proposed stating dependence between peculiarities of mycelium growth during the vegetation period and the changes of (137)Cs specific activity in fungi.

Lower prevalence but similar fitness in a parasitic fungus at higher radiation levels near Chernobyl

Nuclear disasters at Chernobyl and Fukushima provide examples of effects of acute ionizing radiation on mutations that can affect the fitness and distribution of species. Here, we investigated the prevalence of Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae, a pollinator-transmitted fungal pathogen of plants causing anther-smut disease in Chernobyl, its viability, fertility and karyotype variation, and the accumulation of nonsynonymous mutations in its genome. We collected diseased flowers of Silene latifolia from locations ranging by more than two orders of magnitude in background radiation, from 0.05 to 21.03 μGy/h. Disease prevalence decreased significantly with increasing radiation level, possibly due to lower pollinator abundance and altered pollinator behaviour. Viability and fertility, measured as the budding rate of haploid sporidia following meiosis from the diploid teliospores, did not vary with increasing radiation levels and neither did karyotype overall structure and level of chromosomal size heterozygosity. We sequenced the genomes of twelve samples from Chernobyl and of four samples collected from uncontaminated areas and analysed alignments of 6068 predicted genes, corresponding to 1.04 × 10(7)  base pairs. We found no dose-dependent differences in substitution rates (neither dN, dS, nor dN/dS). Thus, we found no significant evidence of increased deleterious mutation rates at higher levels of background radiation in this plant pathogen. We even found lower levels of nonsynonymous substitution rates in contaminated areas compared to control regions, suggesting that purifying selection was stronger in contaminated than uncontaminated areas. We briefly discuss the possibilities for a mechanistic basis of radio resistance in this nonmelanized fungus.

Bioaccumulation of the artificial Cs-137 and the natural radionuclides Th-234, Ra-226, and K-40 in the fruit bodies of Basidiomycetes in Greece

The bioaccumulation of artificial Cs-137 and natural radionuclides Th-234, Ra-226, and K-40 by Basidiomycetes of several species is studied and evaluated in relation to their substratum soils. For this reason, 32 fungal samples, representing 30 species of Basidiomycetes, were collected along with their substratum soil samples, from six selected sampling areas in Greece. The fungal fruit bodies and the soil samples were properly treated and the activity concentrations of the studied radionuclides were measured by gamma spectroscopy. The measured radioactivity levels ranged as follows: Cs-137 from <0.1 to 87.2 ± 0.4 Bq kg(-1) fresh weight (F.W.), Th-234 from <0.5 ± 0.9 to 28.3 ± 25.5 Bq kg(-1) F.W., Ra-226 from <0.3 to 1.0 ± 0.5 Bq kg(-1) F.W., and K-40 from 56.4 ± 3.0 to 759.0 ± 28.3 Bq kg(-1) F.W. The analysis of the results supported that the bioaccumulation of the studied natural radionuclides and Cs-137 is dependent on the species and the functional group of the fungi. Fungi were found to accumulate Th-234 and not U-238. What is more, potential bioindicators for each radionuclide among the 32 species studied could be suggested for each habitat, based on their estimated concentration ratios (CRs). The calculation of the CRs' mean values for each radionuclide revealed a rank in decreasing order for all the species studied.

Evaluation of Mercury Contamination in Fungi Boletus Species from Latosols, Lateritic Red Earths, and Red and Yellow Earths in the Circum-Pacific Mercuriferous Belt of Southwestern China

For the first time, highly elevated levels of mercury (Hg) have been documented for several species of the edible Fungi genus Boletus growing in latosols, lateritic red earths, and red and yellow earths from the Yunnan province of China. Analysis of Hg concentrations in the genus suggests that geogenic Hg is the dominant source of Hg in the fungi, whereas anthropogenic sources accumulate largely in the organic layer of the forest soil horizon. Among the 21 species studied from 32 locations across Yunnan and 2 places in Sichuan Province, the Hg was found at elevated level in all samples from Yunnan but not in the samples from Sichuan, which is located outside the mercuriferous belt. Particularly abundant in Hg were the caps of fruiting bodies of Boletus aereus (up to 13 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus bicolor (up to 5.5 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus edulis (up to 22 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus luridus (up to 11 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus magnificus (up to 13 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus obscureumbrinus (up to 9.4 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus purpureus (up to 16 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus sinicus (up to 6.8 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus speciosus (up to 4.9mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus tomentipes (up to 13 mg kg-1 dry matter), and Boletus umbriniporus (up to 4.9 mg kg-1 dry matter). Soil samples of the 0-10 cm topsoil layer from the widely distributed locations had mercury levels ranging between 0.034 to 3.4 mg kg-1 dry matter. In Yunnan, both the soil parent rock and fruiting bodies of Boletus spp. were enriched in Hg, whereas the same species from Sichuan, located outside the mercuriferous belt, had low Hg concentrations, suggesting that the Hg in the Yunnan samples is mainly from geogenic sources rather than anthropogenic sources. However, the contribution of anthropogenically-derived Hg sequestered within soils of Yunnan has not been quantified, so more future research is required. Our results suggest that high rates of consumption of Boletus spp. from Yunnan can deliver relatively high doses of Hg to consumers, but that rates can differ widely because of large variability in mercury concentrations between species and locations.

Evaluation of the radioactive contamination in fungi genus Boletus in the region of Europe and Yunnan Province in China

Numerous species of wild-grown mushrooms are among the most vulnerable organisms for contamination with radiocesium released from a radioactive fallout. A comparison was made on radiocesium as well as the natural gamma ray-emitting radionuclide (⁴⁰K) activity concentrations in the fruiting bodies of several valued edible Boletus mushrooms collected from the region of Europe and Yunnan Province in China. Data available for the first time for Boletus edulis collected in Yunnan, China, showed a very weak contamination with ¹³⁷Cs. Radiocesium concentration activity of B. edulis samples that were collected between 2011 and 2014 in Yunnan ranged from 5.2 ± 1.7 to 10 ± 1 Bq kg⁻¹ dry matter for caps and from 4.7 ± 1.3 to 5.5 ± 1.0 Bq kg⁻¹ dry matter for stipes. The mushrooms Boletus badius, B. edulis, Boletus impolitus, Boletus luridus, Boletus pinophilus, and Boletus reticulatus collected from the European locations between 1995 and 2010 showed two to four orders of magnitude greater radioactivity from ¹³⁷Cs compared to B. edulis from Yunnan. The nuclide ⁴⁰K in B. badius was equally distributed between the caps and stipes, while for B. edulis, B. impolitus, B. luridus, B. pinophilus, and B. reticulatus, the caps were richer, and for each mushroom, activity concentration seemed to be more or less species-specific.

Radiocaesium activity concentrations in macrofungi from Galicia (NW Spain): Influence of environmental and genetic factors

Radiocaesium ((137)Cs) is an artificial radionuclide that can be captured from the soil through the mycelium of fungi. However, in Spain there are few data on its presence in edible mushrooms. (137)Cs activity concentrations were determined using 54 samples of wild and cultivated mushrooms and 18 samples of soil, all of them collected in Galicia (NW Spain) during 2010. Samples were analyzed by gamma spectroscopy with a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector. The average activity concentration of (137)Cs in wild mushrooms was 249.2Bqkg(-1) dry weight (dw) and about 24.9Bqkg(-1) fresh weight (fw). Genetic factors (species) influenced the uptake of (137)Cs, highlighting Hydnum repandum as the greatest accumulator of all wild species (1016.4Bqkg(-1) dw), while cultivated species showed much lower levels (1.6Bqkg(-1) fw). Accumulation was also favored by fungal mycorrhizal ecology, whose mycelium was distributed in contaminated soil horizons. The mean levels detected in soils were 14Bqkg(-1) fw. Although some species behaved as bioexclusors of radiocaesium, the transfer factors (TF) suggest that mushrooms preferentially bioaccumulate (137)Cs. No sample reached the limit of 600Bqkg(-1) fw (about 6000Bqkg(-1) dw) indicated in the European legislation. In conclusion, the consumption of mushrooms harvested from the investigated areas poses no toxicological risk to human health due to radiocaesium.

Evaluation of Mercury Contamination in Fungi Boletus Species from Latosols, Lateritic Red Earths, and Red and Yellow Earths in the Circum-Pacific Mercuriferous Belt of Southwestern China

For the first time, highly elevated levels of mercury (Hg) have been documented for several species of the edible Fungi genus Boletus growing in latosols, lateritic red earths, and red and yellow earths from the Yunnan province of China. Analysis of Hg concentrations in the genus suggests that geogenic Hg is the dominant source of Hg in the fungi, whereas anthropogenic sources accumulate largely in the organic layer of the forest soil horizon. Among the 21 species studied from 32 locations across Yunnan and 2 places in Sichuan Province, the Hg was found at elevated level in all samples from Yunnan but not in the samples from Sichuan, which is located outside the mercuriferous belt. Particularly abundant in Hg were the caps of fruiting bodies of Boletus aereus (up to 13 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus bicolor (up to 5.5 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus edulis (up to 22 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus luridus (up to 11 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus magnificus (up to 13 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus obscureumbrinus (up to 9.4 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus purpureus (up to 16 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus sinicus (up to 6.8 mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus speciosus (up to 4.9mg kg-1 dry matter), Boletus tomentipes (up to 13 mg kg-1 dry matter), and Boletus umbriniporus (up to 4.9 mg kg-1 dry matter). Soil samples of the 0-10 cm topsoil layer from the widely distributed locations had mercury levels ranging between 0.034 to 3.4 mg kg-1 dry matter. In Yunnan, both the soil parent rock and fruiting bodies of Boletus spp. were enriched in Hg, whereas the same species from Sichuan, located outside the mercuriferous belt, had low Hg concentrations, suggesting that the Hg in the Yunnan samples is mainly from geogenic sources rather than anthropogenic sources. However, the contribution of anthropogenically-derived Hg sequestered within soils of Yunnan has not been quantified, so more future research is required. Our results suggest that high rates of consumption of Boletus spp. from Yunnan can deliver relatively high doses of Hg to consumers, but that rates can differ widely because of large variability in mercury concentrations between species and locations.

Observed distribution of radiocaesium contamination in shiitake lots and variability of test results

Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) cultivated on bed-log are known to accumulate radiocaesium. Since the Fukushima-Diichi nuclear power plant accident (2011), the violation rate has been higher for log-cultivated shiitake than that for agricultural products or other foodstuffs. When testing shiitake mushrooms for radionuclide contamination, the validation of the sampling plan can be severely compromised by the heterogeneous contamination within shiitake lots. Currently, few data are available on the statistical properties of the radiocaesium contamination of log-cultivated shiitake. In this paper, shiitake lots contaminated by radiocaesium were identified and the distribution of the radiocaesium concentration within the lots investigated. The risk of misclassifying shiitake lots was predicted from the operating characteristic curve generated from Monte Carlo simulations and the performance of various sampling plans was evaluated. This study provides useful information for deciding on an acceptable level of misclassification risk.

Radionuclides in some edible and medicinal macrofungal species from Tara Mountain, Serbia

Edible and medicinal macrofungi used in human diet represent not only important sources of nutritive elements but toxic substances as well (heavy metals and radionuclides). Radioactivity levels of four radionuclides ((40)K, (137)Cs, (226)Ra, (228)Ra) were determined in the basidiomata (fruiting bodies of a Basidiomycetes) of six lignicolous (Fomitopsis pinicola, Ganoderma applanatum, Hericium clathroides, Megacollybia platyphylla, Pluteus cervinus, Trametes gibbosa) and three mycorrhizal (Boletus luridus, Boletus sp. 1, Boletus sp. 2) species as well as their soil (wood) substrates by gamma spectrometry (high-resolution high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector). The aim was to investigate their ability for radionuclide absorption according to transfer factors (from soil and wood), to predict potential bioindicator species as well as species with potential risk for human use. Samples were taken during years 2011 and 2012, at two sites in forest ecosystem of Tara Mountain (Serbia). Observed concentration ranges per dry weight were as follows: 29-3,020 Bq/kg ((40)K), 21.9-735 Bq/kg ((137)Cs), 3-39 Bq/kg ((226)Ra), and 2.0-18 Bq/kg ((228)Ra). Obtained results indicate that the type of basidiome (fleshy/tough), most likely due to a different metabolic rate, has a very important role in radionuclide accumulation. The highest activity concentrations of all analyzed radionuclides were found in species with fleshy basidiomata--P. cervinus, H. clathroides, M. platyphylla, and Boletus species. A species-specific influence on radionuclide uptake was more prominent comparing to habitat differences and the role of fungal trophic mode. No significant variations were observed regarding radionuclide activity among the same fungal species from different sampling sites.

137Cs, 239,240Pu and 241Am in boreal forest soil and their transfer into wild mushrooms and berries

Profiles of podzolic soil from boreal forests were sampled from eight sites in Finland and the distribution of (137)Cs in the soil layers was determined. In addition, (239,240)Pu and (241)Am were determined from two soil profiles taken at one sampling site. Inventories of (137)Cs in the soil profiles varied between 1.7 kBq/m(2) and 42 kBq/m(2), reflecting known variation in (137)Cs fallout from the Chernobyl accident. The highest proportions of the radionuclides were found in the organic layer at a depth of less than 5 cm, which on average contained 47% of (137)Cs, 76% of (239,240)Pu and 79% of (241)Am. In the litter, clearly higher proportions of (137)Cs were found compared to (239,240)Pu and (241)Am, probably indicating its more effective recycling from the organic layer back to the surface. Only very minor proportions of (137)Cs were recorded below 20 cm. The concentration of (137)Cs in the soil profiles could be approximated with a declining logarithmic trend. The activity concentrations of (137)Cs were determined for six wild mushroom species and three wild berry species at two sites, as well as the aggregated transfer factors and the distribution of (137)Cs between their various parts. In addition, (239,240)Pu and (241)Am were determined in one mushroom and three berry species at one site. Very high concentrations of (137)Cs, up to 20 kBq/kg (d.w.), were found in mushrooms, and their transfer factors were between 0.1 m(2)/kg and 1.0 m(2)/kg. In berries, the transfer factors were an order of magnitude lower. (137)Cs accumulated more in the caps of mushrooms and in the fruits of berries than in other parts. Transfer factors for (239,240)Pu and (241)Am were two to three orders of magnitude lower than those of (137)Cs.

Macro and trace mineral constituents and radionuclides in mushrooms: health benefits and risks

This article reviews and updates data on macro and trace elements and radionuclides in edible wild-grown and cultivated mushrooms. A huge biodiversity of mushrooms and spread of certain species over different continents makes the study on their multi-element constituents highly challenging. A few edible mushrooms are widely cultivated and efforts are on to employ them (largely Agaricus spp., Pleurotus spp., and Lentinula edodes) in the production of selenium-enriched food (mushrooms) or nutraceuticals (by using mycelia) and less on species used by traditional medicine, e.g., Ganoderma lucidum. There are also attempts to enrich mushrooms with other elements than Se and a good example is enrichment with lithium. Since minerals of nutritional value are common constituents of mushrooms collected from natural habitats, the problem is however their co-occurrence with some hazardous elements including Cd, Pb, Hg, Ag, As, and radionuclides. Discussed is also the problem of erroneous data on mineral compounds determined in mushrooms.

Macro and trace mineral constituents and radionuclides in mushrooms: health benefits and risks

This article reviews and updates data on macro and trace elements and radionuclides in edible wild-grown and cultivated mushrooms. A huge biodiversity of mushrooms and spread of certain species over different continents makes the study on their multi-element constituents highly challenging. A few edible mushrooms are widely cultivated and efforts are on to employ them (largely Agaricus spp., Pleurotus spp., and Lentinula edodes) in the production of selenium-enriched food (mushrooms) or nutraceuticals (by using mycelia) and less on species used by traditional medicine, e.g., Ganoderma lucidum. There are also attempts to enrich mushrooms with other elements than Se and a good example is enrichment with lithium. Since minerals of nutritional value are common constituents of mushrooms collected from natural habitats, the problem is however their co-occurrence with some hazardous elements including Cd, Pb, Hg, Ag, As, and radionuclides. Discussed is also the problem of erroneous data on mineral compounds determined in mushrooms.