Anticestodal property of Strobilanthes discolor: an experimental study in Hymenolepis diminuta--rat model

The Tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta as an Important Model Organism in the Experimental Parasitology of the 21st Century

The tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta is a common parasite of the small intestine in rodents but it can also infect humans. Due to its characteristics and ease of maintenance in the laboratory, H. diminuta is also an important model species in studies of cestodiasis, including the search for new drugs, treatments, diagnostics and biochemical processes, as well as its host-parasite interrelationships. A great deal of attention has been devoted to the immune response caused by H. diminuta in the host, and several studies indicate that infection with H. diminuta can reduce the severity of concomitant disease. Here, we present a critical review of the experimental research conducted with the use of H. diminuta as a model organism for over more than two decades (in the 21st century). The present review evaluates the tapeworm H. diminuta as a model organism for studying the molecular biology, biochemistry and immunology aspects of parasitology, as well as certain clinical applications. It also systematizes the latest research on this species. Its findings may contribute to a better understanding of the biology of tapeworms and their adaptation to parasitism, including complex correlations between H. diminuta and invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. It places particular emphasis on its value for the further development of modern experimental parasitology.

Studies on the anthelmintic potentials of the roots of Asparagus racemosus willd. (Asparagaceae)

Background

The Santhal tribe in Assam, India use the roots of Asparagus racemosus (Asparagaceae) as a deworming remedy. The study aimed to investigate the anthelmintic credentials of this plant, using two representative groups of helminth parasites.

Methods

The in vitro testing was conducted against Hymenolepis diminuta (cestode) and Syphacia obvelata (nematode). Parasites were exposed to 10, 20 and 30 mg/ml concentrations of plant extract, and efficacy was adjudged on the basis of parasites paralysis and mortality. In vivo efficacy was examined using H. diminuta-rat and S. obvelata-mice models where animals were administered 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg doses of extract.

Results

In vitro assay, against H. diminuta revealed that at 30 mg/ml concentration the extract showed almost a comparable efficacy with that of reference drug praziquantel (PZQ) (1 mg/ml). The in vitro efficacy of extract against S. obvelata was however lower than H. diminuta. In vivo studies against H. diminuta at 500 mg/kg revealed 53.88 and 24 % reduction in eggs per gram (EPG) and worm counts respectively. Against S. obvelata the extract showed 26.61 and 30.93 % reduction for the same.

Conclusions

The findings of this study present suggest that the roots of A. racemosus are effective against intestinal helminthic infections and justifies its use as an anthelmintic in the traditional medicine of the Santhals.

In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic study of Sesbania sesban var. bicolor, a traditionally used medicinal plant of Santhal tribe in Assam, India

The leaf decoction of Sesbania sesban var. bicolor is used traditionally by Santhal tribe of Assam, India, for the treatment of intestinal helminthic infections. This study was conducted to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic efficacy of methanolic extract of S. sesban var. bicolor leaves using Hymenolepis diminuta-rat (cestode) and Syphacia obvelata-mice (nematode) as test parasites and models. Praziquantel (PZQ) and albendazole (ABZ) were used as reference drugs. At the highest concentration of 30 mg/ml of the plant extract, H. diminuta and S. obvelata showed mortality at 0.81 ± 0.01 h and 15.17 ± 0.05 h, respectively. The in vivo results substantiated the in vitro findings, and the extract showed a better cestocidal efficacy in a dose-dependent manner, whereby treatment of rats with 400 mg/kg of the plant extract caused 65.10% reduction in eggs per gram (EPG) of faeces and 56% reduction in worm counts. S. obvelata-infected mice treated at the same dose showed 34.32% and 47.08% reduction in EPG and worm counts at necropsy, respectively. The methanolic extract was subjected to bioassay-guided fractionation using different solvents and the ethyl acetate fraction proved to be the most active. This active fraction was subjected to column chromatography using varying concentrations of hexane:ethyl acetate. Maximum efficacy was observed in 7:3 hexane:ethyl acetate, where H. diminuta and S. obvelata showed mortality at 3.56 ± 0.12 h and 9.21 ± 0.02 h, respectively. This indicates that the isolated fraction contained the active component responsible for its anthelmintic activity, which substantiates the medicinal usage in traditional practice.

Genistein: is the multifarious botanical a natural anthelmintic too?

Genistein (4',5,7-trihydroxyisoflavone) is naturally present in plants of the soy family and is known to have various pharmacological activities, such as anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant, etc. The phytoestrogen is one of the major isoflavones found in some medicinal plants having anthelmintic properties. This review describes the putative role of genistein as an anthelmintic, which has been tested on some helminth parasites in vitro. Genistein has been shown to cause paralysis and alterations in the tegument and tegumental enzymes (acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, adenosine triphosphatase, and 5'-nucleotidase) of helminth parasites. Alterations in the activities of several enzymes associated with the coordination system (specifically non-specific esterases, acetylcholine esterase, and nitric oxide synthase), and changes in the concentration of nitric oxide, cGMP, free amino acid pool, and tissue ammonia are observed in helminth parasites treated with genistein. The phytoestrogen also affects the carbohydrate metabolism by altering the activities of key enzymes involved in glycogen- and glucose-metabolism of a cestode parasite. Considering the significance of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) in glycolysis of the cestode parasite, Ki of the phytoestrogen for PEPCK in the parasite has been determined, and molecular docking of genistein into the active site of the enzyme has also been described. The potential beneficial role of genistein as a natural alternative in management of helminth parasites needs to be further explored, particularly considering its in vivo efficacy and pharmacokinetics.

In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic effects of Caesalpinia bonducella (L.) Roxb. leaf extract on Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda) and Syphacia obvelata (Nematoda)

Background:

Leaves of Caesalpinia bonducella (L.) Roxb. have been traditionally used as an herbal remedy to treat the intestinal helminthic infections in traditional medicine of India.

Aim:

This study was undertaken to evaluate the potential in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic effects of C. bonducella leaf extract against Syphacia obvelata (Nematoda) and Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda).

Materials and Methods:

The in vitro anthelmintic activity of the extract was investigated on adult worms of S. obvelata (Nematoda) and H. diminuta (Cestoda) in terms of physical motility and mortality of parasites. The in vivo study was performed in H. diminuta-rat model and S. obvelata-mice model, by monitoring the egg per gram of feces count and worm count of animals following the treatment with different doses of plant extract.

Results:

The study recorded significant and dose-dependent anthelmintic effects of the extract on both the parasites. In the in vitro study, 30 mg/ml concentration of extract caused mortality of H. diminuta in 2.5 ± 0.2 h and S. obvelata in 3.57 ± 0.16 h. In the in vivo study, the extract showed a comparatively better efficacy on S. obvelata, where its 800 mg/kg dose revealed 93% reduction of worm load in mice, as compared to 85% worm load reduction of H. diminuta in rats.

Conclusions:

The findings suggest that leaf extract of C. bonducella possesses significant anthelmintic effects and supports its use as an anthelmintic in traditional medicine. This appears to be the first report of in vivo anthelmintic activity of C. bonducella against these parasites.

Anthelmintic activity of a standardized extract from the rhizomes of Acorus calamus Linn. (Acoraceae) against experimentally induced cestodiasis in rats

Background:

The rhizomes of a herb Acorus calamus Linn. (Acoraceae) have been widely used as a traditional medicine to cure intestinal-helminthic infections in India and South Africa.

Aim:

This study was undertaken to investigate the in vivo anthelmintic activity of a standardized methanolic extract obtained from the rhizomes A. calamus in a rodent model.

Materials and Methods:

A methanolic extract obtained from rhizomes of A. calamus was characterized for active principle using nuclear magnetic resonance ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, mass and infrared spectroscopy. The amount of active principle in rhizome isolated active fraction of plant was assayed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Later, the standardized rhizome extract of plant and its active principle were tested for in vivo anthelmintic efficacy against experimentally induced Hymenolepis diminuta, a zoonotic cestode, infections in rats.

Results:

The study revealed that b-asarone is the active principle of plant. The HPLC analysis of local variety of A. calamus revealed that active fraction contains 83.54% (w/w) of b-asarone. The in vivo study revealed that treatment of H. diminuta infected rats by a single 800 mg/kg dose of rhizome extract for 5 days results into 62.30% reduction in eggs per gram of feces counts and 83.25% reduction in worm counts of animals. These findings compared well with the efficacy of a reference drug, praziquantel. The active principle b-asarone showed slightly better anthelmintic effects than crude extract. In acute toxicity assay, a single oral 2000 mg/kg dose of extract did not reveal any signs of toxicity or mortality in mice, and the LD50 of the extract was noted to be >2000 mg/kg.

Conclusion:

Taken together, the results of this study indicate that rhizomes of A. calamus bear significant dose-dependent effects against intestinal helminths. Further, the Indian variety of A. calamus contains high b-asarone content. Therefore, there exists a great potential to develop some suitable anthelmintic herbal products from this plant.

Anthelmintic effects of Oroxylum indicum stem bark extract on juvenile and adult stages of Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda), an in vitro and in vivo study

Worldwide, traditional usage of herbal medicines is a common practice to treat various parasitic infections. In India, bark decoction of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. (Bignoniaceae) is used as a traditional medicine to cure intestinal-helminthic infections. This study investigated the anthelmintic efficacy of methanolic bark extract of O. indicum on Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda), using both in vitro and in vivo methods. Utilizing a mini-questionnaire, first, we collected information about the pattern of anthelmintic use of this plant. Later, in vitro efficacy of extract was tested at 10, 20 and 30 mg/ml on both the artificially excysted juveniles and adult H. diminuta worms. Herein, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was also utilized to determine the possible effects of extract on tegumental surfaces of juvenile and adult cestode. In vivo, extract was tested at 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg in H. diminuta albino rat model, against juvenile and adult cestode. Praziquantel (PZQ) served as reference drug in anthelmintic assays. The acute toxicity of extract was determined as per the OECD guidelines. The field questionnaire data revealed that 78 % of people in the area use O. indicum stem bark against intestinal helminths, and of these, 75 % of people also believed it highly efficacious anthelmintic remedy. In vitro testing of extract revealed significant effects on juvenile worms, and 30 mg/ml of extract caused mortality of juveniles at the initial period (0.25 ± 0.00 h). Conversely, PZQ (1 mg/ml) showed paralysis and mortality of juvenile cestodes in 0.44 ± 0.04 and 1.11 ± 0.06 h, respectively. As determined by SEM, in vitro exposure to extract showed substantial effects on both juveniles and adult worms in the form of wrinkled scolex, distorted tegument and eroded microtriches. In vivo study revealed better efficacy of extract against juveniles than adult stages of parasite. Treatment of rats with 1000 mg/kg of extract caused 79.3 % reduction in EPG counts and 70.8 % of reduction in worm counts, which compared well to PZQ efficacy. In acute toxicity study, administration of a single oral dose of 2000 mg/kg of extract to mice did not cause any signs of toxicity or mortality within 2-week observation. Hence, the LD50 of extract was estimated to be greater than 2000 mg/kg. In conclusion, the bark extract of O. indicum possesses concentration-dependent effects against the larval and adult H. diminuta worms, and thus the extract holds promise in the control of intestinal helminthiases. This also supports the common belief of people about the reputation of this plant as anthelmintic in traditional medicine. There is a need to standardize the formulations of this plant for their possible use as standardized herbal anthelmintic agents in the future.

Anthelmintic activity of ginger, curcumin, and praziquentel against Raillietina cesticillus (in vitro and in vivo)

This work evaluates the anthelminitic activity of ginger and curcumin on the cestode Raillietina cesticillus. Live parasites were collected from intestine of naturally infected chickens in PBS 0.9 % and then incubated at 37 °C in media containing ginger extract at three different concentrations (125, 250, and 500 mg); every concentration was dissolved in 10 ml media. The curcumin extract was used at three different concentrations (250, 500, and 1000 mg); each was dissolved in 10 ml media. Praziquantel at a concentration of 600 mg was added to 10 ml media. A control one without extract was reported. Regression of worms increased gradually in all concentrations. At 500 mg ginger (50 ± 0 %), worms were regressed at 48 h post-exposure (h.p.e.). Also (50 ± 1.8 %), worms were regressed at 1000 mg curcumin at the same time. On the other hand, praziquantel showed the highest regression (65 ± 2.3 %). The extract efficacy was exhibit as concentration-time-dependent mainly at higher concentrations used after 48 h. In vivo effects of ginger and curcumin were lower than those in vitro.

Mallotus philippinensis Muell. Arg (Euphorbiaceae): ethnopharmacology and phytochemistry review

Mallotus philippinensis Muell. Arg (Euphorbiaceae) are widely distributed perennial shrub or small tree in tropical and subtropical region in outer Himalayas regions with an altitude below 1,000 m and are reported to have wide range of pharmacological activities. Mallotus philippinensis species are known to contain different natural compounds, mainly phenols, diterpenoids, steroids, flavonoids, cardenolides, triterpenoids, coumarins, isocoumarins, and many more especially phenols; that is, bergenin, mallotophilippinens, rottlerin, and isorottlerin have been isolated, identified, and reported interesting biological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, cytotoxicity, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory activity protein inhibition against cancer cell. We have selected all the pharmacological aspects and toxicological and all its biological related studies. The present review reveals that Mallotus philippinensis is a valuable source of medicinally important natural molecules and provides convincing support for its future use in modern medicine. However, the existing knowledge is very limited about Mallotus philippinensis and its different parts like steam, leaf, and fruit. Further, more detailed safety data pertaining to the acute and subacute toxicity and cardio- and immunotoxicity also needs to be generated for crude extracts or its pure isolated compounds. This review underlines the interest to continue the study of this genus of the Euphorbiaceae.

In vitro and in vivo screening of anthelmintic activity of ginger and curcumin on Ascaridia galli

Intestinal helmintic infection, continue to be a cause of major concern in several parts of the world, particularly in the developing nations. The use of plant extracts to control poultry helminths is increasing in different rearing systems. The anthelmintic activity of ginger and curcumin was studied on the nematode Ascaridia galli. In vitro and in vivo studies were allocated. Live parasites for in vitro studies were collected from the intestine of naturally infected chickens. Some living worms were incubated at 37 °C in media containing ginger at three concentration levels (25, 50, and 100 mg/ml), and others were incubated in media containing curcumin at the same concentration levels. Another living worm group was incubated in media containing albendazole at a dose of 7.5 mg/ml. The extracts' efficacy was exhibited in a concentration-time-dependent manner mainly at 100 mg/ml and after 48 h. The in vivo study takes place on experimentally infected chickens. Group of infected chickens was treated with ginger extract at dose of 100 mg, another group was treated with curcumin extract at dose of 100 mg, and a third group was treated with albendazole at dose of 7.5 mg. In vivo study of ginger and curcumin recorded lower mortality rates than the in vitro study. It is concluded that ginger and curcumin extracts have potential anthelmintic properties against A. galli. Ginger in all concentrations used exhibited a higher death rate observed than curcumin. Their wormicidal effect is concentration-time dependent.

In vivo anthelmintic activity of Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp., a traditionally used taenicidal plant in Northeast India

Although there are several effective drugs available for the treatment of intestinal helminths, the fact remains that they continue to remain out of reach to a vast majority of people in the world, especially in developing countries. On the other hand, there are a great many herbal remedies that are effective against common intestinal worms and are easily available to common people in developing countries. Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp. (Lamiaceae) is a perennial shrub which is native to South and Southeast Asia. Traditionally, the leaves of this plant are used by the indigenous people of Northeast India as a remedy for the treatment of intestinal tapeworm infections. The aim of this study was to evaluate and authenticate the anthelmintic efficacy of C. colebrookianum leaf extract in experimentally induced Hymenolepis diminuta (a zoonotic tapeworm) infections in Wistar rats. The efficacy of the plant extract was assessed by monitoring the eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) counts and worm recovery rates of experimental animals, following treatment with the leaf extract of this plant at three different doses, i.e. 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg body weight, each given singly for 5 days. The results obtained revealed that the leaf extract of C. colebrookianum possesses a dose-dependent efficacy against the larval, immature and adult stages of H. diminuta. However, the efficacy of the extract was found to be considerably high only against the adult stages of the parasite. For this stage, a single 800-mg/kg dose of extract, given for 5 days, resulted into 68.42% reduction in the EPG counts and 62.50% reduction in the worm counts in the extract-treated group of animals, as compared to the control. The reference drug, praziquantel (5 mg/kg, single dose), however, showed slightly better efficacy and caused 95.16 and 87.00% reductions in the EPG and worm counts of treated animals, respectively. Unlike the adult stages, the efficacy of the plant extract was recorded to be comparatively low against the larval and immature stages of the parasite, as the treatment of animals with the highest dose of extract (800 mg/kg) could cause only 37.50 and 54.00% reductions in worm counts, respectively. The experimental evidence obtained in this study suggests that leaves of C. colebrookianum possess significant anthelminthic properties and supports their use against intestinal tapeworm infections in traditional medicine.

Anthelmintic activity of ripe fruit extract of Solanum myriacanthum Dunal (Solanaceae) against experimentally induced Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda) infections in rats

Although there are many effective drugs available to treat intestinal worms, the fact remains that they remain out of reach to a majority of the population in many areas of the world. On the other hand, traditional plant-based remedies continue to be an important therapeutic aid for treating worm infections throughout the world, especially in the developing nations. Solanum myriacanthum Dunal is a perennial shrub that is used in the folk medicine of Tangkhul Naga tribe of India for treating intestinal worms. This study evaluates the anthelmintic activity of its ripe fruit extract using experimental Hymenolepis diminuta (a zoonotic tapeworm) infections in albino rats. The efficacy of extract was adjudged by monitoring the eggs per gram (EPG) count of parasite as well as by the direct count of surviving worms in the intestine following treatment with methanol fruit extract of this plant to different groups of rats harbouring H. diminuta infections. The plant extract showed a dose-dependent reduction of both EPG as well as worm counts for all the developmental stages of H. diminuta in rats. However, the effects of the extract were more apparent on the adult stages than larval or immature stages of the parasite. Against the adult stage, a single oral dose of 800 mg/kg of extract, given for 3 days, showed 60.49% reduction in the EPG counts and 56.60% reduction in the worm counts in the extract-treated group as compared to untreated control. In comparison, the reference drug praziquantel (5 mg/kg) showed 51.81% and 70.00% reduction in the EPG and worm counts, respectively. The LD50 (oral) of the extract was determined to be 3,093.24 mg/kg in rats, and no significant changes were observed in the values of serum glutamate oxalate transaminase, serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase, cholesterol and total protein between the extract-treated and control groups of animals. These findings indicate that ripe fruits of S. myriacanthum possess significant anthelmintic property, without any adverse effects to the experimental animals. This may provide a scientific rationale for the traditional use of this plant against intestinal worms.

Therapeutic efficacy of Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC extract against experimental Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda) infections in rats

Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC (Rutaceae), commonly called prickly ash, is used in the folk medicine of Naga tribes in India as a deworming remedy. In the present study, the therapeutic efficacy of Z. rhetsa leaf extract was investigated against experimental Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda) infections in albino rats. The efficacy of extract was determined on the basis of reduction in the eggs per gram of feces (EPG) counts and worm load following treatment with 100, 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg, p.o. doses of plant extract. For comparison's sake, animals were also treated with a reference drug, praziquantel at 5 and 25 mg/kg body weight doses. Three treatment regimes were followed to monitor the effects of extract on cestode parasite: (1) Treatment on day 2-4 postinoculation (pi) of cysticercoids against the larval stages; (2) treatment on day 8-10 pi against the immature stages; and (3) treatment on day 21-25 pi against the adult stages of parasite. The extract revealed its maximum efficacy against the larval stage, where its 800 mg/kg dose showed a worm count reduction of 86.60%, compared to 80.00% by the reference drug, praziquantel (5 mg/kg dose). The EPG counts also decreased drastically from 23,389 ± 2,372 to 0 in the same treatment group, compared to 33,161 ± 1,383 recorded in the control group. The efficacy of extract was found to be of moderate level against the immature and adult stages of parasite. The present investigation holds the evidence that the leaves of Z. rhetsa possess significant anticestodal property and supports its use in folk medicine.

Anticestodal activity of Adhatoda vasica extract against Hymenolepis diminuta infections in rats

AIM OF THIS STUDY

Adhatoda vasica Nees has been commonly used in the indigenous system of medicine of Naga tribes in India for curing intestinal worm infections. In this study the anticestodal efficacy of Adhatoda vasica leaf extract was evaluated using Hymenolepis diminuta-rat experimental model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anticestodal efficacy of leaf extract was determined by monitoring the eggs per gram (EPG) of faeces counts and percentage worm recovery rates following treatment with methanol leaf extract of this plant to different groups of rats harbouring immature and mature Hymenolepis diminuta infections.

RESULTS

The result indicated 800 mg/kg double dose of extract has profound efficacy against mature worms, where the EPG count was reduced by 79.57% and percentage worm recovery rate by 16.60%. These effects were better than treatment with 5 mg/kg single dose of praziquantel, the standard drug. In case of efficacy against immature worms, the extract showed a significant reduction in worm recovery rate (from 100% in control to 20.00% at 800 mg/kg dose of extract).

CONCLUSION

The study shows that the leaf extract of Adhatoda vasica possesses significant anticestodal efficacy and supports its use in the folk medicine.