Plants used for treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by the Bhoxa community of district Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

The genus Dioscorea L. (Dioscoreaceae), a review of traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Dioscorea, a member of the Dioscoreaceae family, comprises approximately 600 species and is widely distributed across temperate and tropical regions such as Asia, South Africa, and North America. The traditional medicinal uses of Dioscorea have been documented in Asian and African pharmacological systems. In Asia, this genus is traditionally used to treat respiratory illnesses, rheumatism, diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery, and other conditions. In Africa, this genus has been used to treat human immunodeficiency virus and ring worms. However, the traditional medicinal practices in North America rarely mention the use of this genus.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this review is to comprehensively review the genus Dioscorea, focusing on its traditional uses, phytochemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and potential toxicities. The research also aims to highlight the valuable bioactive compounds within Dioscorea and emphasize the need for further investigations into acute and chronic toxicity, activity mechanisms, molecular markers, and other relevant factors to contribute to the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A search for available information on Dioscorea was conducted using scientific databases, including PubMed, ISI-WOS, Scopus, and Google Scholar, as well as recent academic publications from reputable publishers and other literature sources. The search was not limited by language and spanned the literature published between 1950 and 2022.

RESULTS

This article provides a comprehensive review of the Dioscorea genus, focusing on its traditional uses, phytochemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and potential toxicities. Extensive research has been conducted on this genus, resulting in the isolation and examination of over 1000 compounds, including steroids, terpenoids, and flavonoids, to determine their biological activities. These activities include anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects. However, some studies have indicated the potential toxicity of high doses of Dioscorea, highlighting the need for further investigations to assess the safety of this genus. Additionally, this review explores potential avenues for future research and discusses the challenges associated with a comprehensive understanding of the Dioscorea genus.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the existing literature, it can be concluded that Dioscorea is a valuable source of bioactive compounds that have the potential to treat various disorders. Future research should prioritize the investigation of acute and chronic toxicity, activity mechanisms, molecular markers, and other relevant factors. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the Dioscorea genus, emphasizing its potential to enable a deeper exploration of the biological activity mechanisms of these plants and contribute to the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals.

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. (Menispermaceae): A Review on Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities

Background:Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. (Menispermaceae) is a perennial climber distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical areas. The main aim of this article is to collect and analyze the scientific information related to traditional uses, bioactive chemical constituents and pharmacological activities. Methods: Scientific information on C. hirsutus was retrieved from the online bibliographic databases (e.g. MEDLINE/PubMed, SciFinder, Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scopus). Information regarding traditional uses was also acquired from secondary resources including books and proceedings. Results: Different plant parts of C. hirsutus were reported to be used for the treatment of fever, skin diseases, stomach disorders and urinary diseases. Alkaloids such as jasminitine, hirsutine, cohirsitine and their derivatives along with a few flavonoids, triterpene derivatives and volatile compounds were reported from whole plant or different plant parts. Extracts were evaluated for their antimicrobial, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory and hepatoprotective activities among others. Conclusion: Although widely used in traditional medicines, only a few studies have been performed related to chemical constituents. Most of the biological activity evaluations were carried out using in vitro evaluation methods and only a few studies were carried out in animal models. In the future, properly designed in vivo and clinical studies are necessary to evaluate the pharmacological activities of C. hirsutus along with bioassay-guided studies to isolate and identify the active constituents.

Arjunarishta alleviates experimental colitis via suppressing proinflammatory cytokine expression, modulating gut microbiota and enhancing antioxidant effect

Traditional ayurvedic medicine, Arjunarishta (AA) is used to treat several inflammatory conditions including dysentery associated with blood. The formulation is a decoction of Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight and Arn. (TA), Madhuca indica J.F.Gmel., Vitis vinifera L., Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz., and Saccharum officinarum L. Terminalia arjuna, a major constituent of this formulation has been recognized for anti-inflammatory effects. This study aimed at evaluating beneficial effects of AA and probable mechanism of action in Trinitrobenzenesulphonicacid (TNBS) induced colitis model. Response to AA treatment was explored through determination of disease activity index (DAI), histological assessment and damage scores, colonic pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine expression and estimation of oxidative stress biomarkers. Improvement in gut microbiome and plasma zinc level was also assessed. Study findings directed therapeutic effects of AA treatment in colitis model by attenuating the colitis symptoms such as weight loss, diarrhoea, blood in stool; histological damage; and downregulated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokine (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) and MCP-1). Similarly reduced oxidative stress by decreased level of Nitric Oxide (NO), Myeloperoxidase (MPO), Malondialdehyde (MDA) and enhanced level of Catalase (CAT), Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Reduced Glutathione (GSH) was also witnessed. In addition, an improved beneficial fecal microbiome profile and restored plasma zinc status was revealed compared to the TNBS control group. The present study directs that downregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokine expression, enhancement of antioxidant effect, increased plasma zinc status and promising role in modulating fecal microbiome might be potential mechanisms for the therapeutic effect of AA treatment against colitis.

GC-MS Analysis and Hemolytic, Antipyretic and Antidiarrheal Potential of Syzygium aromaticum (Clove) Essential Oil

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is a spice widely used for its medical properties, though the species lacks scientific evidence regarding its toxicity and biologic effects. The aim of this study was the chemical identification by GC-MS analysis and evaluation of the hemolytic, anticoagulant, antidiarrheal and antipyretic activities of the essential oil from S. aromaticum (EOSa) in adult male mice. Essential oil was obtained by hydrodistillation and provided 9.8% v/w yield. GC-MS analyses allowed the identification of nine constituents, with eugenol (84.63%) as the majority. EOSa was diluted in several concentrations (0.005–2 mg/mL) for hemolytic assays, showing hemolytic activity above 20% in concentrations higher than 0.625 mg/mL. Different concentrations of EOSa induced a coagulation time 100% higher than control blood. 50 and 100 mg/kg of EOSa caused additional intestinal motility induced by castor oil by 90–100%. Fever, induced by Saccharomyces cerevisae 15% (s.c.), was controlled by 50 and 100 mg/kg EOSa (p.o.), effects similar to 100 mg/kg dypirone. Results showed that when used orally, EOSa may have a certain degree of toxicity in high dosages, but with antipyretic and intestinal motility properties.

Medicinal plants brought by Indian indentured immigrants: A comparative review of ethnopharmacological uses between Mauritius and India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mauritius is famous for its floricultural diversity and traditions practiced across the island by various ethnic groups. During the British rule in the 1835s, Indian indentured labourers migrated to Mauritius and played a very important role in shaping the Mauritian culture. They brought along their high heritage of traditional knowledge of certain medicinal herbs and spices. Nonetheless, there has been no comparative study to investigate whether these past traditional knowledge are still preserved in Mauritius and India.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To document and compare the traditional uses of medicinal herbs and spices brought by Indian indentured labourers with their current uses in Mauritius and India, and to review pharmacological studies of such plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Locally published textbooks, research dissertations, and relevant records from the 'Mauritiana' section of the University of Mauritius library were scrutinised for possible early records of such herbs and spices brought by Indian indentured immigrants. Field trips and site visits to Mauritius Herbarium and The National Folk Museum were conducted to gather data on their traditional uses as practiced by the Indian indentured immigrants. A literature search was performed to gather the current ethnomedicinal uses of these plants in Mauritius and India using key databases such as ScienceDirect and PubMed, as well as thesis from local university website. Pharmacological studies on these plants were also reviewed in an attempt to compare the ethnomedicinal uses against reported ailments.

RESULTS

Indian labourers brought 18 medicinal plants for medicinal purposes as documented at the folk museum of Indian Immigration. Piper betle L., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., and Curcuma longa L. were common plants used by Indian indentured immigrants against a wide range of ailments. Data obtained from recent ethnomedicinal surveys revealed that A. indica and C. longa were the most traditionally used plants in India, while in Mauritius, C. longa was the most popular plant followed by Allium sativum L. and Ocimum tenuiflorum L. It was also found that all these plants are currently being used against a wide range of diseases in both countries. In addition, several studies have highlighted the pharmacological properties such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-pyretic, and anti-diabetic for some plants.

CONCLUSION

This investigation can be considered as a first attempt to document and compare traditional knowledge of medicinal plants brought by Indian immigrants. We observed that some of these knowledge are preserved and still practiced in Mauritius. It is anticipated that this study will revive the interest in safeguarding and promoting the ancestral knowledge on the uses of such plants.

Beneficial role of Terminalia arjuna hydro-alcoholic extract in colitis and its possible mechanism

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Terminalia arjuna Roxb. (Combretaceae) is traditionally used in Ayurveda medicine and holds ethnomedicinal importance for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. In view of its anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal and antioxidant potential, it could be beneficial for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which is associated with interaction between genetic, environmental factors and intestinal microbiome leading to dysregulated immune responses. This study evaluates the effect of hydroalcoholic extract of Terminalia arjuna bark (TAHA) in trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) model of rat colitis which resembles human IBD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

TAHA (500, 250, 125 mg/kg) was administered orally for 28 days in TNBS induced rats. Response to treatment was assessed by comparing observations in diseased and treated groups using disease activity index (DAI); macroscopic/histological damage; determining oxidative stress indicators: myeloperoxidase, malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, catalase, superoxide dismutase, and reduced glutathione; gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and chemokine: MCP-1. Furthermore, the role of TAHA in altering the gut microbiota profile in rat feces and plasma zinc was also studied.

RESULTS

TAHA treatment in colitic rats directed decreased DAI scores, macroscopic and histologic damage. It also reduced myeloperoxidase, malondialdehyde and nitric oxide level. Whereas, prevented depletion of plasma catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione level. In addition, TAHA treatment down-regulated the gene expression of pro-inflammatory mediators and displayed altered beneficial effect on fecal microbiota. Furthermore, enhanced plasma zinc level supported the beneficial effect of TAHA in colitic rats. The dose of TAHA that produced most significant beneficial effect was 500 mg/kg.

CONCLUSION

TAHA administration relieved the disease activity in TNBS induced colitis by reducing expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokine, decreasing oxidative stress, and improving plasma zinc level and structure of gut microbiota.

Twists, turns and trade: A new look at the Indian Screw tree (Helicteres isora)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This is the first study of global trade in fruits of the widely used traditional medicine, Helicteres isora L. It is used in Ayurvedic, Siddha, Unani medical systems and/or local folk traditional medicines in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. The roots are used in Traditional Chinese Medicines in China and the fruits in jamu products in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. In addition, H. isora fruits are also used in "traditional" medical systems far beyond the natural distribution of this species, for example in Zulu herbal medicine (South Africa) and Kurdish herbal medicines (Iraq).

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This study had three aims: (i) to assess the global trade in H. isora fruits; (ii) to study the H. isora trade from West Timor to Java in terms of actors and prices along the value chain and (iii) to get a better understanding of the potential of this species to improve household income in eastern Indonesia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study uses historical records, a contemporary analysis of global trade data (2014-2016) and field assessments of value chains and the biological factors influencing H. isora fruit production.

RESULTS

Globally, the major exporter of H. isora fruits is India, which exports H. isora fruits to 19 countries, far beyond the natural geographical distribution of this species. Over a 36-month period (January 2014-December 2016), India exported 392 t of H. isora fruits, with a Free-On-Board (FOB) value of Indian rupiah (INR) 18,337,000 (US$ 274,055). This represents an average annual export quantity of about 130,526 kg/year. Over this three year period, most of these exports (85.5%) were to Indonesia (346.58 t), followed by Thailand (6.85%). Indian H. isora exports are also used in many other medical systems, including Kurdish and Zulu "traditional" medicines in Iraq and South Africa. Formation of an Indian diaspora in Bahrain, Mauritius, South Africa, Tanzania and Trinidad and Tobago over the past 130 years is one of the drivers of H. isora fruit trade outside the natural geographic distribution of the species. In Indonesia, demand for H. isora fruits is supplemented by an intra-island trade in Java and an inter-island trade from East Nusa Tenggara. West Timor, for example, exports around 31-37 t of air-dried H. isora fruits per year to Java. At the farm gate, local harvesters in West Timor get 4000 IDR (c. 0.3 US$) per kg, with businesses in Java paying 25,000 IDR (c.US$2) per kg for H. isora fruits. This is similar to the price paid for H. isora fruits imported from India to Java.

CONCLUSIONS

India is the major exporter of whole dried H. isora fruits, including to countries where this species has never been in traditional use. In Indonesia, H. isora fruit extracts are used in the cosmetic industry as well as in jamu herbal medicines, including "Tolak Angin", the country's most popular commercial "jamu" preparation. Indonesia also is the major importer of H. isora fruits from India. In eastern Indonesia, improved income to local villagers from the H. isora fruit trade could come from improved H. isora fruit quality due to better drying techniques. This would also reduce health risks along the supply chain from to mycotoxins that have been recorded on poorly dried H. isora fruits. There also is an opportunity for cultivation of H. isora in small-holder teak plantations in Indonesia, with harvest of H. isora fruits as well as the medicinal bark.

Interrogation of ethnomedicinal plants for synthetic lethality effects in combination with deficiency in the DNA repair endonuclease RAD1 using a yeast cell-based assay

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Plant materials used in this study were selected based on the ethnobotanical literature. Plants have either been utilized by Thai practitioners as alternative treatments for cancer or identified to exhibit anti-cancer properties.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To screen ethnomedicinal plants using a yeast cell-based assay for synthetic lethal interactions with cells deleted for RAD1, the yeast homologue of human ERCC4 (XPF) MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethanolic extracts from thirty-two species of medicinal plants utilized in Thai traditional medicine were screened for synthetic lethal/sick interactions using a yeast cell-based assay. Cell growth was compared between the parental strain and rad1∆ yeast following exposure to select for specific toxicity of plant extracts. Candidate extracts were further examined for the mode of action using genetic and biochemical approaches.

RESULTS

Screening a library of ethanolic extracts from medicinal plants identified Bacopa monnieri and Colubrina asiatica as having synthetic lethal effects in the rad1∆ cells but not the parental strain. Synthetic lethal effects for B. monneiri extracts were more apparent and this plant was examined further. Genetic analysis indicates that pro-oxidant activities and defective excision repair pathways do not significantly contribute to enhanced sensitivity to B. monneiri extracts. Exposure to B. monneiri extracts resulted in nuclear fragmentation and elevated levels of ethidium bromide staining in rad1∆ yeast suggesting promotion of an apoptosis-like event. Growth inhibition also observed in the human Caco-2 cell line suggesting the effects of B. monnieri extracts on both yeast and human cells may be similar.

CONCLUSIONS

B. monneiri extracts may have utility in treatment of colorectal cancers that exhibit deficiency in ERCC4 (XPF).

Chemical composition and biological activities of Helicteres vegae and Heliopsis sinaloensis

CONTEXT

Helicteres vegae Cristóbal (Sterculiaceae) (Hv) and Heliopsis sinaloensis B.L. Turner (Asteraceae) (Hs) are endangered and poorly studied plant species; related plants have been used against chronic-degenerative and infectious diseases. Therefore, Hv and Hs could be sources of bioactive compounds against these illnesses.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the chemical composition and biological activities (antioxidant, antimutagenic and antimicrobial) of Hv and Hs leaves (L) and stems (S).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Methanol extracts (ME) of each plant/tissue were evaluated for their phytochemicals; phenolics (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS); antioxidant activity (AA) (0.125-4 mg/mL) (DPPH, ABTS, ORAC and β-carotene discoloration); antimutagenicity (0.5 and 1 mg/plate) (Ames assay, tester strain Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium YG1024, 1-nitropyrene as mutagen); activity against human pathogens (1 mg/mL); and toxicity (0.01-2 mg/mL) (Artemia salina assay).

RESULTS

All ME showed flavonoids and triterpenes/steroids. The ME-SHv had the highest content of total phenolics (TP) (2245.82 ± 21.45 mg GAE/100 g d.w.) and condensed tannins (603.71 ± 1.115 mg CE/100 g d.w.). The compounds identified were flavonoids (kaempferol 7-O-coumaroylhexoside, and two kaempferol 7-O-rhamnosylhexosides) and phenolics [rosmarinic acid, and 3'-O-(8″-Z-caffeoyl) rosmarinic acid]. The ME-LHs showed the highest content of flavonoids (357.88 mg RE/g d.w.) and phenolic acids (238.58 mg CAE/g d.w.) by HPLC. The ME-SHv showed the highest AA. All ME were strong antimutagens (63.3-85.7%). Only the Hs extracts were toxic (ME-LHs, LC₅₀ = 94.9 ± 1.7 μg/mL; ME-SHs, LC₅₀ = 89.03 ± 4.42 μg/mL).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Both Hv and Hs are potential sources of preventive and therapeutic agents against chronic-degenerative diseases.

Ethnomedicinal, Phytochemical and Ethnopharmacological Aspects of Four Medicinal Plants of Malvaceae Used in Indian Traditional Medicines: A Review

The ethnomedicinal values of plants form the basis of the herbal drug industry. India has contributed its knowledge of traditional system medicines (Ayurveda and Siddha) to develop herbal medicines with negligible side effects. The World Health Organization has also recognized the benefits of drugs developed from natural products. Abutilon indicum, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Sida acuta and Sida rhombifolia are ethnomedicinal plants of Malvaceae, commonly used in Indian traditional system of medicines. Traditionally these plants were used in the form of extracts/powder/paste by tribal populations of India for treating common ailments like cough and cold, fever, stomach, kidney and liver disorders, pains, inflammations, wounds, etc. The present review is an overview of phytochemistry and ethnopharmacological studies that support many of the traditional ethnomedicinal uses of these plants. Many phytoconstituents have been isolated from the four ethnomedicinal plants and some of them have shown pharmacological activities that have been demonstrated by in vivo and/or in vitro experiments. Ethnomedicinal uses, supported by scientific evidences is essential for ensuring safe and effective utilization of herbal medicines.

The genus Anogeissus: A review on ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Anogeissus (axlewood tree, ghatti tree, button tree and chewing stick tree) belongs to Combretaceae, includes eight species that are distributed in Asia and Africa. Plants are used as an ethnomedicine in Asia and Africa to treat various ailments like diabetes, fever, diarrhoea, dysentery, tuberculosis, wound healing, skin diseases (eczema, psoriasis), snake and scorpion venom. Based on the traditional knowledge, different phytochemical and pharmacological activities have been at the focus of research. The aim of this review is to provide updated, comprehensive and categorized information on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacological research and toxicity of Anogeissus species in order to identify their therapeutic potential and directs future research opportunities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The relevant data was searched by using the keyword "Anogeissus" in "Scopus", "Google Scholar", "Web of Science", "PubMed", and "ScienceDirect" databases. Plant taxonomy was validated by the databases "The Plant List" and A.J. Scott, 1979.

RESULTS

This review discusses the current knowledge of the ethnobotany, phytochemistry and in vitro as well as in vivo pharmacological evaluations carried out on the extracts and isolated main active constituents of Anogeissus genus. Among eight species, most of the phytochemical and pharmacological studies were performed on four species. About 55 secondary metabolites are isolated from the genus. Stem bark, leaf, seed, fruit, root of the plants are used for the treatment of several health disorders such as diabetes, fever, diarrhoea, dysentery, tuberculosis, wound healing, skin diseases (eczema, psoriasis), snake and scorpion venom. Gum ghatti obtained from Anogeissus latifolia is used after delivery as tonic and in spermatorrhoea. Many phytochemical investigations on this genus confirmed that it is rich in phenolic compounds. Modern pharmacology research has confirmed that the crude extracts or the isolated active compounds of the genus Anogeissus possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, wound healing, antiulcer, anti-inflammation, anti-diabetics, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, antiparasitic and neuroprotective effects.

CONCLUSIONS

This review confirms that some Anogeissus species have emerged as a good source of the traditional medicine for wound healing, inflammation, skin diseases, microbial infection and diabetes. Many traditional uses of Anogeissus species have now been validated by modern pharmacology research. Intensive investigations of all the species of Anogeissus regarding phytochemical and pharmacological properties, especially their mechanism of action, safety and efficacy could be the future research interests before starting clinical trials.

An ethnobotanical study of plants used to treat liver diseases in the Maritime region of Togo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Togo, many persons still rely on plants for healing, however very little is known about the medicinal practices of the indigenous people. The present study aimed to document the medicinal plant utilization for the management of liver diseases in the Maritime region of the country.

METHODOLOGY

This was an ethnobotanical survey conducted in the Maritime region of Togo from June to August 2015. The data were gathered from 104 traditional healers (TH) by direct interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire. The calculated use values (UV) were used to analyze the importance of the cited plants.

RESULTS

A total of 99 plant species belonging to 88 genera and 49 families were cited by the TH as curing the hepatic diseases. The most represented families were Caesalpiniaceae with 8 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae with 7 species, Apocynaceae and Asteraceae with 6 species each. The highest UV were recorded with Gomphrena celosioides (0.13), Xylopia ethiopica (0.12), Senna occidentalis (0.12), Bridelia ferruginea (0.12), Cymbopogon citratus (0.12), Kigellia Africana (0.09), Cassia sieberiana (0.08) and Sanseviera liberica (0.08), showing their importance in the management of liver dysfunction in the surveyed region. The main used parts were the leaves, followed by the roots, the whole plant, the rhizome and the bark, accounting for more than 10% each. The herbal medicines were mostly prepared in the form of decoction and administrated by oral route.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that Maritime region of Togo has an important plant biodiversity that is exploited by the indigenous TH. However, some plants cited by the TH have not been studied for their possible hepatoprotective effects. These plants are therefore a starting point for biological screenings.

Ethnopharmacological documentation of medicinal plants used for hypertension among the local communities of DIR Lower, Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Local communities of the Dir Lower district in Northwest Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan rely on botanical anti-hypertensive preparations. Insights into the traditional uses of local flora can direct investigation into phytochemical screening.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This ethnobotanical study aims to identify plant species and recipes used by the local people for the treatment of hypertension in the district of Dir Lower.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Inquiries and interviews were carried out from November 2012 to December 2013 from local herbalist and indigenous communities including village elders.

RESULTS

A total of 46 plant species (43 genera and 29 botanical families) used by local people of study area to treat hypertension. Family Lamiaceae dominated with the highest percentage 15.21% (7 species). With respect to growth form, herbs constituted (63.05%), shrubs (30.43%) and trees (6.52%). Leaves (37.25%) were the most frequently used part in herbal preparations. The major mode of preparation was decoction (46.66%) and almost all recipes were orally administered. Use values (UV) revealed that the most preferred species for the treatment of hypertension by the indigenous community are Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle., followed by Sarcococca saligna (D. Don) Muell. Arg., Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley and Teucrium stocksianum Boiss. Amongst the 46 medicinal plants, antihypertensive activity of 16 plants included Artemisia vulgiris L., Artemisia annua L., Sisymbrium brassiciforme C. A. Mey., T. stocksianum Boiss, Cichorium intybus L., Rosa brunonii Lindl., Chenopodium botrys L., Olea ferruginea Royle, Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl, S. saligna (D. Don) Muell. Arg., Viola canescens Wall. ex Roxb, P. emodi Wall. ex Royle, Asparagus gracilis Royle, Maytenus royleanus (Wall. ex Lawson), Allium jacquemontii Kunth and Onosma hispidum Wall has not been reported previously in the scientific literature.

CONCLUSIONS

Dir lower is a rich and biodiverse area of medicinal plant. The large number of plant species used for hypertension in this area shows the importance of herbal medicine in the primary health care of this remote area. In future studies, the plant should be further screened for phytochemical and new medicinal properties.

Medicinal plants used to treat the most frequent diseases encountered in Ambalabe rural community, Eastern Madagascar

BACKGROUND

Traditional medicine remains the only health care available in many rural areas in Madagascar like the rural community of Ambalabe, located in a very remote area in the eastern part of the country. With limited access to modern medicine, the local population uses medicinal plants to treat most diseases. In this study, we aimed to inventory medicinal plants used by local people and how those relate to the treatment of the most frequent diseases encountered in Ambalabe.

METHODS

We interviewed participants in order to identify the most frequent diseases in the region and the medicinal plants used to treat them. The local physician was asked about the most frequent diseases, and ethnobotanical surveys to record medicinal plants and their uses, using semi-structured interviews and free listing, were conducted among 193 informants in local villages, of which 54 % were men and 46 % were women, ageing from 16 to 86 years. The local names, the uses of each plant species and the way they are prepared and administered were recorded and accompanied by herbarium specimens for identification. We also interviewed four traditional healers to elicit more details on the preparation and the use of plants.

RESULTS

Our research allowed us to identify six most frequent diseases, namely diarrhea, malaria, stomach-ache, cough, bilharzia and dysentery. Among 209 plant species identified as having medicinal use, 83 species belonging to 49 families and 77 genera were used to treat these diseases. Our analyses highlighted the 11 commonly used species for their treatment, and also 16 species with a high fidelity level (FL ≥ 75 %) for each ailment. Diarrhea is one of the diseases with high number of species recorded.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlighted the closed relationship between people in Ambalabe and plant species, especially when faced with frequent diseases. However, most of the species used were collected in the surroundings of the villages. Few species were from Vohibe forest in which a management system on the use of plant species was already established. Therefore, a sustainable use management should be considered for wild species from which medicinal plants are highly abundant.

Oral traditional knowledge on medicinal plants in jeopardy among Gaddi shepherds in hills of northwestern Himalaya, J&K, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Gaddi community has been known for its shepherd profession from time immemorial. At least one family member or 4-5 people from a village adopt a nomadic lifestyle with their sheep flocks in between the hills of north western Himalaya. In Jammu and Kashmir, India, law enforcement has banned the collection of the medicinal plants from the wild except for the Gaddi, Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes who are permitted to collect the species for their personal use only. As a consequence, knowledge of medicinal plants lies with these tribes only. This study has been undertaken to assess the status of Oral Traditional Knowledge (OTK) on medicinal plant usage in one of these tribes, known as the Gaddi. The study has focused specifically on the Gaddi Shepherds as their nomadic lifestyle means that they are closely associated with nature and dependent on natural resources for their livelihood including treatment of various ailments.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Data on indigenous knowledge has been collected through direct interviews of 53 shepherds of the Gaddi tribe and analyzed for quantitative parameters such as use-value and factor informant consensus.

RESULTS

A total of 190 plant species belonging to 70 families, growing along the migratory route of the Gaddi Shepherds are used to treat more than 80 different ailments and disorders. Leaves are the most common plant parts used by the Gaddi Shepherds. The older shepherds are much more aware about the traditional knowledge on medicinal plant usage than the younger ones. 56 plant species are used to treat a range of gastrointestinal and liver disorders, however, diabetic conditions and stings/bites by snakes/scorpions are treated using only two plant species each. Mentha longifolia with UV = 0.26 is the species most commonly used by the informants for medicinal purposes. The low UV (below 1) and low Fic (near 0) is a common observation in the present study.

CONCLUSIONS

The UV and Fic, analysis reveals that OTK on the medicinal plants is dwindling among the Gaddi Shepherds in Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, an important Asian traditional medicine: from traditional uses to scientific data for its commercial exploitation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Oroxylum indicum\ (L.) Kurz has been used for centuries as a traditional medicine in Asia in ethnomedicinal systems for the prevention and treatment of several diseases, such as jaundice, arthritic and rheumatic problems, gastric ulcers, tumors, respiratory diseases, diabetes, and diarrhea and dysentery, among others. The present review provides scientific evidence supporting the therapeutic potency of the plant for ethnomedicinal uses and identifies gaps for future research to facilitate commercial exploitation.

METHODS

This review is based on available information on traditional uses and phytochemical, pharmacological, clinical and toxicity data for Oroxylum indicum that was collected from electronic (SciFinder, PubMed, Science Direct, and ACS, among others) and library searches.

KEY FINDING

A variety of traditional medicinal uses of Oroxylum indicum in different Southeast and South Asian countries have been reported in books describing the uses of these plants. Phytochemical investigations of the different parts of the plant resulted in identification of approximately 111 compounds, among which flavonoids, naphthalenoids and cyclohexylethanoids are the predominant groups. The crude extracts and their isolates exhibit a wide spectrum of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities involving antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anticancer, anti-ulcer, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, antidiarrheal and antioxidant activities. Flavonoids are the major constituents of all parts of the plant. From a toxicity perspective, only aqueous and ethanolic extracts of stem bark, root bark and fruits have been assessed and found to be safe. The major flavonoids of the stem bark, such as baicalein, chrysin and oroxylin A, were reported for the first time as natural flavonoids with potent inhibitory activity against endoprotease enzymes and proprotein convertases, which play a key role in the growth of cancer and in viral and bacterial infections. Flavonoids are the active components of bioactive extracts. Several Ayurvedic medicines have been formulated either singly using this plant or along with other herbs for the treatment of different diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacological results have supported some traditional medicinal uses of Oroxylum indicum. Several extracts and their isolates have been reported to exhibit interesting pharmacological properties. These components could be useful as sources of modern medicines following future detailed studies to elucidate their underlying mechanisms, toxicity, synergistic effects and clinical trials. Attention should also be focused on pharmacological studies investigating the traditional uses of the plant, which have not been yet addressed, as well as clinical studies investigating commercial Ayurvedic medicines and other ethnomedicinal preparations in human subjects based on this plant to confirm the safety and quality of the preparations.

Ethnomedicinal plants used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community of district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tharu community is the largest primitive indigenous community of the Uttarakhand, India. In this article we have scientifically enumerated medicinal plants and herbal preparations used by the Tharu community to treat various skin diseases, and discussed dermatological properties of these plants in the light of previous ethnomedicinal, microbiological, pharmacological, toxicological, phytochemical and clinical studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnomedicinal survey was conducted in different villages of Tharu community located in district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India. Ethnomedicinal information on plants used to treat various skin diseases was collected from 122 individuals (93 males and 29 females), including 35 experienced herbal practitioners and 87 local villagers. For each of the recorded plant species the use value (UV) and fidelity level (FL) was calculated. The informant consensus factor (Fic) was also calculated to find out the homogeneity in the information given by the informants.

RESULTS

A total of 90 plant species belonging to 86 genera and 48 families were used by the Tharu community to treat various skin diseases viz., wounds (38 spp.), boils (32 spp.), cuts (18 spp.), leprosy (11 spp.), eczema (10 spp.), itching (7 spp.), ringworm (5 spp.), burns (4 spp.), leucoderma (4 spp.), cracked heels (2 spp.), dandruff (3 spp.), body infection (2 spp.), chilblains (2 spp.), hair fall (2 spp.) and toes infection (2 spp.). Information on botanical name, family, vernacular name, ailments treated, mode and dose of herbal preparations, UV and FL values are provided for each of the recorded species. According to UV value most preferred plant species used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community was Ricinus communis L. followed by Tridax procumbens (L.) L., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Ageratum conyzoides and Allium cepa L.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study has revealed significant information on various medicinal plants used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community. Literature review has confirmed most of the claims made by the Tharu community regarding treatment of various skin diseases by the reported plants. The literature review has also revealed that products from very few of the reported plants are available in market, while most of the reported plants are still under preclinical or clinical trials. There are various known phytochemicals, and antibiotic, antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal agents present in these plants which may be synthesized or transformed to make pharmaceuticals. Some of the reported plants have shown promising results in preclinical trails and there is a need of clinical trials to see their safety and efficacy in treating various skin diseases. These plants may be targeted for development of new medicines, ointments or drugs for the treatment of skin diseases. However further toxicological, preclinical and clinical studies are needed to validate claims about little worked out plant species reported in the present study viz., Sida cordata (Burm. F.) Borss. Waalk., Millettia extensa (Benth.) Baker, Caesulia axillaris Roxb., Ehretia laevis Roxb., Vanda tessellate (Roxb.) Hook. Ex G.Don. and Eualaliopsis binata (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. Further studies on these plants are recommended to assess their potential in development of new skin care products.

A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) is a predominantly Himalayan state in the north-western part of India. It has three geographically distinct divisions viz., Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh, which are immensely rich in their biological and cultural diversity. Medicinal plants are an important element of indigenous medical system of the region. The main goal of the present article is to examine the use of ethnomedicinal plants in three divisions of J&K and to discuss cross-cultural consensus on the use of medicinal plants in these divisions. The article also discusses the gaps in the current state of knowledge on ethnomedicinal plants of the region and gives recommendations for the future studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Scientific literature on ethnomedicinal field studies conducted in J&K state of India available in the journals, edited books and other scientific databases viz., CAB international, DOAJ, Google Scholar, PubMed, Science direct, SciFinder, Scopus and Web of Science were searched. Only field based ethnomedicinal surveys from last four decades up to December 2013 reporting first hand information on the medicinal plants used to treat human health related ailments by indigenous communities of J&K were included in this study. Venn diagram was used to analyze the cross-cultural consensus on the use of ethnomedicinal plants in the three divisions of J&K.

RESULTS

A total of 948 plant taxa (923 angiosperms, 12 gymnosperms and 13 pteridophytes) belonging to 129 families, 509 genera, 937 species and 11 varieties have so far been reported to have a traditional medicinal use by indigenous communities of J&K. Asteraceae (60 genera, 132 spp.) was the most frequently used family followed by Fabaceae (32 genera, 50 spp.) and Lamiaceae (27 genera, 55 spp.). 514, 415 and 397 medicinal plants were used in Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh divisions, respectively. Sixty eight plant taxa were used in all the three divisions, whereas 95 plants were common between Ladakh and Jammu, 127 plants between Ladakh and Kashmir, and 216 plants between Jammu and Kashmir. Maximum numbers of plant taxa were used for treating dermatological problems (321), followed by cold, cough and throat related ailments (250), fever (224), joint and muscle related ailments (215), gastrointestinal disorders (210), urogenital ailments (199), respiratory ailments (151), body pain (135) and gynecological disorders (127).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study from the J&K state, which has examined the medicinal plant use in three divisions of J&K and discussed the promising medicinal plant species with cross-cultural consensus. The analysis of the data suggested that while large numbers of plants are used medicinally in each division, there is a low interregional consensus and high variation between medicinal plants used in these divisions, which is due to both cultural divergence as well as biological distinctness. The issues related to current status of knowledge on medicinal plants used by indigenous communities of J&K have been discussed and some recommendations have been made for future studies on medicinal plants in J&K region.