Platycodon grandiflorus - an ethnopharmacological, phytochemical and pharmacological review

Considering traditional Chinese medicine as adjunct therapy in the management of chronic constipation by regulating intestinal flora

Chronic constipation is one of the most common gastrointestinal disorders worldwide. Due to changes in diet, lifestyle, and the aging population, the incidence of chronic constipation has increased year by year. It has had an impact on daily life and poses a considerable economic burden. Nowadays, many patients with chronic constipation try to seek help from complementary and alternative therapies, and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is often their choice. The intestinal flora play an important role in the pathogenesis of constipation by affecting the body's metabolism, secretion, and immunity. Regulating the intestinal flora and optimizing its composition might become an important prevention and treatment for chronic constipation. TCM has unique advantages in regulating the imbalance of intestinal flora, and its curative effect is precise. Therefore, we reviewed the relationship between intestinal flora and chronic constipation as well as advances in research on TCM as adjunct therapy in the management of chronic constipation by regulating intestinal flora. Some single Chinese herbs and their active ingredients (e.g., Rheum palmatum, Radix Astragalus, and Cistanche deserticola), some traditional herbal formulations (e.g., Jichuan decoction, Zengye decoction, and Zhizhu decoction) and some Chinese patent medicines (e.g., Maren pills and Shouhui Tongbian capsules) that are commonly used to treat chronic constipation by regulating intestinal flora are highlighted and summarized. Moreover, some external forms of TCM, and especially acupuncture, have also been found to improve intestinal movement and alleviate constipation symptoms by regulating intestinal flora. We hope this review can contribute to an understanding of TCM as an adjunct therapy for chronic constipation and that it can provide useful information for the development of more effective constipation therapies.

Polysaccharides from Platycodon grandiflorum: A review of their extraction, structures, modifications, and bioactivities

Platycodon grandiflorum (P. grandiflorum) has long been used as a food and traditional herbal medicine. As a food, P. grandiflorum is often transformed into pickles for consumption, and as a traditional Chinese medicine, P. grandiflorum clears the lung, nourishes the pharynx, dispels phlegm, and discharges pus. Polysaccharides are among the main active components of P. grandiflorum. Recent literature has described the preparation, identification, and pharmacological activity of these polysaccharides. Studies have shown that these polysaccharides exhibit a variety of significant biological effects in vitro and in vivo, such as immune stimulation and antioxidant, anti-liver injury, anti-apoptosis and antitumour effects. However, there is no systematic summary of the related research articles on P. grandiflorum polysaccharide, which undoubtedly brings some difficulties to the future research. The purpose of this review is to comprehensively describe research progress on the extraction, purification, structural characterization, modification, and biological activity of P. grandiflorum polysaccharides. The shortcomings of recent research are summarized, further research on their biological activity is proposed to provide new reference value for the application of P. grandiflorum polysaccharides in drugs and health products in the future.

Screening of Platycodonis Radix Fractions for Antiobesity Activities and Elucidation of Its Molecular Mechanisms in High-Fat Diet-Fed C57BL/6 Mice

Obesity is a threat to public health and effective new medications are required. Platycodonis Radix (PR) is a traditional medicinal/dietary plant with activities against obesity. Using mice given a diet rich in fat, the antiobesity components of PR were identified and their molecular mechanisms were clarified further in this investigation. Initially, the impacts of PR fractions on liver histology and biochemical markers were assessed. Subsequently, the degrees of lipogenic and lipolytic gene and protein expressions were determined. Oral administration of PR polysaccharides (PG) (0.80 g/kg body weight) improved liver function (alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase) and its antioxidant activities (total superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde), as well as alleviated blood lipid (total cholesterol, total triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) values, inflammatory systemic (TNF-α and IL-1β), and histological abnormalities within the liver. Furthermore, PG administration downregulated the expression for lipogenic genes (ACC and FAS) and upregulated the expression for the lipolytic gene (PPARα, LPL, CPT1, and HSL). Importantly, PG raised AMPK phosphorylation and decreased SREBP-1c protein synthesis. Thus, it is possible that PG stimulates the AMPK-LPL/HSL path (lipolytic route) plus the AMPK-ACC/PPARα-CPT1 path (associated to β-oxidation of fatty acids), while inhibiting the AMPK/(SREBP-1c)-ACC/FAS path (lipogenic route). In summary, PG has the ability to regulate lipid metabolism, and it may be useful to pharmacologically activate AMPK with PG to prevent and cure obesity.

Genome-wide identification of bZIP transcription factors and their expression analysis in Platycodon grandiflorus under abiotic stress

The Basic Leucine Zipper (bZIP) transcription factors (TFs) family is among of the largest and most diverse gene families found in plant species, and members of the bZIP TFs family perform important functions in plant developmental processes and stress response. To date, bZIP genes in Platycodon grandiflorus have not been characterized. In this work, a number of 47 PgbZIP genes were identified from the genome of P. grandiflorus, divided into 11 subfamilies. The distribution of these PgbZIP genes on the chromosome and gene replication events were analyzed. The motif, gene structure, cis-elements, and collinearity relationships of the PgbZIP genes were simultaneously analyzed. In addition, gene expression pattern analysis identified ten candidate genes involved in the developmental process of different tissue parts of P. grandiflorus. Among them, Four genes (PgbZIP5, PgbZIP21, PgbZIP25 and PgbZIP28) responded to drought and salt stress, which may have potential biological roles in P. grandiflorus development under salt and drought stress. Four hub genes (PgbZIP13, PgbZIP30, PgbZIP32 and PgbZIP45) mined in correlation network analysis, suggesting that these PgbZIP genes may form a regulatory network with other transcription factors to participate in regulating the growth and development of P. grandiflorus. This study provides new insights regarding the understanding of the comprehensive characterization of the PgbZIP TFs for further exploration of the functions of growth and developmental regulation in P. grandiflorus and the mechanisms for coping with abiotic stress response.

Cloning, Expression Characteristics of Farnesyl Pyrophosphate Synthase Gene from Platycodon grandiflorus and Functional Identification in Triterpenoid Synthesis

Platycodon grandiflorus is a medicinal plant whose main component is platycodins, which have a variety of pharmacological effects and nutritional values. The farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPS) is a key enzyme in the isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway, which catalyzes the synthesis of farnesyl diphosphate (FPP). In this study, we cloned the FPS gene from P. grandiflorus (PgFPS) with an ORF of 1260 bp, encoding 419 amino acids with a deduced molecular weight and theoretical pI of 46,200.98 Da and 6.52, respectively. The squalene content of overexpressed PgFPS in tobacco leaves and yeast cells extract was 1.88-fold and 1.21-fold higher than that of the control group, respectively, and the total saponin content was also increased by 1.15 times in yeast cells extract, which verified the biological function of PgFPS in terpenoid synthesis. After 48 h of MeJA treatment and 6 h of ethephon treatment, the expression of the PgFPS gene in roots and stems reached its peak, showing a 3.125-fold and 3.236-fold increase compared to the untreated group, respectively. Interestingly, the expression of the PgFPS gene in leaves showed a decreasing trend after exogenous elicitors treatment. The discovery of this enzyme will provide a novel perspective for enhancing the efficient synthesis of platycodins.

Revealing Molecular Mechanisms of the Bioactive Saponins from Edible Root of Platycodon grandiflorum in Combating Obesity

Obesity has emerged as a significant health concern, as it is a disease linked to metabolic disorders in the body and is characterized by the excessive accumulation of lipids. As a plant-derived food, Platycodon grandiflorum (PG) was reported by many studies, indicating that the saponins from PG can improve obesity effectively. However, the anti-obesity saponins from PG and its anti-obesity mechanisms have not been fully identified. This study identified the active saponins and their molecular targets for treating obesity. The TCMSP database was used to obtain information on 18 saponins in PG. The anti-obesity target of the PG saponins was 115 targets and 44 core targets. GO and KEGG analyses using 44 core anti-obesity genes and targets of PG-active saponins screened from GeneCards, OMIM, Drugbank, and DisGeNet showed that the PI3K-Akt pathway, the JAK-STAT pathway, and the MAPK pathway were the major pathways involved in the anti-obesity effects of PG saponins. BIOVIA Discovery Studio Visualizer and AutoDock Vina were used to perform molecular docking and process the molecular docking results. The molecular docking results showed that the active saponins of PG could bind to the major therapeutic obesity targets to play an obesity-inhibitory role. The results of this study laid the foundation for further research on the anti-obesity saponins in PG and their anti-obesity mechanism and provided a new direction for the development of functional plant-derived food. This research studied the molecular mechanism of PG saponins combating obesity through various signaling pathways, and prosapogenin D can be used to develop as a new potential anti-obesity drug.

Elucidating the anti-inflammatory activity of platycodins in lung inflammation through pulmonary distribution dynamics and grey relational analysis of cytokines

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Platycodonis Radix (PR) is a traditional herbal remedy used to prevent and treat lung inflammation, and platycodins are speculated to be the major active constituents. However, concrete experimental verification for this assertion remains absent thus far.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to compare the pulmonary distribution dynamics of five platycodins and analyze their effects on cytokines. Through the grey relational analysis (GRA) between pulmonary active components and cytokines, the study ascertains platycodins as the potential effective component against lung inflammation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A rat lung inflammation model was created using lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Pulmonary distribution dynamics were analyzed via LC-MS/MS. Cytokine changes and distribution patterns in lung tissues were studied by multi-factor reagent kit. GRA was applied to determine correlations between pulmonary components and cytokines. Finally, the anti-inflammatory properties of platycodins were further studied using LPS-induced BEAS-2B cells in vitro.

RESULTS

The results showed that five platycodins (Platycodin D, Platycodin D3, Deapio Platycodin D, 3-O-β-D-Glucopyranosyl Platycodigenin, and Platycodigenin) featured fast absorption rate, short time to peak, and slow metabolism rate. The pulmonary distribution dynamics were significantly affected within 2 h after LPS modeling. At the same time, PR altered the relationships among different cytokines induced by LPS stimulation, particularly inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IFN-γ. The GRA results indicated good correlation between the pulmonary distribution dynamics of the five platycodins components and the changing patterns of cytokine levels, with Platycodin D3 contributing the most. Additionally, Platycodin D3 exhibited a protective role against LPS-induced inflammation by reducing the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as IL-1β, IL-8, and ROS, as well as increasing the expression of the anti-inflammatory mediator IL-10.

CONCLUSIONS

Platycodins are the main anti-inflammatory agents in PR and there is a good correlation with cytokines. This contributes to the anti-pneumonia effect of PR.

Platycodin D induces apoptosis via regulating MAPK pathway and promotes autophagy in colon cancer cell

Platycodin D (PD) is the main component of triterpene saponins found in Platycodi radix. In this study, we observed a decrease in cell viability, an increase in apoptotic bodies, and an increase in the rate of apoptosis. Also, we observed an increase in cleaved PARP and Bax, a decrease in Bcl-2, and p-ERK, and an increase in p-p38 and p-JNK. Furthermore, a change in cell viability and the expression of p-p38, Bax, and Bcl-2 using the p38 inhibitor revealed a decrease in p-p38 and Bax and an increase in Bcl-2 in the inhibitor treatment group. In addition, we observed an increase in vacuole formation through morphological changes and an increase in acidic vesicular organelles (AVOs). We also observed an increase in the expression of beclin 1, LC 3-I, and -II. There was no significant decrease in cell viability in the group treated with 3-MA, but a decrease in cell viability was noted in the group treated with HCQ. HCQ treatment resulted in an increase in Bax and a decrease in Bcl-2. These findings reveal that in HT-29 colon cancer cells, PD induces apoptosis through the MAPK pathway, thereby exerting anticancer effects. Moreover, autophagy caused by PD inhibits apoptosis by protecting the cells.

From immune checkpoints to therapies: understanding immune checkpoint regulation and the influence of natural products and traditional medicine on immune checkpoint and immunotherapy in lung cancer

Lung cancer is a disease of global concern, and immunotherapy has brought lung cancer therapy to a new era. Besides promising effects in the clinical use of immune checkpoint inhibitors, immune-related adverse events (irAEs) and low response rates are problems unsolved. Natural products and traditional medicine with an immune-modulating nature have the property to influence immune checkpoint expression and can improve immunotherapy's effect with relatively low toxicity. This review summarizes currently approved immunotherapy and the current mechanisms known to regulate immune checkpoint expression in lung cancer. It lists natural products and traditional medicine capable of influencing immune checkpoints or synergizing with immunotherapy in lung cancer, exploring both their effects and underlying mechanisms. Future research on immune checkpoint modulation and immunotherapy combination applying natural products and traditional medicine will be based on a deeper understanding of their mechanisms regulating immune checkpoints. Continued exploration of natural products and traditional medicine holds the potential to enhance the efficacy and reduce the adverse reactions of immunotherapy.

Jingfang Granule mitigates Coxsackievirus B3-induced myocardial damage by modulating mucolipin 1 expression

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Jingfang Granules (JFG) originate from the traditional herbal formula Jingfang Baidu powder. It has the effects of inducing sweating and dispelling wind. It is a classic medication used for treating external pathogenic factors and viral diseases. However, the therapeutic mechanism of JFG for viral myocarditis needs further clarification.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to explore the therapeutic efficacy of JFG on coxsackievirus B3-induced viral myocarditis (VMC), along with the elucidation of its underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

C57 BL/6JNifdc mice were divided randomly into several groups: control, model, Jingfang Granule groups (0.23, 0.46, and 0.69 g/20g, respectively), and a positive group (oseltamivir, 19.33 mg/kg). Following the establishment of the VMC model, the mice underwent an 8 -week treatment regimen. Pathological alterations in cardiac tissues and inflammatory protein expression were monitored. Differential gene analysis was conducted utilizing transcriptomic techniques. The differential gene mucolipin 1 (Mcoln1) was knocked down by transfection with siRNA in H9C2 cell, and investigative techniques such as immunoblotting, qRT-PCR, immunofluorescence, JC-1 staining, reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection, and mitochondrial stress testing were employed to examine its mechanism of action.

RESULTS

JFG significantly mitigates the pathological damage observed in the cardiac tissues of CVB3-induced VMC mice and attenuates the expression of inflammatory genes. Subsequently, differentially expressed genes are identified through transcriptomic analysis and validated via PCR. Among these, the upregulation of Mcoln1 promotes autophagy, facilitating the clearance of damaged mitochondria and excessive ROS. This has been substantiated through in vitro experiments. Excessive ROS precipitates a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential, instigating cell apoptosis. In accordance with TUNEL staining results, JFG acts to inhibit cell apoptosis. To ascertain whether Mcoln1 is a crucial target for JFG in treating VMC, Mcoln1 was suppressed in H9C2 cells. The suppression of Mcoln1 hinders the elevation in autophagy levels post-JFG treatment, obstructs the enhancement of mitochondrial function, and impedes the clearance of ROS. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of JFG on cell apoptosis is attenuated.

CONCLUSION

The research findings indicate that JFG has a protective effect on CVB3-induced H9C2 cell injury. JFG may exert its effects in VMC treatment by enhancing autophagy to suppress cell apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway, thereby counteracting cell damage.

Evaluating traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) Jie Geng and Huang Qi combination on reducing surgical site infections in colorectal cancer surgeries: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Postoperative wound infections (PWIs) pose a significant challenge in colorectal cancer surgeries, leading to prolonged hospital stays and increased morbidity. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the efficacy of the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) combination of Jie Geng and Huang Qi in reducing PWIs following colorectal cancer surgeries. Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, we focused on seven randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving 1256 patients, examining the incidence of PWIs within 30 days post-surgery, alongside secondary outcomes such as length of hospital stay and antibiotic use. The analysis revealed a significant reduction in PWI incidence in the TCM-treated group compared to controls, with a Risk Ratio of 0.21 (95% CI: 0.14 to 0.30, p < 0.01), a notable decrease in hospital stay (Mean Difference: 1.2 days, 95% CI: 0.15 to 1.28 days, p < 0.01) and a significant reduction in antibiotic use (Risk Ratio: 0.24, 95% CI: 0.16 to 0.36, p < 0.01). These findings suggest that Jie Geng and Huang Qi in TCM could be an effective adjunct in postoperative care for colorectal cancer surgeries, underscoring the need for further high-quality RCTs to substantiate these results and explore the underlying mechanisms.

A prospective review of the health-promoting potential of Jing Si Herbal Tea

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gained considerable attention over the past few years for its multicomponent, multitarget, and multi-pathway approach to treating different diseases. Studies have shown that TCMs as adjuvant therapy along with conventional treatment may benefit in safely treating various disorders. However, investigations on finding effective herbal combinations are ongoing. A novel TCM formula, "Jing Si Herbal Tea (JSHT)," has been reported recently for their health-promoting effects in improving overall body and mental health. JSHT is a combination of eight herbs recognized in Chinese herbal pharmacopoeia for their anti-viral, anti-aging, and anti-cancer properties as well as protective effects against cardiovascular, metabolic, neural, digestive, and genitourinary diseases. Thus, to better understand the beneficial effects of the ingredients of JSHT on health, this review intends to summarize the preclinical and clinical studies of the ingredients of JSHT on human health and diseases, and possible therapeutic effects with the related mode of actions and future prospects for their application in complementary therapies.

Identification and expression analysis of YABBY family genes in Platycodon grandiflorus

Platycodon grandiflorus set ornamental, edible, and medicinal plant with broad prospects for further application development. However, there are no reports on the YABBY transcription factor in P. grandiflorus. Identification and analysis of the YABBY gene family of P. grandiflorus using bioinformatics means. Six YABBY genes were identified and divided into five subgroups. Transcriptome data and qRT-PCR were used to analyze the expression patterns of YABBY. YABBY genes exhibited organ-specific patterns in expression in P grandiflorus. Upon salt stress and drought induction, P. grandiflorus presented different morphological and physiological changes with some dynamic changes. Under salt treatment, the YABBY gene family was down-regulated; PgYABBY5 was up-regulated in leaves at 24 h. In drought treatment, PgYABBY1, PgYABBY2, and PgYABBY3 were down-regulated to varying degrees, but PgYABBY3 was significantly up-regulated in the roots. PgYABBY5 was up-regulated gradually after being down-regulated. PgYABBY5 was significantly up-regulated in stem and leaf at 48 h. PgYABBY6 was down-regulated at first and then significantly up-regulated. The dynamic changes of salt stress and drought stress can be regarded as the responses of plants to resist damage. During the whole process of salt and drought stress treatment, the protein content of each tissue part of P grandiflorus changed continuously. At the same time, we found that the promoter region of the PgYABBY gene contains stress-resistant elements, and the regulatory role of YABBY transcription factor in the anti-stress mechanism of P grandiflorus remains to be studied. PgYABBY1, PgYABBY2, and PgYABBY5 may be involved in the regulation of saponins in P. grandiflorus. PgYABBY5 may be involved in the drought resistance mechanism in P. grandiflorus stems and leaves. This study may provide a theoretical basis for studying the regulation of terpenoids by the YABBY transcription factor and its resistance to abiotic stress.

Identification and functional characterization of two trans-isopentenyl diphosphate synthases and one squalene synthase involved in triterpenoid biosynthesis in Platycodon grandiflorus

MAIN CONCLUSION

Two trans-isopentenyl diphosphate synthase and one squalene synthase genes were identified and proved to be involved in the triterpenoid biosynthesis in Platycodon grandiflorus. Platycodon grandiflorus is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine. The main bioactive compounds of P. grandiflorus are triterpenoid saponins. The biosynthetic pathway of triterpenoid saponins in P. grandiflorus has been preliminarily explored. However, limited functional information on related genes has been reported. A total of three trans-isopentenyl diphosphate synthases (trans-IDSs) genes (PgFPPS, PgGGPPS1 and PgGGPPS2) and one squalene synthase (SQS) gene (PgSQS) in P. grandiflorus were screened and identified from transcriptome dataset. Subcellular localization of the proteins was defined based on the analysis of GFP-tagged. The activity of genes was verified in Escherichia coli, demonstrating that recombinant PgFPPS catalysed the production of farnesyl diphosphate. PgGGPPS1 produced geranylgeranyl diphosphate, whereas PgGGPPS2 did not exhibit catalytic activity. By structural identification of encoding genes, a transmembrane region was found at the C-terminus of the PgSQS gene, which produced an insoluble protein when expressed in E. coli but showed no apparent effect on the enzyme function. Furthermore, some triterpenoid saponin synthesis-related genes were discovered by combining the component content and the gene expression assays at the five growth stages of P. grandiflorus seedlings. The accumulation of active components in P. grandiflorus was closely associated with the expression level of genes related to the synthesis pathway.

Platycodin D inhibits glioblastoma cell proliferation, migration, and invasion by regulating DEPDC1B-mediated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

BACKGROUND

Platycodin D (PD) is a potent bioactive constituent in the medicinal herb Platycodon grandiflorum. It has shown anticancer properties, particularly against glioblastoma (GB) and other human malignancies. DEPDC1B (DEP domain-containing protein 1B) is an oncogene associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). It is highly expressed in GB and correlated with tumor grade and patient prognosis. In this study, we investigated whether the antiglioma effect of PD was associated with downregulation of DEPDC1B.

METHODS

Gene expression and clinical data were obtained from the China Glioma Genome Atlas and The Cancer Genome Atlas databases for glioma samples. In vitro experiments were conducted using Cell Counting Kit-8 and Transwell assays to assess the impact of PD on the proliferation, migration, and invasion of GB cells. mRNA and protein expression was evaluated using real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting, respectively.

RESULTS

PD exerted inhibitory effects on the proliferation and motility of GB cells. PD downregulated DEPDC1B protein as well as several markers associated with EMT, namely N-cadherin, vimentin, and Snail. The suppressive effects of PD were enhanced when DEPDC1B was knocked down in GB cells, while overexpression of DEPDC1B in cells reversed the inhibitory effects of PD.

CONCLUSION

PD exerts an antiglioma effect by regulating DEPDC1B-mediated EMT.

Polyphenols in edible herbal medicine: targeting gut-brain interactions in depression-associated neuroinflammation

Supplementing with edible herbal medicine is an important strategy because of its role in nutrition. Many polyphenols, which are universal components in edible herbal medicines, have low bioavailability. Therefore, gut microbiota is a key determinant of polyphenol bioactivity. Polyphenols can alter the abundance of flora associated with neuroinflammation by reversing intestinal microbiota dysbiosis. Intestinal flora-mediated chemical modification of polyphenols can result in their conversion into active secondary metabolites. The current review summarizes the main edible medicines used in anti-depression and details the interactions between polyphenols and gut microbiota; in addition, it provides insights into the mechanisms underlying the possible suppression of neuroinflammation associated with depression, by polyphenols in edible herbal medicine. A better understanding of polyphenols with bioactivities that are crucial in edible herbal medicine may facilitate their use in the prevention and treatment of neuroinflammation associated with depression.

An integrated approach based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, network pharmacology, and molecular docking to study the key effective compounds and mechanism of action of Platycodi Radix in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Platycodi Radix (PR) is a valuable herb that is widely used in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in clinics. However, the mechanism of action for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease remains unclear due to the lack of in vivo studies. Our study established a novel integrated strategy based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry, network pharmacology, and molecular docking to systematically analyze the tissue distribution and active compounds of PR in vivo and the therapeutic mechanism of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. First, tissue distribution studies have shown that the lung is the organ with the highest distribution of PR compounds. Subsequently, network pharmacology results showed that the tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway, interleukin-17 signaling pathway, and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway were the critical mechanisms of PR against chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ultimately, molecular docking results showed that the key targets were stably bound to the corresponding active compounds of PR. Our study is of great significance for the screening of the key effective compounds and the study of the mechanism of action in traditional Chinese medicine and provides data to support the further development and utilization of PR.

Heterologous Expression of Platycodon grandiflorus PgF3'5'H Modifies Flower Color Pigmentation in Tobacco

Flavonoid-3',5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H) is the key enzyme for the biosynthesis of delphinidin-based anthocyanins, which are generally required for purple or blue flowers. Previously, we isolated a full-length cDNA of PgF3'5'H from Platycodon grandiflorus, which shared the highest homology with Campanula medium F3'5'H. In this study, PgF3'5'H was subcloned into a plant over-expression vector and transformed into tobacco via Agrobacterium tumefaciens to investigate its catalytic function. Positive transgenic tobacco T0 plants were obtained by hygromycin resistance screening and PCR detection. PgF3'5'H showed a higher expression level in all PgF3'5'H transgenic tobacco plants than in control plants. Under the drive of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter, the over-expressed PgF3'5'H produced dihydromyricetin (DHM) and some new anthocyanin pigments (including delphinidin, petunidin, peonidin, and malvidin derivatives), and increased dihydrokaempferol (DHK), taxifolin, tridactyl, cyanidin derivatives, and pelargonidin derivatives in PgF3'5'H transgenic tobacco plants by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) analysis, resulting in a dramatic color alteration from light pink to magenta. These results indicate that PgF3'5'H products have F3'5'H enzyme activity. In addition, PgF3'5'H transfer alters flavonoid pigment synthesis and accumulation in tobacco. Thus, PgF3'5'H may be considered a candidate gene for gene engineering to enhance anthocyanin accumulation and the molecular breeding project for blue flowers.

Platycodin D induces apoptotic cell death through PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways and synergizes with venetoclax in acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a highly heterogeneous and rapidly progressive hematopoietic neoplasm characterized by frequent relapses and variable prognoses. The development of new treatment options, therefore, is of crucial importance. Platycodin D (PD) is a triterpenoid saponin, extracted from the roots of the traditional Chinese herbal medicine Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC., which has been reported to exhibit therapeutic potential against a broad range of cancers. Although the effects of PD on AML remain unclear, in the present study, we observed a concentration-dependent reduction in the viability of multiple human AML cell lines in response to treatment with PD. In addition to triggering mitochondria-dependent apoptosis via the upregulation of BAK and BIM, treatment with PD also induced cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase. Western blot analyses revealed marked suppression of the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT), glycogen synthase kinase-3β, ribosomal protein S6, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) by PD, in turn implying the participation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/ERK pathways. Pre-incubation with LY294002, MK2206, AR-A014418, or U0126 was consistently found to significantly aggravate PD-induced inhibition of viability. Additionally, PD combined with the B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2) inhibitor venetoclax elicited synergistically enhanced cytotoxic effects. The anti-leukemic activity of PD was further validated using primary samples from de novo AML patients. Given the results of the present study, PD may be a potent therapeutic candidate for the treatment of AML.

Platycoside E alleviates allergic airway inflammation in obesity-related asthma mouse model

BACKGROUND

Overweight and obesity are related to an increased risk of asthma. The effect of platycoside E (PE) on obesity-related asthma remains unknown.

METHODS

To mimic obesity-related asthma conditions in vivo, C57BL/6 mice were exposed to a high-fat diet (HFD) and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA). PE was administrated intraperitoneally during the OVA treatment. Body weight was measured at 8th week before PE treatment and after sacrificing the mice. Airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) were evaluated. Immunohistochemistry staining was performed to evaluate eosinophils. Histopathological changes were determined by HE staining. Cellular model of asthma was established using IL-13 in BEAS-2B cells. Levels of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress indicators were measured by ELISA kits and commercial kits, respectively. Cell viability was detected by CCK-8 assays.

RESULTS

IL-13 treatment led to inflammatory and oxidative damage in bronchial epithelial cells, which was relieved by PE. PE administration significantly reduced HFD-induced obesity and relieved AHR and airway inflammation in obese asthmatic mice. The expression of proinflammatory cytokines in BALF and lung tissues in obese asthmatic mice were reduced by PE. PE administration also reduced infiltration of eosinophils and inflammation scores in obese asthmatic mice.

CONCLUSION

PE suppresses airway inflammation and AHR in obese asthmatic mice and serves as an effective option for treating obesity-related asthma.

Quality control of Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. based on value chains and food chain analysis

Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. has been proposed as a medicine and food homology, thus playing an important role in disease prevention and health promotion, with great potential for research and value in clinical application. We aimed to analyze stakeholders' production behavior and financial performance from a value chain (VC) perspective and provide a basis for improving the quality of P. grandiflorum and the interests of stakeholders. P. grandiflorum collected from different producing areas were chemically analyzed, and the quality of platycodin D was evaluated. Rstudio3.6.0 was used to analyze the correlation between total platycodins (as platycodin D, platycoside E, and platycodin D3) and platycodin D in P. grandiflorum, providing the basis for quality control of P. grandiflorum. In addition, we studied the anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities of P. grandiflorum extract under different links. Based on the food chain energy pyramid, the transfer efficiency of active components of P. grandiflorum in different links was studied. Accordingly, 10 different types of VCs were determined in producing P. grandiflorum. Our results show that vertical coordination has led to a more consistent traceability system and strict regulation of supply chains.

Natural products of pentacyclic triterpenoids: from discovery to heterologous biosynthesis

Covering: up to 2022Pentacyclic triterpenoids are important natural bioactive substances that are widely present in plants and fungi. They have significant medicinal efficacy, play an important role in reducing blood glucose and protecting the liver, and have anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, anti-fatigue, anti-viral, and anti-cancer activities. Pentacyclic triterpenoids are derived from the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway, which generates common precursors of triterpenes and steroids, followed by cyclization with oxidosqualene cyclases (OSCs) and decoration via cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP450s) and glycosyltransferases (GTs). Many biosynthetic pathways of triterpenoid saponins have been elucidated by studying their metabolic regulation network through the use of multiomics and identifying their functional genes. Unfortunately, natural resources of pentacyclic triterpenoids are limited due to their low content in plant tissues and the long growth cycle of plants. Based on the understanding of their biosynthetic pathway and transcriptional regulation, plant bioreactors and microbial cell factories are emerging as alternative means for the synthesis of desired triterpenoid saponins. The rapid development of synthetic biology, metabolic engineering, and fermentation technology has broadened channels for the accumulation of pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins. In this review, we summarize the classification, distribution, structural characteristics, and bioactivity of pentacyclic triterpenoids. We further discuss the biosynthetic pathways of pentacyclic triterpenoids and involved transcriptional regulation. Moreover, the recent progress and characteristics of heterologous biosynthesis in plants and microbial cell factories are discussed comparatively. Finally, we propose potential strategies to improve the accumulation of triterpenoid saponins, thereby providing a guide for their future biomanufacturing.

Blood Microbiota Profile Is Associated with the Responsiveness of Postprandial Lipemia to Platycodi radix Beverage: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Healthy Subjects

Prolonged postprandial hyperlipidemia may cause the development of cardiovascular diseases. This study explored whether postprandial triglyceride-rich lipoprotein (TRL) clearance responsiveness to Platycodi radix beverage (PR) is associated with changes in blood microbiota profiles. We conducted an 8-week randomized controlled clinical trial involving normolipidemic adults with low fruit and vegetable intakes. Participants underwent an oral fat tolerance test and 16S amplicon sequencing analysis of blood microbiota. Using the Qualitative Interaction Trees, we identified responders as those with higher baseline dietary fat intake (>38.5 g/day) and lipoprotein lipase levels (>150.6 ng/mL), who showed significant reductions in AUC for triglyceride (TG) and chylomicron-TG after the oral fat tolerance test. The LEfSe analysis showed differentially abundant blood microbiota between responders and non-responders. A penalized logistic regression algorithm was employed to predict the responsiveness to intervention on the TRL clearance based on the background characteristics, including the blood microbiome. Our findings suggest that PR intake can modulate postprandial TRL clearance in adults consuming higher fat intake over 38.5 g/day and low fruit and vegetable intake through shared links to systemic microbial signatures.

Platycodonis Radix Alleviates LPS-Induced Lung Inflammation through Modulation of TRPA1 Channels

Platycodonis Radix (PR), a widely consumed herbal food, and its bioactive constituents, platycodins, have therapeutic potential for lung inflammation. Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1), which is essential for the control of inflammation, may be involved in the development of inflammation in the lungs. The aim of this study was to determine the TRPA1-targeted effects of PR against pulmonary inflammation and to investigate the affinity of PR constituents for TRPA1 and their potential mechanisms of action. Using a C57BL/6J mouse lipopolysaccharides (LPS) intratracheal instillation pneumonia model and advanced analytical techniques (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, molecular docking, immuno-fluorescence), five platycodins were isolated from PR, and the interaction between these platycodins and hTRPA1 was verified. Additionally, we analyzed the impact of platycodins on LPS-induced TRPA1 expression and calcium influx in BEAS-2B cells. The results indicated that PR treatment significantly reduced the severity of LPS-triggered inflammation in the mouse model. Interestingly, there was a mild increase in the expression of TRPA1 caused by PR in healthy mice. Among five isolated platycodins identified in the PR extract, Platycodin D₃ (PD₃) showed the highest affinity for hTRPA1. The interaction between platycodins and TRPA1 was verified through molecular docking methods, highlighting the significance of the S5-S6 pore-forming loop in TRPA1 and the unique structural attributes of platycodins. Furthermore, PD₃ significantly reduced LPS-induced TRPA1 expression and calcium ion influx in BEAS-2B cells, substantiating its own role as an effective TRPA1 modulator. In conclusion, PR and platycodins, especially PD₃, show promise as potential lung inflammation therapeutics. Further research should explore the precise mechanisms by which platycodins modulate TRPA1 and their broader therapeutic potential.

Platycodin D induces proliferation inhibition and mitochondrial apoptosis in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) have unsatisfactory outcomes especially when relapse occurs after initial chemotherapy. Platycodin D (PD), a triterpenoid saponin isolated from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC., has demonstrated potent anti-cancer activities. So far, however, information regarding the effect of PD on malignant lymphoma remains unavailable. In the present study, we showed that PD dose-dependently inhibited the viability of a serial of established DLBCL cell lines representing different molecular subtypes, and their sensitivities to PD were comparable. Mitochondrial dysfunction and subsequent intrinsic apoptosis were induced by PD, as indicated by the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and the increase in the percentage of Annexin Ⅴ positive cells. Mechanistically, PD treatment downregulated expression levels of anti-apoptotic proteins including MCL-1, BCL-2, and BCL-XL, while upregulated the expression level of pro-apoptotic protein BAK, followed by the cleavage of PARP. Moreover, PD synergistically enhanced the cytotoxicity of BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax. In a SUDHL-4-derived xenograft mouse model, PD administration significantly constrained the tumor growth without obvious side effects. Therefore, our results provided new insights into the role of PD in lymphoma therapy.

The activities and mechanisms of intestinal microbiota metabolites of TCM herbal ingredients could be illustrated by a strategy integrating spectrum-effects, network pharmacology, metabolomics and molecular docking analysis: Platycodin D as an example

BACKGROUND

The intestinal microbiota plays a key role in understanding the mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), as it could transform the herbal ingredients to metabolites with higher bioavailability and activity comparing to their prototypes. Nevertheless, the study of the activity and mechanism of microbiota metabolites reported by the published literature still lacks viable ways. Hence a new strategy is proposed to solve this issue.

PURPOSE

A new strategy to study the activity and mechanism of intestinal microbiota metabolites of TCM herbal ingredients by integrating spectrum-effect relationship, network pharmacology, metabolomics analysis and molecular docking together was developed and proposed.

METHOD

Platycodin D (PD) and its microbiota metabolites with antitussive and expectorant effect were selected as an example for demonstration. First, the PD and its microbiota metabolites with important contribution to antitussive and/or expectorant effects were screened through spectrum-effect relationship analysis. Second, network pharmacology and metabolomics analysis were integrated to identify the upstream key targets of PD and its microbiota metabolites as well as the downstream endogenous metabolites. Finally, the active forms of PD were further confirmed by molecular docking.

RESULTS

Results showed that PD was an active ingredient with antitussive and/or expectorant effects, and the active forms of PD were its microbiota metabolites: 3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl platycodigenin, 3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl isoplatycodigenin, 7‑hydroxyl-3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl platycodigenin, platycodigenin and isoplatycodigenin. In addition, those microbiota metabolites could bind the key targets of PAH, PLA2G2A, ALOX5, CYP2C9 and CYP2D6 to exert antitussive effects by regulating four metabolic pathways of phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis, phenylalanine metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism and linoleic acid metabolism. Similarly, they could also bind the key targets of PLA2G1B, ALOX5, CYP2C9 and CYP2D6 to exert expectorant effect by regulating two pathways of glycerophospholipid metabolism and linoleic acid metabolism.

CONCLUSION

The proposed strategy paves a new way for the illustration of the activities and mechanisms of TCM herbal ingredients, which is very important to reconcile the conundrums of TCM herbal ingredients with low oral bioavailability but high activity.

The pharmacology and mechanisms of platycodin D, an active triterpenoid saponin from Platycodon grandiflorus

Chinese doctors widely prescribed Platycodon grandiflorus A. DC. (PG) to treat lung carbuncles in ancient China. Modern clinical experiences have demonstrated that PG plays a crucial role in treating chronic pharyngitis, plum pneumonia, pneumoconiosis, acute and chronic laryngitis, and so forth. Additionally, PG is a food with a long history in China, Japan, and Korea. Furthermore, Platycodin D (PLD), an oleanane-type triterpenoid saponin, is one of the active substances in PG. PLD has been revealed to have anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, anti-oxidation, anti-obesity, anticoagulant, spermicidal, anti-tumor etc., activities. And the mechanism of the effects draws lots of attention, with various signaling pathways involved in these processes. Additionally, research on PLD’s pharmacokinetics and extraction processes is under study. The bioavailability of PLD could be improved by being prescribed with Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. or by creating a new dosage form. PLD has been recently considered to have the potential to be a solubilizer or an immunologic adjuvant. Meanwhile, PLD was discovered to have hemolytic activity correlated. PLD has broad application prospects and reveals practical pharmacological activities in pre-clinical research. The authors believe that these activities of PLD contribute to the efficacy of PG. What is apparent is that the clinical translation of PLD still has a long way to go. With the help of modern technology, the scope of clinical applications of PLD is probable to be expanded from traditional applications to new fields.

Ameliorative Effects of Flavonoids from Platycodon grandiflorus Aerial Parts on Alloxan-Induced Pancreatic Islet Damage in Zebrafish

Platycodon grandiflorus (balloon flower), used as a food reserve as well as in traditional herbal medicine, is known for its multiple beneficial effects. In particular, this plant is widely used as a vegetable in Republic of Korea. We examined the ameliorative effects of P. grandiflorus on alloxan-induced pancreatic islet damage in zebrafish. The aerial part treatment led to a significant recovery in pancreatic islet size and glucose uptake. The efficacy of the aerial part was more potent than that of the root. Eight flavonoids (1-8) were isolated from the aerial part. Structures of two new flavone glycosides, designated dorajiside I (1) and II (2), were elucidated to be luteolin 7-O-α-L-rhamno-pyranosyl (1 → 2)-(6-O-acetyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside and apigenin 7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl (1 → 2)-(6-O-acetyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside, respectively, by spectroscopic analysis. Compounds 1, 3, 4 and 6-8 yielded the recovery of injured pancreatic islets in zebrafish. Among them, compound 7 blocked K_ATP channels in pancreatic β-cells. Furthermore, compounds 3, 4, 6 and 7 showed significant changes with respect to the mRNA expression of GCK, GCKR, GLIS3 and CDKN2B compared to alloxan-induced zebrafish. In conclusion, the aerial part of P. grandiflorus and its constituents conferred a regenerative effect on injured pancreatic islets.

Physiological and sucrose metabolic responses to waterlogging stress in balloon flower (Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC)

Waterlogging stress is a major limiting factor resulting in stunted growth and loss of crop productivity, especially for root crops. However, physiological responses to waterlogging have been studied in only a few plant models. To gain insight into how balloon flower (Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC) responds to waterlogging stress, we investigate changes to sucrose metabolism combined with a physiological analysis. Although waterlogging stress decreased the photosynthetic rate in balloon flower, leaves exhibited an increase in glucose (ninefold), fructose (4.7-fold), and sucrose (2.1-fold), indicating inhibition of sugar transport via the phloem. In addition, roots showed a typical response to hypoxia, such as the accumulation of proline (4.5-fold higher than in control roots) and soluble sugars (2.1-fold higher than in control roots). The activities and expression patterns of sucrose catabolizing enzymes suggest that waterlogging stress leads to a shift in the pathway of sucrose degradation from invertase to sucrose synthase (Susy), which consumes less ATP. Furthermore, we suggest that the waterlogging-stress-induced gene PlgSusy1 encodes the functional Susy enzyme, which may contribute to improving tolerance in balloon flower to waterlogging. As a first step toward understanding the waterlogging-induced regulatory mechanisms in balloon flower, we provide a solid foundation for further understanding waterlogging-induced alterations in source-sink relationships.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-023-01310-y.

Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide regulates colonic immunity through mesenteric lymphatic circulation to attenuate ulcerative colitis

Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGP) is one of the main components of P. grandiflorus, but the mechanism of its anti-inflammatory effect has not been fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic effect of PGP on mice with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) and explore the underlying mechanisms. The results showed that PGP treatment inhibited the weight loss of DSS-induced UC mice, increased colon length, and reduced DAI, spleen index, and pathological damage within the colon. PGP also reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibited the enhancement of oxidative stress and MPO activity. Meanwhile, PGP restored the levels of Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cell-related cytokines and transcription factors in the colon to regulate colonic immunity. Further studies revealed that PGP regulated the balance of colonic immune cells through mesenteric lymphatic circulation. Taken together, PGP exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effect and regulates colonic immunity to attenuate DSS-induced UC through mesenteric lymphatic circulation.

Immune-enhancing effect of hydrolyzed and fermented Platycodon grandiflorum extract in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed BALB/c mice

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The immunomodulatory effect of Platycodon grandiflorum (PG) has been reported, but studies on its mechanism are still lacking. This study was undertaken to confirm whether the hydrolyzed and fermented PG extract (HFPGE) obtained by adding hydrolysis and fermentation to the extraction process has an immune-enhancing effect in the in vivo system.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Five-week-old BALB/c mice were divided into 4 groups: normal control group (NOR), control group (CON), 150 mg/kg body weight (BW)/day HFPGE-treated group (T150), and 300 mg/kg BW/day HFPGE-treated group (T300). The mice were administered HFPGE for 4 weeks and intraperitoneally injected with cyclophosphamide (CPA, 80 mg/kg BW/day) on day 6, 7, and 8, respectively, to induce immunosuppression. The levels of immunoglobulins (Igs) and cytokines were measured in the serum. In splenocytes, proliferation and cytokine levels were measured.

RESULTS

Serum IgA, IgG, and IgM levels were observed to decrease after CPA treatment, which was recovered by HFPGE administration. The levels of serum interleukin (IL)-12, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-8, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β were also decreased after exposure to CPA but increased after HFPGE administration. Decreased splenocyte proliferation was seen in CPA-treated mice, but was observed to increase in the T150 and T300 groups as compared to the NOR group. Compared to the CON group, splenocyte proliferation stimulated with concanavalin A (ConA) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the HFPGE-treated groups was significantly increased. The cytokines secreted by ConA-stimulated splenocytes (IL-2, IL-12, interferon-γ, TNF-α) were increased in the T150 and T300 groups, and cytokines secreted by LPS-stimulated splenocytes (IL-4, IL-8, TGF-β) were also increased by HFPGE administration.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that HFPGE stimulates the immunity in immunosuppressed conditions, thereby enhancing the immune response. Therefore, it is expected that HFPGE has the potential to be used as functional food and medicine for immune recovery in various immunocompromised situations.

Chromosome-Scale Genome Assembly and Triterpenoid Saponin Biosynthesis in Korean Bellflower (Platycodon grandiflorum)

Platycodon grandiflorum belongs to the Campanulaceae family and is an important medicinal and food plant in East Asia. However, on the whole, the genome evolution of P. grandiflorum and the molecular basis of its major biochemical pathways are poorly understood. We reported a chromosome-scale genome assembly of P. grandiflorum based on a hybrid method using Oxford Nanopore Technologies, Illumina sequences, and high-throughput chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) analysis. The assembled genome was finalized as 574 Mb, containing 41,355 protein-coding genes, and the genome completeness was assessed as 97.6% using a Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs analysis. The P. grandiflorum genome comprises nine pseudo-chromosomes with 56.9% repeat sequences, and the transcriptome analysis revealed an expansion of the 14 beta-amylin genes related to triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis. Our findings provide an understanding of P. grandiflorum genome evolution and enable genomic-assisted breeding for the mass production of important components such as triterpenoid saponins.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Profiling Analysis of the Trihelix Gene Family and response of PgGT1 under Abiotic Stresses in Platycodon grandiflorus

The trihelix gene family plays an important role in plant growth and abiotic stress responses. Through the analysis of genomic and transcriptome data, 35 trihelix family members were identified for the first time in Platycodon grandiflorus; they were classified into five subfamilies: GT-1, GT-2, SH4, GTγ, and SIP1. The gene structure, conserved motifs and evolutionary relationships were analyzed. Prediction of physicochemical properties of the 35 trihelix proteins founded, the number of amino acid molecules is between 93 and 960, theoretical isoelectric point is between 4.24 and 9.94, molecular weight is between 9829.77 and 107435.38, 4 proteins among them were stable, and all GRAVY is negative. The full-length cDNA sequence of the PgGT1 gene of the GT-1 subfamily was cloned by PCR. It is a 1165 bp ORF encoding a 387 amino acid protein, with a molecular weight of 43.54 kDa. The predicted subcellular localization of the protein in the nucleus was experimentally verified. After being treated with NaCl, PEG6000, MeJA, ABA, IAA, SA, and ethephon, the expression of PgGT1 gene showed an up-regulated trend except for the roots treated with NaCl and ABA. This study laid a bioinformatics foundation for the research of trihelix gene family and the cultivation of excellent germplasm of P. grandiflorus.

PlgMYBR1, an R2R3-MYB transcription factor, plays as a negative regulator of anthocyanin biosynthesis in Platycodon grandiflorus

Floral color plays a major role in pollinator specificity, and changes in color may result in pollinator shifts and pollinator-mediated speciation. In the purple flowers of Platycodon grandiflorus, anthocyanins are the major pigment metabolites, whereas white flowers result due to the absence of anthocyanins. The lack of anthocyanins may be due to the inhibition of the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. However, the molecular mechanism of anthocyanin biosynthesis in P. grandiflorus is not fully understood. Hence, we identified R2R3-MYB transcription factor, PlgMYBR1, as a negative regulator for anthocyanin biosynthesis using sequence homology and tissue-specific expression pattern analyses. A heterologous co-expression assay suggested that PlgMYBR1 inhibited the function of AtPAP1 (Arabidopsis thaliana production of anthocyanin pigment 1), indicating that PlgMYBR1 plays as a repressor of anthocyanin biosynthesis in P. grandiflorus. Our results provide a foundation for future efforts to understand the anthocyanin biosynthesis in P. grandiflorus and, thereby, to improve flower color through genetic engineering.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03490-6.

A review: structure-activity relationship between saponins and cellular immunity

Saponins, which exhibit many different biological and pharmacological activities, are present in a wide range of plant species and in some marine organisms. Notably, the researchers have found that saponins can activate the immune system in mammals. The strength of this function is closely related to the chemical structure of saponins. The present study of the structure-activity relationship suggests that aglycones, glycochains on aglycones and special functional groups of saponins affect the immune activity of saponins. This paper reviews the effects of different saponins on cellular immunity. As well as the structure-activity relationship of saponins. It is hoped that the information integrated in this paper will provide readers with information on the effects of saponins on cellular immunity and promote the further study of these compounds.

Platycodin D suppresses proliferation, migration, and invasion of human glioblastoma cells through regulation of Skp2

BACKGROUND

Platycodin D (PD) is a major bioactive component of Platycodon grandiflorum, a medicinal herb that is widely used in China, and is effective against various human cancers, including glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). S phase kinase-related protein 2 (Skp2) is oncogenic and overexpressed in various human tumors. It is highly expressed in GBM and its expression is correlated with tumor growth, drug resistance and poor prognosis. In this study, we investigated whether inhibition of glioma progression by PD is mediated by decreasing expression of Skp2.

METHODS

Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and Transwell assays were used to determine the effects of PD on GBM cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro. mRNA and protein expression were determined by real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blotting, respectively. The U87 xenograft model was used to verify the anti-glioma effect of PD in vivo. Expression levels of Skp2 protein were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining.

RESULTS

PD suppressed proliferation and motility of GBM cells in vitro. The expression of Skp2 in U87 and U251 cells was significantly reduced by PD. PD mainly decreased the cytoplasmic expression of Skp2 in glioma cells. Skp2 protein expression was downregulated by PD, resulting in upregulation of its downstream targets, p21and p27. The inhibitory effect of PD was enhanced by Skp2 knockdown in GBM cells and reversed in cells with Skp2 overexpression.

CONCLUSION

PD suppresses glioma development by regulation of Skp2 in GBM cells.

Platycodin D-Induced Immunotoxicity in RAW 264.7 Macrophages via Oxidative Stress-Mediated Apoptosis

Platycodin D (PD) is a naturally occurring, biologically active triterpenoid saponin isolated from a medicinal food homology plant called Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC. It is involved in the processing of various biological activities. While investigating the anti-inflammatory property of PD using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, we unexpectedly found that PD exhibited toxicity to RAW 264.7 cells. In this study, the toxic effect of PD on RAW 264.7 cells was systematically evaluated for the first time. The results showed that PD (12.5−200 µM) significantly reduced cell viability and inhibited cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. At a concentration of 20 µM, PD significantly increased lactate dehydrogenase activity and the mRNA and protein expression of Bax, p53, Casp3, IL-1β, and TNF-α. Interestingly, PD (0.8−20 µM) inhibited the expression of inflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. PD (20 µM) also significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and the expression of oxidative stress-related genes and proteins. This study revealed that PD exhibited immunotoxicity to RAW 264.7 cells, with possible mechanisms including oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis resulting in activation of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway and dysregulated expression of inflammatory cytokines. This study evaluated the impact of PD on immunity and provided guidelines for its future biological application.

Biotransformation of Platycosides, Saponins from Balloon Flower Root, into Bioactive Deglycosylated Platycosides

Platycosides, saponins from balloon flower root (Platycodi radix), have diverse health benefits, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tussive, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, and whitening activities. Deglycosylated platycosides, which show greater biological effects than glycosylated platycosides, are produced by the hydrolysis of glycoside moieties in glycosylated platycosides. In this review, platycosides are classified according to the chemical structures of the aglycone sapogenins and also divided into natural platycosides, including major, minor, and rare platycosides, depending on the content in Platycodi radix extract and biotransformed platycosides. The biological activities of platycosides are summarized and methods for deglycosylation of saponins, including physical, chemical, and biological methods, are introduced. The biotransformation of glycosylated platycosides into deglycosylated platycosides was described based on the hydrolytic pathways of glycosides, substrate specificity of glycosidases, and specific productivities of deglycosylated platycosides. Methods for producing diverse and/or new deglycosylated platycosides are also proposed.

Network Pharmacological Analysis on the Herbal Combinations for Mitigating Inflammation in Respiratory Tracts and Experimental Evaluation

The regulation of inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and leukotriene B4, could play a crucial role in suppressing inflammatory diseases such as COVID-19. In this study, we investigated the potential mechanisms of drug combinations comprising Ephedrae Herba, Schisandra Fructus, Platycodonis Radix, and Ginseng Radix; validated the anti-inflammatory effects of these drugs; and determined the optimal dose of the drug combinations. By constructing a herb-compound-target network, associations were identified between the herbs and tissues (such as bronchial epithelial cells and lung) and pathways (such as the TNF, NF-κB, and calcium signaling pathways). The drug combinations exerted anti-inflammatory effects in the RAW264.7 cell line treated with lipopolysaccharide by inhibiting the production of nitric oxide and inflammatory mediators, including TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and leukotriene B4. Notably, the drug combinations inhibited PMA-induced MUC5AC mRNA expression in NCI-H292 cells. A design space analysis was carried out to determine the optimal herbal medicine combinations using the design of experiments and synergy score calculation. Consequently, a combination study of the herbal preparations confirmed their mitigating effect on inflammation in COVID-19.

Ligand fishing of monoamine oxidase B inhibitors from Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A.DC. roots by the enzyme functionalised magnetic nanoparticles

INTRODUCTION

As a famous traditional Chinese medicine, roots of Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A.DC. have shown multiple effects against neurodegenerative diseases. To investigate the components against Parkinson's disease (PD), the roots of P. grandiflora were selected as the research subject.

OBJECTIVE

Screening and identifying of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors from the roots of P. grandiflorum via enzyme functionalised magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs)-based ligand fishing combined with high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis.

METHOD

MAO-B functionalised MNPs have been synthesised for screening MAO-B inhibitors from the roots of P. grandiflorum. The ligands were identified by HPLC-MS and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis, and their anti-PD activity was evaluated via MAO-B inhibition assay and cell viability assay in vitro.

RESULTS

Two MAO-B inhibitors were fished out and identified by HPLC-MS as protocatechuic aldehyde (1) and coumarin (2), with the half maximal inhibitory concentrations of 28.54 ± 0.39 and 25.39 ± 0.29 μM, respectively. Among them, 1 could also significantly increase the viability of 6-hydroxydopamine-damaged PC12 cells.

CONCLUSION

The results are helpful to elucidate the anti-PD activity of the plant, and the ligand fishing method has shown good potential in discovery of MAO-B inhibitors.

Seasonal variation in the total saponin content of platycodon roots cultivated in Japan

Roots of Platycodon grandiflorus A. De Candolle (Campanulaceae), with the bark removed, have been used as food and frequently employed as herbal medicines for inflammatory diseases such as tonsillitis, dermatitis, and cough. Platycodins are the bioactive saponin components of these crude medicines. Recently, P. grandiflorus have been cultivated in Japan and are harvested from October to December according to conventional practices. Seasonal fluctuations in the total saponin content of these roots were determined using LC/MS methods to recommend harvesting times when the saponin content is high. Platycodins A and C are monoacetylated forms of platycodin D; however, the acetyl form is unstable and deacetylates easily. Here, the contents of platycodin D, platycodin D₂, and platyconic acid A were measured as the total saponin content using alkaline hydrolysis for monoacetylated platycodins D, D_2, and platyconic acid A. The results demonstrated that the saponin content in the roots decreased in summer, increased in autumn, but decreased again in late autumn.

Transcriptome-wide identification of WRKY transcription factors and their expression profiles in response to methyl jasmonate in Platycodon grandiflorus

Platycodon grandiflorus, a perennial flowering plant widely distributed in China and South Korea, is an excellent resource for both food and medicine. The main active compounds of P. grandiflorus are triterpenoid saponins. WRKY transcription factors (TFs) are among the largest gene families in plants and play an important role in regulating plant terpenoid accumulation, physiological metabolism, and stress response. Numerous studies have been reported on other medicinal plants; however, little is known about WRKY genes in P. grandiflorus. In this study, 27 PgWRKYs were identified in the P. grandiflorus transcriptome. Phylogenetic analysis showed that PgWRKY genes were clustered into three main groups and five subgroups. Transcriptome analysis showed that the PgWRKY gene expression patterns in different tissues differed between those in Tongcheng City (Southern Anhui) and Taihe County (Northern Anhui). Gene expression analysis based on RNA sequencing and qRT-PCR analysis showed that most PgWRKY genes were expressed after induction with methyl jasmonate (MeJA). Co-expressing PgWRKY genes with triterpenoid biosynthesis pathway genes revealed four PgWRKY genes that may have functions in triterpenoid biosynthesis. Additionally, functional annotation and protein-protein interaction analysis of PgWRKY proteins were performed to predict their roles in potential regulatory networks. Thus, we systematically analyzed the structure, evolution, and expression patterns of PgWRKY genes to provide an important theoretical basis for further exploring the molecular basis and regulatory mechanism of WRKY TFs in triterpenoid biosynthesis.

Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC.: A review of phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and traditional use

BACKGROUND

The traditional Chinese medicine Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. (PG, balloon flower) has medicinal and culinary value. It consists of a variety of chemical components including triterpenoid saponins, polysaccharides, flavonoids, polyphenols, polyethylene glycols, volatile oils and mineral components, which have medicinal and edible value.

PURPOSE

The ultimate goal of this review is to summarize the phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, safety and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of published literature up to March 2022 was conducted using the PubMed, China Knowledge Network and Web of Science databases to identify original research related to PG, its active ingredients and pharmacological activities.

RESULTS

Triterpene saponins are the primary bioactive compounds of PG. To date, 76 triterpene saponin compounds have been isolated and identified from PG. In addition, there are other biological components, such as flavonoids, polyacetylene and phenolic acids. These extracts possess antitussive, immunostimulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, antiobesity, antidepressant, and cardiovascular system activities. The mechanisms of expression of these pharmacological effects include inhibition of the expression of proteins such as MDM and p53, inhibition of the activation of enzymes, such as AKT, the secretion of inflammatory factors, such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-1β, and activation of the AMPK pathway.

CONCLUSION

This review summarizes the chemical composition, pharmacological activities, molecular mechanism, toxicity and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine over the last 12 years. PG contains a wide range of chemical components, among which triterpene saponins, especially platycoside D (PD), play a strong role in pharmacological activity, representing a natural phytomedicine with low toxicity that has applications in food, animal feed and cosmetics. Therefore, PG has value for exploitation and is an excellent choice for treating various diseases.

Integrated Metabolome and Lipidome Strategy to Reveal the Action Pattern of Paclobutrazol, a Plant Growth Retardant, in Varying the Chemical Constituents of Platycodon Root

Platycodon root, a medicinal food homology species which has been used in Asian countries for hundreds of years, is now widely cultivated in China. Treatment with paclobutrazol, a typical plant growth retardant, has raised uncertainties regarding the quality of Platycodon root, which have been rarely investigated. In the present study, metabolomic and lipidomic differences were revealed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to ion mobility-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-IM-QTOF-MS). A significant decrease of platycodigenin-type saponins was observed in the paclobutrazol-treated sample. Carrying out a comprehensive quantitative analysis, the contents of total saponins and saccharides were determined to illustrate the mode of action of paclobutrazol on Platycodon root. This study demonstrated an exemplary research model in explaining how the exogenous matter influences the chemical properties of medicinal plants, and therefore might provide insights into the reasonable application of plant growth regulators.

Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharides deeply participate in the anti-chronic bronchitis effects of platycodon grandiflorus decoction, a representative of “the lung and intestine are related”

Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC. (PG) root is one of the most commonly used medicine-food materials for respiratory discomfort in Asia, usually in the form of a decoction or leaching solution. As everyone knows, both of decoction and leaching solution is a polyphase dispersion system, containing low-molecular-weight water-soluble active ingredients and hydrophilic macromolecules. This study aimed to discuss the synergistic effect of Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGP) and platycodin D (PD) in PG decoction against chronic bronchitis (CB) and the mechanism underlying. A series of PGP, PD, and PGD + PD suspensions were administrated to CB model rats, on the levels of whole animal and in situ intestinal segment with or without mesenteric lymphatic vessels ligation. It exhibited that PGP exhibited synergistic effects with PD, on improving the histopathological abnormity, mucus secretion excess, and immunological imbalance in lung of CB model rat, closely associated with its modulations on the mucosal immunity status in small intestine. The polysaccharide macromolecules in PG decoction or leaching solution should be responsible for the modulation of pulmonary immune state, possibly through the common mucosal immune between small intestine and lung. These results might be a new perspective that illustrates the classical theory of “the lung and intestine are related” in traditional Chinese medicine.

Concurrent use of Chinese herbal medicine and anticoagulants may reduce major bleeding events

Background

This retrospective cohort study investigated the risk of major bleeding events during the concurrent use of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) and anticoagulants in clinical practice.

Methods

A total of 4,470 patients receiving anticoagulant drugs were selected from Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD). Half (n = 2,235) were also using CHMs (CHM cohort); the other half were not (non-CHM cohort). Each cohort was matched 1:1 using the propensity score. Chi-square testing and the Student’s t-test were used to examine differences between two cohorts. Cox proportional hazard regression analysis assessed the risks for major bleeding events in each cohort, as well as bleeding risks associated with specific CHM formulas and herbs. Cumulative incidence curves for major bleeding events were calculated using Kaplan-Meier analysis.

Results

Compared with the non-CHM cohort, the CHM cohort had a lower risk of overall bleeding events (p < 0.001) including hemorrhagic stroke (p = 0.008), gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding (p < 0.001), urogenital bleeding (p ≤ 0.001) and nasal/ear/eye bleeding (p = 0.004). Single herbs, such as Glycyrrhiza uralensis et Rhizoma, Panax notoginseng, Panax ginseng, Platycodon grandiflorum, Eucommia ulmoides Oliver and formulas, such as Shu Jing Huo Xue Tang, Shao Yao Gan Cao Tang and Ji Sheng Shen Qi Wan were associated with a lower risk of major bleeding events.

Conclusion

Using CHMs with anticoagulants appeared to decrease the risk of major bleeding, especially CHMs products containing Glycyrrhiza uralensis et Rhizoma, Panax notoginseng, Panax ginseng, Platycodon grandiflorum and Eucommia ulmoides Oliver. Further investigations are needed to determine whether CHM can maintain the therapeutic efficacy of anticoagulants while simultaneously reducing potential side effects.

Progress of Research into Novel Drugs and Potential Drug Targets against Porcine Pseudorabies Virus

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is the causative agent of pseudorabies (PR), infecting most mammals and some birds. It has been prevalent around the world and caused huge economic losses to the swine industry since its discovery. At present, the prevention of PRV is mainly through vaccination; there are few specific antivirals against PRV, but it is possible to treat PRV infection effectively with drugs. In recent years, some drugs have been reported to treat PR; however, the variety of anti-pseudorabies drugs is limited, and the underlying mechanism of the antiviral effect of some drugs is unclear. Therefore, it is necessary to explore new drug targets for PRV and develop economic and efficient drug resources for prevention and control of PRV. This review will focus on the research progress in drugs and drug targets against PRV in recent years, and discuss the future research prospects of anti-PRV drugs.