Encapsulation of anthocyanin in liposomes using supercritical carbon dioxide: Effects of anthocyanin and sterol concentrations

Vaccinium spp. Berries in the Prevention and Treatment of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Comprehensive Update of Preclinical and Clinical Research

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common chronic liver disorder marked by the buildup of triacylglycerols (TGs) in the liver. It includes a range of conditions, from simple steatosis to more severe forms like non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which can advance to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. NAFLD's prevalence is rising globally, estimated between 10% and 50%. The disease is linked to comorbidities such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular diseases and currently lacks effective treatment options. Therefore, researchers are focusing on evaluating the impact of adjunctive herbal therapies in individuals with NAFLD. One herbal therapy showing positive results in animal models and clinical studies is fruits from the Vaccinium spp. genus. This review presents an overview of the association between consuming fruits, juices, and extracts from Vaccinium spp. and NAFLD. The search used the following keywords: ((Vaccinium OR blueberry OR bilberry OR cranberry) AND ("non-alcoholic fatty liver disease" OR "non-alcoholic steatohepatitis")). Exclusion criteria included reviews, research notes, book chapters, case studies, and grants. The review included 20 studies: 2 clinical trials and 18 studies on animals and cell lines. The findings indicate that juices and extracts from Vaccinium fruits and leaves have significant potential in addressing NAFLD by improving lipid and glucose metabolism and boosting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory responses. In conclusion, blueberries appear to have the potential to alleviate NAFLD, but more clinical trials are needed to confirm these benefits.

Recent microencapsulation trends for enhancing the stability and functionality of anthocyanins: a review

Anthocyanins (ACNs) are water-soluble pigments in various fruits and vegetables known for their high antioxidant activity. They are used as natural food colorants and preservatives and have several medicinal benefits. However, their application in functional foods and nutraceuticals is often compromised by their low stability to heat, oxygen, enzymes, light, pH changes, and solubility issues. Spray drying has emerged as an effective microencapsulation technique to enhance the shelf life, quality, and stability of ACNs. This manuscript reviews the latest scientific developments in spray drying microencapsulation of ACNs-rich fruit extracts. Process optimization and the stability and physicochemical properties of the spray-dried, microencapsulated ACNs-rich powders are discussed. This review also covers functional food and nutraceutical applications and introduces novel encapsulation methods, such as freeze-drying, supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2), coacervation, drum drying, and electrospraying, highlighting their potential in improving the utility of ACNs-rich fruit extracts.

Stability enhancement of proanthocyanidin-loaded liposomes via surface decoration with oxidized konjac glucomannan

The stability enhancement of proanthocyanidin-loaded liposomes (PC-Lip) via surface decoration with oxidized konjac glucomannan (OKGM) was investigated. The encapsulation efficiency and drug loading capacity of OKGM-coated PC-Lip (OKGM-PC-Lip) rose significantly. The average size and PDI of OKGM-PC-Lip increased, while the zeta potential decreased compared to those of PC-Lip. PC-Lip membrane fluidity reduced after coating with OKGM. The morphology of OKGM-PC-Lip showed that OKGM "halo layer" was formed on the liposome surface. Hydrogen bonding played an indispensable role in the combination between OKGM and PC-Lip, and the phase transition temperature of PC-Lip slightly increased after coating with OKGM. The retention rate of OKGM-PC-Lip was higher than that of PC-Lip at extreme pH. In vitro release, no significant difference in cumulative release was detected between OKGM-PC-Lip and PC-Lip at gastric stage, while the cumulative release rate of OKGM-PC-Lip was remarkably lower than that of PC-Lip at intestinal stage. The antioxidant activity of OKGM-PC-Lip was notably higher than that of PC-Lip. These results suggested that the resistance of PC-Lip to external influences was fruitfully enhanced after coating with OKGM. Compared with other polysaccharides, OKGM-coated liposomes may be more promising and advantageous in functional foods due to the polysaccharide's benefits to human health.

Recent development of carrier materials in anthocyanins encapsulation applications: A comprehensive literature review

Anthocyanins are natural polyphenols belonging to the flavonoid family that possess a variety of putative health benefits when consumed in a balanced diet. However, applications of anthocyanins in, for example, functional foods are limited due to poor stability, degradation, and low transmembrane efficiency. To maintain bioactivities of anthocyanins and optimize their use, various carrier materials have been developed. Here, we reviewed the uses of the different carrier materials (organic/inorganic, micro/nano) for anthocyanin encapsulation and delivery over the past five years. The performance of different materials and interactions between anthocyanins and these materials are described. Lastly, we give our perspective on the future development trend of anthocyanin encapsulation strategies.

Sodium alginate and chitosan co-modified fucoxanthin liposomes: preparation, bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity

To improve the stability of fucoxanthin, fucoxanthin liposomes (L) were prepared by the thin-film ultrasound method, and fucoxanthin liposomes were modified with sodium alginate and chitosan by an electrostatic deposition method. The release characteristics of fucoxanthin in different types of liposomes with in vitro gastrointestinal simulation were studied. Under the optimum conditions, the results showed that the encapsulation efficiency of prepared liposomes could reach 88.56 ± 1.40% (m/m), with an average particle size of 295.27 ± 7.28 nm, a Zeta potential of -21.53 ± 2.00 mV, a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.323 ± 0.007 and a loading capacity of 33.3 ± 0.03% (m/m). Compared with L and chitosan modified fucoxanthin liposomes (CH), sodium alginate and chitosan modified fucoxanthin liposomes (SA-CH) exhibited higher storage stability, in vitro bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity after gastrointestinal digestion. Sodium alginate and chitosan co-modified liposomes can be developed as formulations for encapsulation and delivery of functional ingredients, providing a theoretical basis for developing new fucoxanthin series products.

Advanced application of nanotechnology in active constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicines

Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCMs) have been used for centuries for the treatment and management of various diseases. However, their effective delivery to targeted sites may be a major challenge due to their poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and potential toxicity. Nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles and organic/inorganic nanohybrids based on active constituents from TCMs have been extensively studied as a promising strategy to improve the delivery of active constituents from TCMs to achieve a higher therapeutic effect with fewer side effects compared to conventional formulations. This review summarizes the recent advances in nanocarrier-based delivery systems for various types of active constituents of TCMs, including terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and quinones, from different natural sources. This review covers the design and preparation of nanocarriers, their characterization, and in vitro/vivo evaluations. Additionally, this review highlights the challenges and opportunities in the field and suggests future directions for research. Nanocarrier-based delivery systems have shown great potential in improving the therapeutic efficacy of TCMs, and this review may serve as a comprehensive resource to researchers in this field.

Microcapsules and Nanoliposomes Based Strategies to Improve the Stability of Blueberry Anthocyanins

Blueberry anthocyanins are water-soluble natural pigments that can be used as both natural antioxidants and natural colorants. However, their structural instability greatly limits their application in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. In this study, blueberry anthocyanin microcapsules (BAM) and blueberry anthocyanin liposomes (BAL) were fabricated based on blueberry anthocyanins. Film dispersion methods were used to prepare the BAL. Their preparation processes were optimized and compared to improve the stability of the blueberry anthocyanins following exposure to light and high temperatures. The BAM were prepared through complex phase emulsification. The blueberry anthocyanins were protected by the shell materials composed of sodium alginate after being formed into BAM. Under the optimal conditions, the embedding rate of BAM and BAL can reach as high as 96.14% and 81.26%, respectively. In addition, the particle size, zeta potential, microtopography, and structure feature information of the BAM and BAL were compared. The average particle sizes of the BAM and BAL were 9.78 μm and 290.2 nm, respectively, measured using a laser particle size analyzer, and the zeta potentials of the BAM and BAL were 34.46 mV and 43.0 mV, respectively. In addition, the optimal preparation processes were determined through single-factor and response surface optimization experiments. The most important factors in the single-factor experiment for the preparation of microcapsules and liposomes were the content of CaCl2 and the amount of anthocyanin. The preservation rates in the light and dark were also compared, and the thermal stabilities of the BAM and BAL were characterized through differential thermal scanning. The results showed that both the BAM and BAL maintained the stability of blueberry anthocyanins, and no significant difference was found between the indices used to evaluate their stability. The results of this study provide theoretical support for the development of effective systems to maintain the stability of anthocyanins, thereby improving their bioavailability after ingestion by humans.

Protein and Peptide-Based Nanotechnology for Enhancing Stability, Bioactivity, and Delivery of Anthocyanins

Anthocyanin, a unique natural polyphenol, is abundant in plants and widely utilized in biomedicine, cosmetics, and the food industry due to its excellent antioxidant, anticancer, antiaging, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the degradation of anthocyanin in an extreme environment, such as alkali pH, high temperatures, and metal ions, limits its physiochemical stabilities and bioavailabilities. Encapsulation and combining anthocyanin with biomaterials could efficiently stabilize anthocyanin for protection. Promisingly, natural or artificially designed proteins and peptides with favorable stabilities, excellent biocapacity, and wide sources are potential candidates to stabilize anthocyanin. This review focuses on recent progress, strategies, and perspectives on protein and peptide for anthocyanin functionalization and delivery, i.e., formulation technologies, physicochemical stability enhancement, cellular uptake, bioavailabilities, and biological activities development. Interestingly, due to the simplicity and diversity of peptide structure, the interaction mechanisms between peptide and anthocyanin could be illustrated. This work sheds light on the mechanism of protein/peptide-anthocyanin nanoparticle construction and expands on potential applications of anthocyanin in nutrition and biomedicine.

Regulation of Nanoliposome Rigidity and Bioavailability of Oligomeric Proanthocyanidin with Phytosterols Containing Different C3 Branches

The rigidity of nanoliposomes significantly influences their physical stability and in vitro and in vivo behaviors (e.g., cellular uptake, blood circulation, biodistribution, etc.). This study aimed to quantify the rigidity of the nanoliposomes composed of phytosterol with varying C3 branches and phospholipids (DPPC, DOPC) using atomic force microscopy. Young's modulus, determined by the Shell model, effectively differentiated between mechanical differences in nanoliposomes with varying components and component structure and phase states. FTIR results indicated that P-SG exhibited the highest Young's modulus (175.98 ± 10.53 MPa) due to the hydrogen bond between the glucose residue of steryl glycosides (SGs) and the phospholipid polar head. However, the rigidity of DOPC nanoliposomes was not significantly different due to the unsaturated bond. The addition of oligomeric proanthocyanidin (OPC) did not change the order of rigidity among the nanoliposomes, with P-SG-OPC having the highest Young's modulus (126.27 ± 2.06 MPa). In the simulated gastrointestinal tract experiment, P-SG-OPC exhibited the greatest stability, with minimal particle aggregation. Cellular uptake experiments revealed that DPPC nanoliposomes with high rigidity had optimal endocytosis, while DOPC nanoliposome uptake was independent of rigidity. In melanin production inhibition tests, the inhibitory effect correlated directly with Young's modulus and P-SG-OPC had the best inhibitory effect on melanin generation. Our findings in this study provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of nanoliposomes for the efficient delivery of active substances, offering potential solutions for improving the efficacy of drug delivery systems.

Nano techniques: an updated review focused on anthocyanin stability

Anthocyanins (ACNs) are one of the subgroups of flavonoids and getting intensive attraction due to the nutritional values. However, their application of ACNs is limited due to their poor stability and bioavailability. Accordingly, nanoencapsulation has been developed to enhance its stability and bio-efficacy. This review focuses on the nano-technique applications of delivery systems that be used for ACNs stabilization, with an emphasis on physicochemical stability and health benefits. ACNs incorporated with delivery systems in forms of nano-particles and fibrils can achieve advanced functions, such as improved stability, enhanced bioavailability, and controlled release. Also, the toxicological evaluation of nano delivery systems is summarized. Additionally, this review summarizes the challenges and suggests the further perspectives for the further application of ACNs delivery systems in food and medical fields.

Improving Blueberry Anthocyanins' Stability Using a Ferritin Nanocarrier

Blueberries are fruits known for their high level of anthocyanins, which have high nutritional value and several biological properties. However, the chemical instability of anthocyanins is one of the major limitations of their application. The stability of blueberry anthocyanin extracts (BAEs) encapsulated in a ferritin nanocarrier was investigated in this study for several influencing parameters, including pH, temperature, UV-visible light, redox agents, and various metal ions. The outcomes supported the positive role of protein nanoparticles in enhancing the stability of blueberry anthocyanins by demonstrating that the stability of encapsulated BAE nanoparticles with ferritin carriers was significantly higher than that of free BAEs and a mixture of BAEs and ferritin carriers. This study provides an alternative approach for enhancing blueberry anthocyanin stability using ferritin nanocarrier encapsulation.

Nanoencapsulation of Cyanidin 3-O-Glucoside: Purpose, Technique, Bioavailability, and Stability

The current growing attractiveness of natural dyes around the world is a consequence of the increasing rejection of synthetic dyes whose use is increasingly criticized. The great interest in natural pigments from herbal origin such as cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (C3G) is due to their biological properties and their health benefits. However, the chemical instability of C3G during processing and storage and its low bioavailability limits its food application. Nanoencapsulation technology using appropriate nanocarriers is revolutionizing the use of anthocyanin, including C3G. Owing to the chemical stability and functional benefits that this new nanotechnology provides to the latter, its industrial application is now extending to the pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields. This review focuses on the various nanoencapsulation techniques used and the chemical and biological benefits induced to C3G.

Bioactive Natural Pigments' Extraction, Isolation, and Stability in Food Applications

Color in food has multiple effects on consumers, since this parameter is related to the quality of a product, its freshness, and even its nutrient content. Each food has a characteristic color; however, this can be affected by the technological treatments that are applied during its manufacturing process, as well as its storage. Therefore, the development of new food products should take into account consumer preferences, the physical properties of a product, food safety standards, the economy, and applications of technology. With all of this, the use of food additives, such as dyes, is increasingly important due to the interest in the natural coloring of foods, strict regulatory pressure, problems with the toxicity of synthetic food colors, and the need for globally approved colors, in addition to current food market trends that focus on the consumption of healthy, organic, and natural products. It is for this reason that there is a growing demand for natural pigments that drives the food industry to seek or improve extraction techniques, as well as to study different stability processes, considering their interactions with the food matrix, in order to meet the needs and expectations of consumers.

Effects of encapsulation methods on bioaccessibility of anthocyanins: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Anthocyanins have multiple health benefits. However, they are prone to degradation during gastrointestinal digestion, impeding their utilization. Various encapsulation systems have been proposed to improve their bioaccessibility and bioavailability. This review aims to provide a systematic evaluation and meta-analysis of published studies examining the effect of microencapsulation on the bioaccessibility of anthocyanins. A comprehensive and systematic literature search of three databases (Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science) was conducted. Studies were selected according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses criteria and were reviewed independently by two investigators. Overall, 34 articles were included in the systematic review and 24 were included in the meta-analysis. The fold changes in bioaccessibility between encapsulated and non-encapsulated anthocyanins from eligible studies were calculated. The median and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of the fold changes for spray-drying (median 1.23, 95% CI 0.91-1.92), freeze-drying (median 1.19, 95% CI 0.61-1.28), simple coacervation (median 1.80, 95% CI 1.41-3.20), and complex coacervation (median 1.61, 95% CI 0.21-25.00) were calculated. Simple coacervation showed a promising protection against degradation during in vitro digestion. However, when a large number of anthocyanins cannot be released from the microparticles during digestion, encapsulation impedes the bioaccessibility of anthocyanins.

Monascus Red Pigment Liposomes: Microstructural Characteristics, Stability, and Anticancer Activity

Monascus red pigments (MRPs), which are a kind of natural colorant produced by Monascus spp., are widely used in the food and health supplements industry but are not very stable during processing and storage. Thus, MRPs were embedded into liposome membranes using a thin-film ultrasonic method to improve stability in this study. Monascus red pigments liposomes (MRPL) exhibited spherical unilamellar vesicles (UV) with particle size, polydispersity indexes (PDI), and zeta potential of 20-200 nm, 0.362 ± 0.023, and -42.37 ± 0.21 mV, respectively. pH, thermal, light, metal ion, storage, and in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion stability revealed that, compared with free MRPs, liposomes embedding significantly enhanced the stability of MRPs when exposed to adverse environmental conditions. Furthermore, anticancer assay suggested that MRPL exhibited a stronger inhibitory effect on MKN-28 cells by damaging the integrity of cells, with the IC₅₀ value at 0.57 mg/mL. Overall, MRPLs possess stronger stability in external environment and in vitro simulated digestion with greater anticancer activity, indicating that MRPLs have the potential for promising application in the functional foods and pharmaceutical industries.

Development of Novel Lipid-Based Formulations for Water-Soluble Vitamin C versus Fat-Soluble Vitamin D3

The aim of this study was to develop a facile and novel lipid-based formulation of vitamin C and vitamin D3. Liposomes loaded with vitamin C and D3 were characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and zeta potential measurements for evaluating morphology, particle size and physical stability. HPLC was employed to quantify the content of vitamin C and vitamin D3 in their liposomal forms. The UHPLC analysis of the lipid-based vitamin formulation is an easy and rapid method for the characterization as well as the quantification of all components. In addition, encapsulation efficiency, vitamin loading and stability analysis were performed by the UHPLC method, in order to evaluate the reliability of the optimized lipid-based formulation. The TEM results provided key support for the core type of liposome structure in the formulations, whereas the HPLC results indicated that the liposomal vitamin C and D3 systems were homogeneous, and did not undergo phase separation. Taken together, the results demonstrate that liposomal encapsulated vitamins (vitamin C and D3) possess a unilamellar vesicle morphology with uniform particle size, despite differences in the hydrophile-lipophile profiles of the vitamins. The highly efficient encapsulation properties of such liposomal constructs are proposed to contribute to enhanced vitamin bioavailability.

Nano-vesicular carriers for bioactive compounds and their applications in food formulations

The most commonly used vesicular systems in the food industry include liposomes, niosomes, phytosomes, or transfersomes. This review focuses on showing how nano-vesicular carriers (NVCs) amend the properties of bioactive compounds (bioactives), making them suitable for food applications, especially functional foods. In this research, we elaborate on the question of whether bioactive-loaded NVCs affect various food aspects such as their antioxidant capacity, or sensory properties. This review also shows how NVCs improve the long-term release profile of bioactives during storage and at different pH values. Besides, the refinement of digestibility and bioaccessibility of diverse bioactives through NVCs in the gastrointestinal tract is elucidated. NVCs allow for stable vesicle formation (e.g. from anthocyanins) which reduces their cytotoxicity and proliferation of cancer cells, prolongs the release bioactives (e.g. d-limonene) with no critical burst, reduces the biofilm formation capacity of both Gram-positive/negative strains and their biofilm gene expression is down-regulated (in the case of tannic acid), low oxidation (e.g. iron) is endured when exposed to simulated gastric fluid, and unpleasant smell and taste are masked (in case of omega-3 fatty acids). After the incorporation of bioactive-loaded NVCs into food products, their antioxidant capacity is enhanced, maintaining high encapsulation efficiency and enduring pasteurization conditions, and they are not distinguished from control samples in sensory evaluation despite the reverse situation about free bioactives.

Employ of Anthocyanins in Nanocarriers for Nano Delivery: In Vitro and In Vivo Experimental Approaches for Chronic Diseases

Anthocyanins are among the best-known phenolic compounds and possess remarkable biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antidiabetic effects. Despite their therapeutic benefits, they are not widely used as health-promoting agents due to their instability, low absorption, and, thus, low bioavailability and rapid metabolism in the human body. Recent research suggests that the application of nanotechnology could increase their solubility and/or bioavailability, and thus their biological potential. Therefore, in this review, we have provided, for the first time, a comprehensive overview of in vitro and in vivo studies on nanocarriers used as delivery systems of anthocyanins, and their aglycones, i.e., anthocyanidins alone or combined with conventional drugs in the treatment or management of chronic diseases.

Encapsulation of bougainvillea (Bougainvillea spectabilis) flower extract in Urtica dioica L. seed gum: Characterization, antioxidant/antimicrobial properties, and in vitro digestion

Bougainvillea spectabilis extract (BSE), a rich source of bioactive compounds like phenolic, flavonoid, and anthocyanin, was used for encapsulation with Urtica dioica L. seed gum. The extract was obtained using shaking, bath, and probe ultrasound. The results showed that probe ultrasound extract was more efficient, as reflected by the higher value of total phenolic (4354.15 mg GAE/100 g FW), flavonoid (2431.25 mg CE/100 g FW), and anthocyanin content (106.57 mg CGE/100 g FW). BSE was encapsulated in U. dioica L. seed gum at 1:1 and 1:2 core to coating ratio. In both DPPH radical scavenging and FRAP assay, higher antioxidant activity was observed in the encapsulated extract than in the free extract. Encapsulated extracts exhibited 87.9 nm average diameter (polydispersity index below 0.23) and negative zeta potential. The average minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of nanoparticles against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica was 112.5, 87.5, 112.5, and 87.5 μg/ml, respectively, while MIC of the free extract against S. aureus and E. coli was 150 and 125 μg/ml, respectively. The phenolic compounds are gradually released from the nanoparticles in the gastric and small intestine phase, whereas free extract released phenolic compounds quickly after entering the gastric phase. Considering antioxidant/antimicrobial activity and release properties, nanoparticles with a 1:1 ratio of core to coating had the potential to use as an effective natural preservative agent in food products besides the delivery of bioactive compounds to the human body.

In Vitro Release of Anthocyanins from Microencapsulated Natal Plum (Carissa macrocarpa) Phenolic Extract in Alginate/Psyllium Mucilage Beads

Natal plum (Carissa macrocarpa) contains anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-O-β-sambubioside (Cy-3-Sa), and cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (Cy-3-G) that possess great bioactive properties. During in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, Cy-3-Sa and Cy-3-G are highly sensitive to pH changes and have low bioaccessibility rates of 7.9% and 22%, respectively. This study aimed to therefore use microencapsulation techniques to improve the bioaccessibility of Cy-3-Sa and Cy-3-G. The crude anthocyanin-rich extract was extracted from freeze-dried Natal plum fruit using ultrasonic-assisted ethanol extraction. The anthocyanin-rich extract was encapsulated using the ionic gelation method. Four distinct carrier agents, namely sodium alginate, pectin, xanthan gum and psyllium mucilage were used to form the wall materials. Encapsulation efficiency was highest for alginate/psyllium mucilage beads (93.67%), while alginate showed the least efficiency (86.80%). Scanning Electron Microscopy revealed a cracked and porous structure for the Natal plum extract and a continuous smooth structure for all the beads. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed peaks at 3300 and 1610 cm⁻¹, confirming the presence of polyphenols and polysaccharides in all beads. Thermal stability was higher for the alginate/psyllium mucilage beads and the observed thermal transitions were due to the bonds formed between the polymers and the polyphenols. Alginate beads combined with xanthan gum, pectin, and psyllium mucilage showed a prolonged release of anthocyanins compared to alginate in vitro alone. The highest anthocyanin bioaccessibility was obtained from alginate/psyllium mucilage beads (85.42 ± 1.03%). The results showed the effectiveness of alginate/psyllium mucilage beads in improving stability and in vitro anthocyanin release.

Modifying the Stability and Surface Characteristic of Anthocyanin Compounds Incorporated in the Nanoliposome by Chitosan Biopolymer

In this study, a novel approach was investigated to improve the stability of anthocyanin compounds (AC) by encapsulating them in nanoliposomes resulting from rapeseed lecithin alongside chitosan coating. The results indicate that the particle size, electrophoretic mobility, encapsulation efficiency, and membrane fluidity of nanoliposomes containing anthocyanin compounds were 132.41 nm, -3.26 µm·cm/V·S, 42.57%, and 3.41, respectively, which changed into 188.95 nm, +4.80 µm·cm/V·S, 61.15%, and 2.39 after coating with chitosan, respectively. The results also suggest improved physical and chemical stability of nanoliposomes after coating with chitosan. TEM images demonstrate the produced particles were spherical and had a nanoscale, where the existence of a chitosan layer around the nanoparticles was visible. Shear rheological tests illustrate that the flow behavior of nanoliposomes was altered from Newtonian to shear thinning following chitosan incorporation. Further, chitosan diminished the surface area of the hysteresis loop (thixotropic behavior). The oscillatory rheological tests also show the presence of chitosan led to the improved mechanical stability of nanoliposomes. The results of the present study demonstrate that chitosan coating remarkably improved encapsulation efficiency, as well as the physical and mechanical stability of nanoliposomes. Thus, coating AC-nanoliposomes with chitosan is a promising approach for effective loading of AC and enhancing their stability to apply in the pharmaceutic and food industries.

Nanoencapsulated anthocyanin as a functional ingredient: Technological application and future perspectives

Anthocyanins are an important group of phenolic compounds responsible for pigmentation in several plants, and regular consumption is associated with a reduced risk of several diseases. However, the application of anthocyanins in foods represents a challenge due to molecular instability. The encapsulation of anthocyanins in nanostructures is a viable way to protect from the factors responsible for degradation and enable the industrial application of these compounds. Nanoencapsulation is a set of techniques in which the bioactive molecules are covered by resistant biomaterials that protect them from chemical and biological factors during processing and storage. This review comprehensively summarizes the existing knowledge about the structure of anthocyanins and molecular stability, with a critical analysis of anthocyanins' nanoencapsulation, the main encapsulating materials (polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids), and techniques used in the formation of nanocarriers to protect anthocyanins. Some studies point to the effectiveness of nanostructures in maintaining anthocyanin stability and antioxidant activity. The main advantages of the application of nanoencapsulated anthocyanins in foods are the increase in the nutritional value of the food, the addition of color, the increase in food storage, and the possible increase in bioavailability after oral ingestion. Nanoencapsulation improves stability for anthocyanin, thus demonstrating the potential to be included in foods or used as dietary supplements, and current limitations, challenges, and future directions of anthocyanins' have also been discussed.

Preparation, characterization and macrophage-stimulating activity of polyguluronate nanoliposomes

Polyguluronate (PG) consists entirely of α-L-guluronic acid derived from alginate, which is an acidic polysaccharide extracted from brown algae. PG has a short half-life and is easily degraded by microorganisms, resulting in decreased activity and thus its application in the medical field. In this study, polyguluronate liposomes (PGLs) were prepared to improve the macrophage-stimulating activity of PG. The morphology, encapsulation efficiency, particle size distribution, zeta potential and stability of the PGLs were characterized. Results showed that PGLs were uniformly round with an encapsulation efficiency of 77.76 ± 0.89%, a particle size of 63.96 ± 3.98 nm and a zeta potential of -53.4 ± 1.75 mV. The stability studies showed that PGLs should be stored in a neutral environment at 4 °C. The macrophage-stimulating activity of PGLs was better than that of PG. This study provides a promising carrier for the further application of PG in food or medicine.

Curcumin-Loaded Liposome Preparation in Ultrasound Environment under Pressurized Carbon Dioxide

Curcumin-loaded liposomes were prepared using a supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2)−ultrasound environment system. The experiments were performed at temperatures of 40−70 °C and pressures of 10−25 MPa in a batch system with ultrasonication for 60 min. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images revealed liposome products with spherical morphologies and diameters of <100 nm. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis indicated that the curcumin-loaded liposome nanosuspension exhibited good stability. Changing the operating conditions influenced the amount of liposome-encapsulated curcumin; as the operating temperature or pressure increased, the diameter of the liposome products and the amount of liposome-encapsulated curcumin increased and decreased, respectively. Herein, we described an innovative and practical organic-solvent-free method for generating liposomes from phospholipids.

Comparison in Content of Total Polyphenol, Flavonoid, and Antioxidant Capacity from Different Organs and Extruded Condition of Moringa oleifera Lam

Recently, interest in exploring phytochemicals with health benefits has grown significantly. In this research, we aimed to develop the processing profile and functionality of Moringa oleifera Lam. Here, we implemented biopolymer-mediated extrudate formulations of M. oleifera (leaves, seed, and husk) in order to enhance the phenolic, flavonoid, and antioxidant capacity. The formulation-1 (F1) was prepared for leaves, seed, and husk using biopolymers (10% w/w), namely: whey protein isolate (10% w/w) and lecithin (5% w/w) with vitamin E (2% w/w). The formulation-2 (F2) was composed of lecithin (5% w/w) with ascorbyl palmitate (10% w/w) and vitamin E (2% w/w), processed by hot-melt extrusion (HME). It was observed that the total phenol and flavonoid contents were persistent in the lecithin-mediated F2 formulation of leaves, seed, and husk. Likewise, antioxidant capacity was significantly stayed in the F2 formulation of all organs, compared to the extrudate and control. The IC50 values revealed that the leaves of the F2 formulation showed strong free radical scavenging capacity compared to the F2 formulation of seed and husk. It was concluded that the F2 formulation could be used in the different parts of M. oleifera processing to boost functionality.

Liposomal Delivery of Plant Bioactives Enhances Potency in Food Systems: A Review

The potency of plant bioactives may decline drastically upon exposure to harsh external environments including gastrointestinal conditions. The protective role played by liposomes contributes to desirable properties including increased stability, slow/controlled release, improved bioactivity, and enhanced bioavailability of the encapsulated bioactives. Also, the incorporation of plant bioactives encapsulated liposomes in food matrices has resulted in augmented sensory attributes and improved quality of the foods further exhibiting the aptness of liposomal applications in food. Excitingly, new opportunities that circumvent the major shortfalls of utilizing liposomal formulations in the food industry have arisen paving the way to yield food products with high quality.

Ethanolic Fenugreek Extract: Its Molecular Mechanisms against Skin Aging and the Enhanced Functions by Nanoencapsulation

Fenugreek, or Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (family Leguminosae) seeds, are typically used as food supplements to increase postnatal lactation. Fenugreek extract displays antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, but its mechanisms against skin aging have not been exploited. In this research, we are the first to define an in vitro collagenase inhibitory activity of fenugreek extract (IC₅₀ = 0.57 ± 0.02 mg/mL), which is 2.6 times more potent than vitamin C (IC₅₀ = 1.46 mg/mL). Nanoencapsulation has been applied to improve the extract stability, and subsequently enhanced its bioactivities. Liponiosome encapsulating fenugreek extract (LNF) was prepared using a high-speed homogenizer, resulting in homogeneous spherical nanoparticles with sizes in the range of 174.7 ± 49.2 nm, 0.26 ± 0.04 in PdI, and 46.6 ± 7.4% of entrapment efficiency. LNF formulation significantly facilitated a sustained release and significantly enhanced skin penetration over the extracts, suggesting a potential use of LNF for transdermal delivery. The formulated LNF was highly stable, not toxic to human fibroblast, and was able to enhance cell viability, collagen production, and inhibit MMP1, MMP9, IL-6, and IL-8 secretions compared to the extract in the co-cultured skin model. Therefore, ethanolic fenugreek extract and its developed LNF display molecular mechanisms against skin aging and could potentially be used as an innovative ingredient for the prevention of skin aging.

Storage Stability and In Vitro Bioaccessibility of Liposomal Betacyanins from Red Pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus)

In order to address the poor stability of the betacyanins from red pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus, HP), which are considered as good sources of natural colorant, liposomal-encapsulation technique was applied in this study. Thin-layer dispersion method was employed to prepare HP betacyacnin liposomes (HPBL). The formulation parameters for HPBL were optimized, and the characteristics, stability, and release profile of HPBL in in vitro gastrointestinal systems were evaluated.Results showed that an HP betacyanin encapsulation efficiency of 93.43 ± 0.11% was obtained after formulation optimization. The HPBL exhibited a narrow size distribution of particle within a nanometer range and a strong electronegative ζ-potential. By liposomal encapsulation, storage stability of HP betacyanin was significantly enhanced in different storage temperatures. When the environmental pH ranged from 4.3–7.0, around 80% of HP betacyanins were preserved on Day 21 with the liposomal protection. The loss of 2,2′-Diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity and color deterioration of HPBL were developed in accordance with the degradation of HP betacyanins during storage. In in vitro gastrointestinal digestion study, with the protection of liposome, the retention rates of HP betacyanins in vitro were enhanced by 14% and 40% for gastric and intestinal digestion, respectively.This study suggested that liposomal encapsulation was an effective approach to stabilize HP betacyanins during storage and gastrointestinal digestion, but further investigations were needed to better optimize the liposomal formulation and understand the complex liposomal system.

Preparation and characterization of egg yolk immunoglobulin loaded chitosan-liposome assisted by supercritical carbon dioxide

The egg yolk immunoglobulin (IgY) loaded chitosan-liposomes (IgY-CS-LP) were prepared and assisted by supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO₂). The effects of phospholipid type and SCCO₂ pressure on particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, structural properties and stabilities were investigated. The results showed that the liposomes prepared by egg yolk phosphatidylcholine (EPC) had better homogeneity and higher encapsulation rate than those by soybean phosphatidylcholine (SPC). With the increase in critical pressure, the particle size decreased dramatically and became more uniform. Under pressure of 20 MPa, it showed a preferable stability on IgY-CS-LP and superior encapsulation efficiency of IgY (76.85%). Besides, IgY could be wrapped in the phospholipid layer which has strong interaction with chitosan. The results suggested that chitosan liposome complex could form an effective carrier for IgY with method of SCCO₂, which can solve the problem of IgY inactivation in vivo, so as to enhance human immunity and other effects.

Water-in-Oil-in-Water Double Emulsions as Protective Carriers for Sambucus nigra L. Coloring Systems

The use of natural colorants is needed to overcome consumer concerns regarding synthetic food colorants' safety. However, natural pigments have, in general, poor stability against environmental stresses such as temperature, ionic strength, moisture, light, and pH, among others. In this work, water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) emulsions were used as protective carriers to improve color stability of a hydrophilic Sambucus nigra L. extract against pH changes. The chemical system comprised water and corn oil as the aqueous and oil phases, respectively, and polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), Tween 80, and gum Arabic as stabilizers. The primary emulsion was prepared using a W1/O ratio of 40/60 (v/v). For the secondary emulsion, W1/O/W2, different (W1/O)/W2 ratios were tested with the 50/50 (v/v) formulation presenting the best stability, being selected as the coloring system to test in food matrices of different pH: natural yogurt (pH 4.65), rice drink (pH 6.01), cow milk (pH 6.47), and soy drink (pH 7.92). Compared to the direct use of the extract, the double emulsion solution gave rise to higher color stability with pH change and storage time, as corroborated by visual and statistical analysis.

Anti-inflammatory activity of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside liposomes in THP-1 macrophages

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) is a kind of water-soluble pigment widely existing in many plants. It has strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, C3G cannot exist stably for a long time because of the phenolic hydroxyl groups in its structure. Liposome technology could improve the stability and bioavailability of compounds. Based on our previous studies, C3G liposomes prepared by ethanol injection method have a certain stability in two weeks of storage. In this study, THP-1 macrophages treated with C3G and C3G liposomes can reduce the levels of inflammatory-related factors, such as tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-8, stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Further studies showed that the LPS induction could increase the level of phosphorylated nuclear transcription factor NF-κB and phosphorylated IkBa, while C3G and C3G liposomes could inhibit the expression of phosphorylated proteins. Moreover, C3G and C3G liposomes could protect macrophages from apoptosis. In conclusion, C3G prepared by liposome technology exhibits anti-inflammatory activity, which provides a theoretical basis for the food industry to study functional food.

Advanced approaches for improving bioavailability and controlled release of anthocyanins

Anthocyanins are a group of phytochemicals responsible for the purple or red color of plants. Additionally, they are recognized to have health promoting functions including anti-cardiovascular, anti-thrombotic, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and visual protective effect as well as anti-cancer activities. Thus, consumption of anthocyanin supplement or anthocyanin-rich foods has been recommended to prevent the risk of development of chronic diseases. However, the low stability and bioavailability of anthocyanins limit the efficacy and distribution of anthocyanins in human body. Thus, strategies to achieve target site-local delivery with good bioavailability and controlled release rate are necessary. This review introduced and discussed the latest advanced techniques of designing lipid-based, polysaccharide-based and protein-based complexes, nano-encapsulation and exosome to overcome the limitation of anthocyanins. The improved bioavailability and controlled release of anthocyanins have great significance for gastrointestinal tract absorption, transepithelial transportation and cellular uptake. The techniques of applying different biocompatible materials and modifying the solubility of anthocyanins complex could achieve target site-local delivery with negligible degradation and good bioavailability in human body.

Toward the next-generation phyto-nanomedicines: cell-derived nanovesicles (CDNs) for natural product delivery

Phytochemicals are plant-derived bioactive compounds, which have been widely used for therapeutic purposes. Due to the poor water-solubility, low bioavailability and non-specific targeting characteristic, diverse classes of nanocarriers are utilized for encapsulation and delivery of bio-effective agents. Cell-derived nanovesicles (CDNs), known for exosomes or extracellular vesicles (EVs), are biological nanoparticles with multiple functions. Compared to the artificial counterpart, CDNs hold great potential in drug delivery given the higher stability, superior biocompatibility and the lager capability of encapsulating bioactive molecules. Here, we provide a bench-to-bedside review of CDNs-based nanoplatform, including the bio-origin, preparation, characterization and functionalization. Beyond that, the focus is laid on the therapeutic effect of CDNs-mediated drug delivery for natural products. The state-of-art development as well as some pre-clinical applications of using CDNs for disease treatment is also summarized. It is highly expected that the continuing development of CDNs-based delivery systems will further promote the clinical utilization and translation of phyto-nanomedicines.

Novel Delivery Systems of Polyphenols and Their Potential Health Benefits

Liposome-based delivery systems have been studied and used more frequently in recent years due to their advantages, such as low toxicity, specificity, and the ability to protect the encapsulated substance from environmental factors, which could otherwise degrade the active compound and reduce its effectiveness. Given these benefits, many researchers have encapsulated polyphenols in liposomes, thus increasing their bioavailability and stability. Similarly, polyphenols encapsulated in liposomes are known to produce more substantial effects on targeted cells than unencapsulated polyphenols, while having minimal cytotoxicity in healthy cells. Although polyphenols play a role in preventing many types of disease and generally have beneficial effects on health, we solely focused on their chemopreventive effects on cancer through liposomes in this review. Our goal was to summarize the applicability and efficacy of liposomes encapsulated with different classes of polyphenols on several types of cancer, thus opening the opportunity for future studies based on these drug delivery systems.

Supercritical fluid (SCF)-assisted fabrication of carrier-free drugs: An eco-friendly welcome to active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)

Despite the success in developing various pharmaceutical formulations, most of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)/drugs, according to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS), often suffer from various intrinsic limitations of solubility and permeability, substantially hindering their bioavailability in vivo. Regardless of the fact that the availability of different particle fabrication approaches (top-down and bottom-up) towards pharmaceutical manufacturing, the supercritical fluid (SCF) technology has emerged as one of the highly effective substitutes due to the environmentally benign nature and processing convenience, as well as the economically promising character of SCFs. The exceptional features of SCFs have endowed the fabrication of various APIs either solely or in combination with the compatible supramolecular species towards achieving improved drug delivery. Operating such APIs in high-pressure conditions often results in arbitrary-sized particulate forms, ranging from micron-sized to sub-micron/nano-sized particles. Comparatively, these SCF-processed particles offer enhanced tailorable physicochemical and morphological properties (size, shape, and surface), as well as improved performance efficacy (bioavailability and therapy) over the unprocessed APIs. Although the "carrier-based" delivery is practical among diverse delivery systems, the direct fabrication of APIs into suitable particulate forms, referred to as "carrier-free" delivery, has increased attention towards improving the bioavailability and conveying a high payload of the APIs. This review gives a comprehensive emphasis on the SCF-assisted fabrication of diverse APIs towards exploring their great potential in drug delivery. Initially, we discuss various challenges of drug delivery and particle fabrication approaches. Further, different supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂)-based fabrication approaches depending on the character of SCFs are explicitly described, highlighting their advantages and suitability in processing diverse APIs. Then, we provide detailed insights on various processing factors affecting the properties and morphology of SCF-processed APIs and their pharmaceutical applications, emphasizing their performance efficacy when administered through multiple routes of administration. Finally, we summarize this compilation with exciting perspectives based on the lessons learned so far and moving forward in terms of challenges and opportunities in the scale-up and clinical translation of these drugs using this innovative technology.

Novel Nanoliposome Codelivered DHA and Anthocyanidin: Characterization, In Vitro Infant Digestibility, and Improved Cell Uptake

There are still many challenges in understanding the absorption and transport mechanism of liposomes in the gastrointestinal tract of infants, especially for liposome-coentrapped two or more substances. In this study, novel docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-anthocyanidin-codelivery liposomes (DA-LPs) were fabricated and characterized, and their digestive and absorptive behaviors were evaluated using the in vitro infant digestive method combined with the Caco-2 cell model. The liposomal bilayer structure remained intact with the particles aggregated in simulated infant gastric fluid, while their phospholipid membrane underwent enzymatic lipolysis under simulated intestinal conditions. Compared to single substance-loaded liposomes (DHA- or anthocyanidin-loaded liposomes), the digested DA-LPs showed better cell viability, higher cellular uptake and membrane fluidity, and lower reactive oxygen species (ROS). It can be concluded that DA-LPs are promising carriers for simultaneously transporting hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules and may be beneficial for improving nutrient absorption and alleviating intestinal stress oxidation.

Preparation of Liposomes from Soy Lecithin Using Liquefied Dimethyl Ether

We investigated a method to prepare liposomes; soy lecithin was dissolved in liquefied dimethyl ether (DME) at 0.56 MPa, which was then injected into warm water. Liposomes can be successfully prepared at warm water temperatures above 45 °C. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of the obtained liposomes, size distribution, ζ-potential measurements by dynamic light scattering and the amount of residual medium were compared by gas chromatography using the conventional medium, diethyl ether. The size of the obtained liposomes was approximately 60-300 nm and the ζ-potential was approximately -57 mV, which was almost the same as that of the conventional medium. Additionally, for the conventional media, a large amount remained in the liposome dispersion even after removal by depressurization and dialysis membrane treatment; however, liquefied DME, owing to its considerably low boiling point, was completely removed by depressurization. Liquefied DME is a very attractive medium for the preparation of liposomes because it does not have the toxicity and residue problems of conventional solvents or the hazards of ethanol addition and high pressure of supercritical carbon dioxide; it is also environmentally friendly.

Micro and Nanoencapsulation of Natural Colors: a Holistic View

The applications of natural plant pigments are growing rapidly with the increasing awareness of the negative health impacts of synthetic colorants. Additionally, natural pigments possess various biological properties and therapeutic activities. But their functions are hindered by their poor bioavailability, bioaccessibility, low absorption rate, and susceptibility to destructive environmental changes during processing and delivery. Encapsulation is a method of entrapment of bioactive ingredients within suitable carriers to provide protection and for the appropriate delivery into the targeted site by the formation of particles or capsules in micrometer or nanometer scales. Encapsulation imparts several benefits including improved thermal and chemical stability, preserves or masks flavor, taste, or aroma, controlled and targeted release, and enhanced bioavailability of pigments. Micro and nanoencapsulation of pigments will provide extensive and intensive platforms for the development of a new stage in the production of novel and healthy foods. This review mainly focuses on the advanced developments in the fields of micro and nanoencapsulation of pigments.