Neurotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1 on human astrocytes in vitro and on glial cell development in zebrafish in vivo

Bioremediation of Aflatoxin B1 by Meyerozyma guilliermondii AF01 in Peanut Meal via Solid-State Fermentation

The use of microorganisms to manage aflatoxin contamination is a gentle and effective approach. The aim of this study was to test the removal of AFB1 from AFB1-contaminated peanut meal by a strain of Meyerozyma guilliermondii AF01 screened by the authors and to optimize the conditions of the biocontrol. A regression model with the removal ratio of AFB1 as the response value was established by means of single-factor and response surface experiments. It was determined that the optimal conditions for the removal of AFB1 from peanut meal by AF01 were 75 h at 29 °C under the natural pH, with an inoculum of 5.5%; the removal ratio of AFB1 reached 69.31%. The results of simulating solid-state fermentation in production using shallow pans and fermentation bags showed that the removal ratio of AFB1 was 68.85% and 70.31% in the scaled-up experiments, respectively. This indicated that AF01 had strong adaptability to the environment with facultative anaerobic fermentation detoxification ability. The removal ratio of AFB1 showed a positive correlation with the growth of AF01, and there were no significant changes in the appearance and quality of the peanut meal after fermentation. This indicated that AF01 had the potential to be used in practical production.

Neurotoxic mechanisms of mycotoxins: Focus on aflatoxin B1 and T-2 toxin

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and T-2 toxin are commonly found in animal feed and stored grain, posing a serious threat to human and animal health. Mycotoxins can penetrate brain tissue by compromising the blood-brain barrier, triggering oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, and leading to oxidative damage and apoptosis of brain cells. The potential neurotoxic mechanisms of AFB1 and T-2 toxin were discussed by summarizing the relevant research reports from the past ten years. AFB1 and T-2 toxin cause neuronal damage in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, leading to synaptic transmission dysfunction, ultimately impairing the nervous system function of the body. The toxic mechanism is related to excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, autophagy, and an exaggerated inflammatory response. After passing through the blood-brain barrier, toxins can directly affect glial cells, alter the activation state of microglia and astrocytes, thereby promoting brain inflammation, disrupting the blood-brain barrier, and influencing the synaptic transmission process. We discussed the diverse effects of various concentrations of toxins and different modes of exposure on neurotoxicity. In addition, toxins can also cross the placental barrier, causing neurotoxic symptoms in offspring, as demonstrated in various species. Our goal is to uncover the underlying mechanisms of the neurotoxicity of AFB1 and T-2 toxin and to provide insights for future research, including investigating the impact of mycotoxins on interactions between microglia and astrocytes.

The two-way immunotoxicity in native fish induced by exudates of Microcystis aeruginosa: Immunostimulation and immunosuppression

Secondary metabolites of cyanobacterial blooms have caused serious risks to aquatic animals. The immune system is an important barrier for fish against pollutants in aquatic systems. The immunetoxic mechanism of the exudates of Microcystis aeruginosa (MaE) on fish was lacking due to the complex components of MaE. In this project, Sinocyclocheilus grahami was used as the model to study the immunotoxic effects of MaE and PHS (one of the main components of the MaE) in fish. The immunosuppression effects of MaE are mainly in, decreased head-kindey index, damaged tissue structure of head-kidney and downregulated NF-κB, IL-1β. PHS induce immunostimulation via, increasing spleen index, apparently increasing leucocytes, increasing the IgM and lysozyme levels in serum and skin mucus, upregulating protease in skin mucus, increasing pro-immunologic factors (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α and NF-κB), probably activating the TLRs/NF-κB, MAPK, FoxO1 and PPARγ signaling pathways. Therefore, our research identified potential data gaps that how the exudates of cyanobacteria induces immunostimulation and immunosuppression from immune organs level to skin mucus to blood cells to inflammatory factors to potential molecular initiating event of MaE and PHS. Further research is needed to obtain a deeper view of the molecular mechanisms involved in MaE and PHS immunotoxicity and its consequences in long-time exposures.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of aflatoxin B1-mediated neurotoxicity: The therapeutic role of natural bioactive compounds

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a dietary toxin from the mold Aspergillus species, is well acknowledged to elicit extra-hepatic toxicity in both animals and humans. The neurotoxicity of AFB1 has become a global public health concern. Contemporary research on how AFB1 enters the brain to elicit neuronal dysregulation leading to noxious neurological outcomes has increased greatly in recent years. The current review discusses several neurotoxic outcomes and susceptible targets of AFB1 toxicity at cellular, molecular and genetic levels. Specifically, neurotoxicity studies involving the use of brain homogenates, neuroblastoma cell line IMR-32, human brain microvascular endothelial cells, microglial cells, and astrocytes, as well as mammalian and non-mammalian models to unravel the mechanisms associated with AFB1 exposure are highlighted. Further, some naturally occurring bioactive compounds with compelling therapeutic effects on AFB1-induced neurotoxicity are reviewed. In conclusion, available data from literature highlight AFB1 as a neurotoxin and its possible pathological contribution to neurological disorders. Further mechanistic studies aimed at discovering and developing effective therapeutics for AFB1 neurotoxicity is warranted.

Abdallah M, Chen X, Rajkovic A. Current Knowledge of Individual and Combined Toxicities of Aflatoxin B1 and Fumonisin B1 In Vitro

Mycotoxins are considered the most threating natural contaminants in food. Among these mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are the most prominent fungal metabolites that represent high food safety risks, due to their widespread co-occurrence in several food commodities, and their profound toxic effects on humans. Considering the ethical and more humane animal research, the 3Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement) principle has been promoted in the last few years. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the research studies conducted up to date on the toxicological effects that AFB1 and FB1 can induce on human health, through the examination of a selected number of in vitro studies. Although the impact of both toxins, as well as their combination, were investigated in different cell lines, the majority of the work was carried out in hepatic cell lines, especially HepG2, owing to the contaminants' liver toxicity. In all the reviewed studies, AFB1 and FB1 could invoke, after short-term exposure, cell apoptosis, by inducing several pathways (oxidative stress, the mitochondrial pathway, ER stress, the Fas/FasL signaling pathway, and the TNF-α signal pathway). Among these pathways, mitochondria are the primary target of both toxins. The interaction of AFB1 and FB1, whether additive, synergistic, or antagonistic, depends to great extent on FB1/AFB1 ratio. However, it is generally manifested synergistically, via the induction of oxidative stress and mitochondria dysfunction, through the expression of the Bcl-2 family and p53 proteins. Therefore, AFB1 and FB1 mixture may enhance more in vitro toxic effects, and carry a higher significant risk factor, than the individual presence of each toxin.

Aflatoxin B1 exposure triggers inflammation and premature skin aging via ERMCS/Ca2+/ROS signaling cascade

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a recognized hazard environmental contaminant mainly found in cereal and fruits. The toxicity of AFB1 exposure to various organs has been revealed in some literature. In current study, we explored the effect of AFB1 exposure on premature aging/senescence of skin. In vivo, 8-week-old C57 mice were used as models to evaluate the effect of dietary AFB1 exposure on premature skin aging. The results showed that AFB1 exposure caused premature skin aging by testing aging markers. Additionally, AFB1 led to oxidative stress and inflammatory response. In vitro, AFB1 exposure triggered premature cellular senescence in mouse skin fibroblasts cells (L929 cells) by assessing a range of cellular senescence-related markers. Further, the potential molecular mechanism by which AFB1 induce the premature skin aging was studied. ROS and Ca2+ is proven to be the key molecules in AFB1-induced cellular senescence. Further, through eliminating Ca2+, AFB1-caused oxidative stress and cellular senescence were both attenuated, suggesting that Ca2+ overload in the mitochondria results in cellular senescence by increasing ROS production. Next, we analyzed the causes of Ca2+ overload, and results showed that AFB1 exposure induces Ca2+ overload through increasing the formation of mitoguardin (Miga) and vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP)-associated protein (Vap33)-mediated endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria contact sites (ERMCS). AFB1 exposure also inhibited mitophagy, leading to accelerate L929 cell senescence. In short, combining in vivo and in vitro results, we demonstrate that exposure to AFB1 causes premature skin aging, which is dependent on ERMCS/Ca2+/ROS/ signaling axis. The current study suggests that prolonged exposure to AFB1 makes skin more vulnerable to damage.

Temperature- and chemical-induced neurotoxicity in zebrafish

Throughout their lives, humans encounter a plethora of substances capable of inducing neurotoxic effects, including drugs, heavy metals and pesticides. Neurotoxicity manifests when exposure to these chemicals disrupts the normal functioning of the nervous system, and some neurotoxic agents have been linked to neurodegenerative pathologies such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. The growing concern surrounding the neurotoxic impacts of both naturally occurring and man-made toxic substances necessitates the identification of animal models for rapid testing across a wide spectrum of substances and concentrations, and the utilization of tools capable of detecting nervous system alterations spanning from the molecular level up to the behavioural one. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is gaining prominence in the field of neuroscience due to its versatility. The possibility of analysing all developmental stages (embryo, larva and adult), applying the most common "omics" approaches (transcriptomics, proteomics, lipidomics, etc.) and conducting a wide range of behavioural tests makes zebrafish an excellent model for neurotoxicity studies. This review delves into the main experimental approaches adopted and the main markers analysed in neurotoxicity studies in zebrafish, showing that neurotoxic phenomena can be triggered not only by exposure to chemical substances but also by fluctuations in temperature. The findings presented here serve as a valuable resource for the study of neurotoxicity in zebrafish and define new scenarios in ecotoxicology suggesting that alterations in temperature can synergistically compound the neurotoxic effects of chemical substances, intensifying their detrimental impact on fish populations.

Aflatoxin B1 exposure induced developmental toxicity and inhibited muscle development in zebrafish embryos and larvae

The prevalence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), one of the most toxic mycotoxins that contaminates feedstock and food is increasing worldwide. AFB1 can cause various health problems in humans and animals, as well as direct embryotoxicity. However, the direct toxicity of AFB1 on embryonic development, especially foetal foetus muscle development, has not been studied in depth. In the present study, we used zebrafish embryos as a model to study the mechanism of the direct toxicity of AFB1 to the foetus, including muscle development and developmental toxicity. Our results showed that AFB1 caused motor dysfunction in zebrafish embryos. In addition, AFB1 induces abnormalities in muscle tissue architecture, which in turn causes abnormal muscle development in larvae. Further studies found that AFB1 destroyed the antioxidant capacity and tight junction complexes (TJs), causing apoptosis in zebrafish larvae. In summary, AFB1 may induce developmental toxicity and inhibit muscle development through oxidative damage, apoptosis and disruption of TJs in zebrafish larvae. Our results revealed the direct toxicity effects of AFB1 on the development of embryos and larvae, including inhibition of muscle development and triggering neurotoxicity, induction of oxidative damage, apoptosis and disruption of TJs, and fills the gap in the toxicity mechanism of AFB1 on foetal development.

Edible fungi efficiently degrade aflatoxin B1 in cereals and improve their nutritional composition by solid-state fermentation

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is extremely harmful to human and livestock. Laccase, a green catalyst, has been shown to effectively degrade AFB₁ and can be obtained from edible fungi. The objective of this study was to screen edible fungi with high laccase activity and determine their effects on the degradation of AFB₁ in cereals and the nutritional composition of the cereals through solid-state fermentation. Results from plate assays confirmed that 51 of the 55 tested edible fungi could secrete laccase. Submerged fermentation results showed that 17 of the 51 edible fungi had maximum laccase activity exceeding 100 U/L. The growth of different edible fungi varied significantly in corn, rice and wheat. More importantly, 6 edible fungi with high laccase activity and good growth could efficiently degrade AFB₁ in cereals. We found for the first time that Ganoderma sinense could not only secrete highly active laccase and efficiently degrade AFB₁ in corn by 92.91%, but also improve the nutritional quality of corn. These findings reveal that solid-state fermentation of cereals with edible fungi is an environmentally friendly and efficient approach for degrading AFB₁ in cereals and improving the nutritional composition of cereals.

Chronic exposure to aflatoxin B1 increases hippocampal microglial pyroptosis and vulnerability to stress in mice

BACKGROUND

Chronic aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) exposure may increase the risk of multiple neuropsychiatric disorders. Stress is considered one of the main contributors to major depressive disorder. Whether and how chronic AFB1 exposure affects vulnerability to stress is unclear.

METHODS

Mice were exposed for three weeks to AFB1 (100 µg/kg/d) and/or chronic mild stress (CMS). The vulnerability behaviors in response to stress were assessed in the forced swimming test (FST), sucrose preference test (SPT), and tail suspension test (TST). Microglial pyroptosis was investigated using immunofluorescence, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and western blot assay in the hippocampus of mice. Hippocampal neurogenesis and the effects of AFB1-treated microglia on proliferation and differentiation of neural stem/precursor cells (NSPCs) were assessed via immunofluorescence in the hippocampus of mice.

RESULTS

Mice exposed to CMS in the presence of AFB1 exhibited markedly greater vulnerability to stress than mice treated with CMS or AFB1 alone, as indicated by reduced sucrose preference and longer immobility time in the forced swimming test. Chronic aflatoxin B1 exposure resulted in changes in the microglial morphology and increase in TUNEL⁺ microglia and GSDMD⁺ microglia in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. When mice were exposed to both CMS and AFB1, pyroptosis-related molecules (such as NLRP3, caspase-1, GSDMD-N, and interleukin-1β) were significantly upregulated in the hippocampus. These molecules were also significantly enhanced by AFB1 in primary microglial cultures. AFB1-treated mice showed decrease in the numbers of BrdU⁺, BrdU-DCX⁺, and BrdU-NeuN⁺ cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, as well as the percentages of BrdU⁺ cells that were NeuN⁺ in the presence or absence of CMS when compared with vehicle-treated mice. The combination of AFB1 and CMS exacerbated these effects to an even greater extent. The number of DCX⁺ cells correlated negatively with the percentage of ameboid microglia, TUNEL⁺ microglia and GSDMD⁺ microglia in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. AFB1-treated microglia suppressed the proliferation and neuronal differentiation of NSPCs in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Chronic AFB1 exposure induces microglial pyroptosis, promoting an adverse neurogenic microenvironment that impairs hippocampal neurogenesis, which may render mice more vulnerable to stress.

Blunting ROS/TRPML1 pathway protects AFB1-induced porcine intestinal epithelial cells apoptosis by restoring impaired autophagic flux

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a stable mycotoxin that contaminates animal feed on a large scale and causes severe damage to intestinal cells, induces inflammation and stimulates autophagy. Transient receptor potential mucolipin subfamily 1 (TRPML1) is a regulatory factor of autophagy, but the underlying mechanisms of TRPML1-mediated autophagy in AFB1 intestine toxicity remain elucidated. In the present study, AFB1 (0, 5, 10 μg/mL) was shown to reduce cell viability, increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and apoptosis rate. Additionally, AFB1 caused structural damage to mitochondria and lysosomes and increased autophagosomes numbers. Furthermore, AFB1 promoted Ca²⁺ release by activating the TRPML1 channel, stimulated the expression of autophagy-related proteins, and induced autophagic flux blockade. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of autophagosome formation by 3-methyladenine attenuated AFB1-induced apoptosis by downregulating the levels of TRPML1 and ROS, whereas blockade of autophagosome-lysosomal fusion by chloroquine alleviated AFB1-induced apoptosis by upregulating TRPML1 expression and exacerbating ROS accumulation. Intriguingly, blocking AFB1-induced autophagic flux generated ROS- and TRPML1-dependent cell death, as shown by the decreased apoptosis in the presence the free radical scavenger N-Acetyl-L-cysteine and the TRPML1 inhibitor ML-SI1. Overall, these results showed that AFB1 promoted apoptosis of IPEC-J2 cells by disrupting autophagic flux through activation of the ROS/TRPML1 pathway.

Oxamyl exerts developmental toxic effects in zebrafish by disrupting the mitochondrial electron transport chain and modulating PI3K/Akt and p38 Mapk signaling

Oxamyl, a carbamate insecticide, is mainly used to control nematodes in the agricultural field. Although oxamyl is a widely used insecticide that is associated with ecological concerns, limited studies have examined the toxic effects of oxamyl on the developmental stage and the underlying mechanisms. In this study, the developmental toxicity of oxamyl was demonstrated using zebrafish, which is a representative model as it is associated with rapid embryogenesis and a toxic response similar to that of other vertebrates. The morphological alteration of zebrafish larvae was analyzed to confirm the sub-lethal toxicity of oxamyl. Analysis of transgenic zebrafish (olig2:dsRED and flk1:eGFP line) and mRNA levels of genes associated with individual organ development revealed that oxamyl exerted toxic effects on the development of neuron, notochord, and vascular system. Next, the adverse effect of oxamyl on the mitochondrial electron transport chain was examined. Treatment with oxamyl altered the PI3K/Akt signaling and p38 Mapk signaling pathways in zebrafish. Thus, this study elucidated the mechanisms underlying the developmental toxicity of oxamyl and provided information on the parameters to assess the developmental toxicity of other environmental contaminants.

Developmental toxicity of prometryn induces mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and failure of organogenesis in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Prometryn, 2-methylthio-4,6-bis(isopropylamino)-1,3,5-triazine, is a selective thiomethyl triazine herbicide widely used to control unwanted weeds and harmful insects by inhibiting electron transport in target organisms. Despite having various advantages, herbicides pose as a major threat to the environment and human health due to persistent contamination, bioaccumulation, and damage to non-target organisms. In this study, the developmental toxicity of 5, 10, and 20 mg/L prometryn in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos was evaluated and compared to that of the solvent control for 96 h. Several transgenic zebrafish models (fli1a:eGFP, flk1:eGFP, olig2:dsRed and L-fabp:dsRed) were visually assessed to detect fluorescently tagged genes. Results showed that prometryn shortened body length, and induced yolk sac, heart edema, abnormal heart rate, and loss of viability. Fluorescence microscopy revealed that prometryn exposure caused defects in organ development, reactive oxygen species accumulation, and apoptotic cell death. Mitochondrial bioenergetics were also evaluated to determine the effect of prometryn on the electron transport chain activity and metabolic alterations. Prometryn was found to interfere with mitochondrial function, ultimately inhibiting energy metabolism and embryonic development. Collectively, our findings suggest that prometryn is a potential contaminate for non-target sites and organisms, especially aquatic, and emphasize the need to consider the toxic effects of prometryn.

Ochratoxin A induces locomotor impairment and oxidative imbalance in adult zebrafish

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by species of filamentous fungi widely found as a contaminant in food and with high toxic potential. Studies have shown that this toxin causes kidney and liver damage; however, data on the central nervous system effects of exposure to OTA are still scarce. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effects of exposure to OTA on behavioral and neurochemical parameters in adult zebrafish. The animals were treated with different doses of OTA (1.38, 2.77, and 5.53 mg/kg) with intraperitoneal injections and submitted to behavioral evaluations in the open tank and social interaction tests. Subsequently, they were euthanized, and the brains were used to assess markers associated with oxidative status. In the open tank test, OTA altered distance traveled, absolute turn angle, mean speed, and freezing time. However, no significant effects were observed in the social interaction test. Moreover, OTA also increased glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and glutathione reductase (GR) levels and decreased non-protein thiols (NPSH) levels in the zebrafish brain. This study showed that OTA can affect behavior and neurochemical levels in zebrafish.

Aflatoxin G1 exposure altered the expression of BDNF and GFAP, histopathological of brain tissue, and oxidative stress factors in male rats

Background and purpose

Aflatoxins are highly toxic compounds that can cause acute and chronic toxicity in humans and animals. This study aimed to evaluate the expression of BDNF and GFAP, histopathological changes, and oxidative stress factors in brain tissue exposed to aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) in male rats.

Experimental approach

Twenty-eight male Wistar rats were used. Animals were randomly divided into 4 groups of 7 each. The control group received 0.2 mL of corn oil and the treatment groups were exposed to AFG1 (2 mg/kg) intra-peritoneally for 15, 28, and 45 days. The tissue was used for histopathological studies, and the level of TAC, SOD, and MDA, and the expression of BDNF and GFAP genes were evaluated.

Findings/Results

Real-time PCR results showed that AFG1 increased GFAP expression and decreased BDNF expression in AFG1-treated groups compared to the control group. The tissue level of TAC and SOD over time in the groups receiving AFG1 significantly decreased and the tissue level of MDA increased compared to the control group. Histopathological results showed that AFG1 can cause cell necrosis, a reduction of the normal cells number in the hippocampal region of CA1, cerebral edema, shrinkage of nerve cells, formation of space around neuroglia, and diffusion of gliosis in the cerebral cortex after 45 days.

Conclusion and implication

AFG1, by causing pathological complications in cortical tissue, was able to affect the exacerbation of nerve tissue damage and thus pave the way for future neurological diseases.

May phytophenolics alleviate aflatoxins-induced health challenges? A holistic insight on current landscape and future prospects

The future GCC-connected environmental risk factors expedited the progression of nCDs. Indeed, the emergence of AFs is becoming a global food security concern. AFs are lethal carcinogenic mycotoxins, causing damage to the liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal organs. Long-term exposure to AFs leads to liver cancer. Almost a variety of food commodities, crops, spices, herbaceous materials, nuts, and processed foods can be contaminated with AFs. In this regard, the primary sections of this review aim to cover influencing factors in the occurrence of AFs, the role of AFs in progression of nCDs, links between GCC/nCDs and exposure to AFs, frequency of AFs-based academic investigations, and world distribution of AFs. Next, the current trends in the application of PPs to alleviate AFs toxicity are discussed. Nearly, more than 20,000 published records indexed in scientific databases have been screened to find recent trends on AFs and application of PPs in AFs therapy. Accordingly, shifts in world climate, improper infrastructures for production/storage of food commodities, inconsistency of global polices on AFs permissible concentration in food/feed, and lack of the public awareness are accounting for a considerable proportion of AFs damages. AFs exhibited their toxic effects by triggering the progression of inflammation and oxidative/nitrosative stress, in turn, leading to the onset of nCDs. PPs could decrease AFs-associated oxidative stress, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects by improving cellular antioxidant balance, regulation of signaling pathways, alleviating inflammatory responses, and modification of gene expression profile in a dose/time-reliant fashion. The administration of PPs alone displayed lower biological properties compared to co-treatment of these metabolites with AFs. This issue might highlight the therapeutic application of PPs than their preventative content. Flavonoids such as quercetin and oxidized tea phenolics, curcumin and resveratrol were the most studied anti-AFs PPs. Our literature review clearly disclosed that considering PPs in antioxidant therapies to alleviate complications of AFs requires improvement in their bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, tissue clearance, and off-target mode of action. Due to the emergencies in the elimination of AFs in food/feedstuffs, further large-scale clinical assessment of PPs to decrease the consequences of AFs is highly required.

Research progress in toxicological effects and mechanism of aflatoxin B1 toxin

Fungal contamination of animal feed can severely affect the health of farm animals, and result in considerable economic losses. Certain filamentous fungi or molds produce toxic secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins, of which aflatoxins (AFTs) are considered the most critical dietary risk factor for both humans and animals. AFTs are ubiquitous in the environment, soil, and food crops, and aflatoxin B₁(AFB₁) has been identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the most potent natural group 1A carcinogen. We reviewed the literature on the toxic effects of AFB₁ in humans and animals along with its toxicokinetic properties. The damage induced by AFB₁ in cells and tissues is mainly achieved through cell cycle arrest and inhibition of cell proliferation, and the induction of apoptosis, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and autophagy. In addition, numerous coding genes and non-coding RNAs have been identified that regulate AFB₁ toxicity. This review is a summary of the current research on the complexity of AFB₁ toxicity, and provides insights into the molecular mechanisms as well as the phenotypic characteristics.

Impact of Mycotoxin Contaminations on Aquatic Organisms: Toxic Effect of Aflatoxin B1 and Fumonisin B1 Mixture

(1) Background: Multiple contaminations of several mycotoxins have been detected in human and veterinary food and feed worldwide. To date, a number of studies on the combined effects of mycotoxins have been conducted on cell and animal models, but very limited studies have been done on aquatic organisms. (2) The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the combined toxic effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and Fumonisin B1 (FB1) on zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. (3) Results: Our results showed that the combination of AFB1 and FB1 at nontoxic concentrations exerted a negative effect on the lethal endpoints analyzed, such as survival, hatching, and heart rate. In addition, the mixture of mycotoxins caused an increase in the levels of enzymes and proteins involved in the antioxidant process, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), both in terms of protein levels and gene expression, as well as an increase in the levels of the detoxification enzymes glutathione s-transferases (GST) and cytochromes P450 (CYP450). Furthermore, we showed that the mycotoxin mixture induced an increase in pro-apoptotic proteins such as bax and caspase 3, and at the same time reduced the gene expression of the anti-apoptotic bcl-2 protein. Finally, a significant decrease in thyroid function was observed in terms of triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), and vitellogenin (VTG) levels. (4) Conclusion: We can say that the mixture of mycotoxins carries a greater risk factor than individual presences. There is a greater need for effective detoxification methods to control and reduce the toxicity of multiple mycotoxins and reduce the toxicity of multiple mycotoxins in feed and throughout the food chain.

Effect of Probiotic Fungi against Cognitive Impairment in Mice via Regulation of the Fungal Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis

The fungal microbiota may be involved in the regulation of cognition and behavior, while the role of probiotic fungi against cognitive impairment is unclear. Here, we explored the idea that probiotic Saccharomyces boulardii could participate in the regulation of microglia-induced neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease (AD) model mice. Cognitive deficits, deposits of amyloid-β (Aβ) and phosphorylation of tau, synaptic plasticity, microglia activation, and neuroinflammatory reactions were observed. The expression levels of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) pathway-related proteins were detected. Meanwhile, intestinal barrier integrity and fungal microbiota composition were evaluated. Our results showed fungal microbiota dysbiosis in APP/PS1 mice, which might result in the neuroinflammation of AD. The increased levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and cluster of differentiation 11b (CD11b) were observed in APP/PS1 mice, which were associated with activation of microglia, indicative of a broader recognition of neuroinflammation mediated by fungal microbiota compared to hitherto appreciated. Probiotic S. boulardii treatment improved dysbiosis, alleviated the neuroinflammation as well as synaptic injury, and ultimately improved cognitive impairment. Moreover, S. boulardii therapy could inhibit microglia activation and the TLRs pathway, which were reversed by antifungal treatment. These findings revealed that S. boulardii actively participated in regulating the TLRs pathway to inhibit the neuroinflammation via the gut-brain axis.

Gasdermin D-mediated microglial pyroptosis exacerbates neurotoxicity of aflatoxins B1 and M1 in mouse primary microglia and neuronal cultures

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) disrupts the blood-brain barrier by poisoning the vascular endothelial cells and astrocytes that maintain it. It is important to examine whether aflatoxin B1 or its metabolite, aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), affect microglia, which as the "immune cells" in the brain may amplify their damaging effects. Here we evaluated the toxicity of AFB1 and AFM1 against primary microglia and found that both aflatoxins decreased the viability of primary microglia and increased the leakage of lactate dehydrogenase, gamma-H2AX expression, nuclear lysis, necrosis and apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. The potential contribution of microglia to the toxic effects of aflatoxins was assessed in transwell co-culture experiments involving microglia, neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes or neural stem/precursor cells. And we found that the toxic effects of both aflatoxins on various types of nervous system cells were greater in the presence of microglia than in their absence. We also found that both aflatoxins induced gasdermin D-mediated microglial pyroptosis and inflammatory cytokine expression by activating the NLRP3 inflammasome. Blockade of gasdermin D activity in AFB1- or AFM1-treated primary microglia using dimethyl fumarate (DMF) reduced the release of IL-1β, IL-18 and nitric oxide, as well as the neurotoxicity of microglia-conditioned medium to neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and neural stem/precursor cells. These data suggested that the toxicity of AFB1 and AFM1 on various cells of the central nervous system is due, remarkably, the gasdermin D-mediated microglial pyroptosis exacerbates their neurotoxicity.

Mitochondrial calcium uniporter involved in foodborne mycotoxin-induced hepatotoxicity

Foodborne mycotoxins are toxic metabolites that are produced by fungi. The widespread contamination of food and its by-products by mycotoxins is a global food safety problem that potentially threatens public health and other exposed animals. Most foodborne mycotoxins induce hepatotoxicity. However, only few studies have investigated the regulatory mechanisms of mitochondrial calcium transport monomers in mycotoxin-induced hepatotoxicity. Therefore, according to relevant studies and reports, this review suggests that intracellular Ca(2 +) homeostasis and mitochondrial Ca(2 +) uniporter are involved in the regulation of mycotoxin-induced hepatotoxicity. This review provides some ideas for future research involving mitochondrial Ca(2 +) uniporter in the molecular targets of mycotoxin-induced hepatotoxicity, as well as a reference for the research and development of related drugs and the treatment of related diseases.

Pumpkin extract and fermented whey individually and in combination alleviated AFB1- and OTA-induced alterations on neuronal differentiation invitro

Food and feed are daily exposed to mycotoxin contamination which effects may be counteracted by functional compounds like carotenoids and fermented whey. Among mycotoxins, the most toxic and studied are aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA), which neurotoxicity is not well reported. Therefore, SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells ongoing differentiation were exposed during 7 days to digested bread extracts contained pumpkin and fermented whey, individually and in combination, along with AFB1 and OTA and their combination, in order to evaluate their presumed effects on neuronal differentiation. The immunofluorescence analysis of βIII-tubulin and dopamine markers pointed to OTA as the most damaging treatment for cell differentiation. Cell cycle analysis reported the highest significant differences for OTA-contained bread compared to the control in phase G₀/G₁. Lastly, RNA extraction was performed and gene expression was analyzed by qPCR. The selected genes were related to neuronal differentiation and cell cycle. The addition of functional ingredients in breads not only enhancing the expression of neuronal markers, but also induced an overall improvement of gene expression compromised by mycotoxins activity. These data confirm that in vitro neuronal differentiation may be impaired by AFB1 and OTA-exposure, which could be modulated by bioactive compounds naturally found in diet.

Application and advantages of zebrafish model in the study of neurovascular unit

The concept of "Neurovascular Unit" (NVU) was put forward, so that the research goal of Central Nervous System (CNS) diseases gradually transitioned from a single neuron to the structural and functional integrity of the NVU. Zebrafish has the advantages of high homology with human genes, strong reproductive capacity and visualization of neural circuits, so it has become an emerging model organism for NVU research and has been applied to a variety of CNS diseases. Based on CNKI (https://www.cnki.net/) and PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/about/) databases, the author of this article sorted out the relevant literature, analyzed the construction of a zebrafish model of various CNS diseases，and the use of diagrams showed the application of zebrafish in the NVU, revealed its relationship, which would provide new methods and references for the treatment and research of CNS diseases.

Food-Origin Mycotoxin-Induced Neurotoxicity: Intend to Break the Rules of Neuroglia Cells

Mycotoxins are key risk factors in human food and animal feed. Most of food-origin mycotoxins could easily enter the organism and evoke systemic toxic effects, such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NPA). For the last decade, the researches have provided much evidences in vivo and in vitro that the brain is an important target organ on mycotoxin-mediated neurotoxic phenomenon and neurodegenerative diseases. As is known to all, glial cells are the best regulator and defender of neurons, and a few evaluations about the effects of mycotoxins on glial cells such as astrocytes or microglia have been conducted. The fact that mycotoxin contamination may be a key factor in neurotoxicity and glial dysfunction is exactly the reason why we reviewed the activation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial function changes of glial cells under mycotoxin infection and summarized the mycotoxin-mediated glial cell proliferation disorders, death pathways, and inflammatory responses. The purpose of this paper is to analyze various pathways in which common food-derived mycotoxins can induce glial toxicity and provide a novel perspective for future research on the neurodegenerative diseases.

Aflatoxin B1 Toxicity in Zebrafish Larva (Danio rerio): Protective Role of Hericium erinaceus

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a secondary metabolite produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus, has been found among various foods as well as in fish feed. However, the effects of AFB1 on fish development and its associated toxic mechanism are still unclear. In the present study, we confirmed the morphological alterations in zebrafish embryos and larvae after exposure to different AFB1 doses as well as the oxidative stress pathway that is involved. Furthermore, we evaluated the potentially protective effect of Hericium erinaceus extract, one of the most characterized fungal extracts, with a focus on the nervous system. Treating the embryos 6 h post fertilization (hpf) with AFB1 at 50 and 100 ng/mL significantly increased oxidative stress and induced malformations in six-day post-fertilization (dpf) zebrafish larvae. The evaluation of lethal and developmental endpoints such as hatching, edema, malformations, abnormal heart rate, and survival rate were evaluated after 96 h of exposure. Hericium inhibited the morphological alterations of the larvae as well as the increase in oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. In conclusion: our study suggests that a natural extract such as Hericium may play a partial role in promoting antioxidant defense systems and may contrast lipid peroxidation in fish development by counteracting the AFB1 toxicity mechanism.

Paraoxonase 2 deficiency in mice alters motor behavior and causes region-specific transcript changes in the brain

Paraoxonase 2 (PON2) is an intracellular antioxidant enzyme shown to play an important role in mitigating oxidative stress in the brain. Oxidative stress is a common mechanism of toxicity for neurotoxicants and is increasingly implicated in the etiology of multiple neurological diseases. While PON2 deficiency increases oxidative stress in the brain in-vitro, little is known about its effects on behavior in-vivo and what global transcript changes occur from PON2 deficiency. We sought to characterize the effects of PON2 deficiency on behavior in mice, with an emphasis on locomotion, and evaluate transcriptional changes with RNA-Seq. Behavioral endpoints included home-cage behavior (Noldus PhenoTyper), motor coordination (Rotarod) and various gait metrics (Noldus CatWalk). Home-cage behavior analysis showed PON2 deficient mice had increased activity at night compared to wildtype controls and spent more time in the center of the cage, displaying a possible anxiolytic phenotype. PON2 deficient mice had significantly shorter latency to fall when tested on the rotarod, suggesting impaired motor coordination. Minimal gait alterations were observed, with decreased girdle support posture noted as the only significant change in gait with PON2 deficiency. Beyond one home-cage metric, no significant sex-based behavioral differences were found in this study. Finally, A subset of samples were utilized for RNA-Seq analysis, looking at three discrete brain regions: cerebral cortex, striatum, and cerebellum. Highly regional- and sex-specific changes in RNA expression were found when comparing PON2 deficient and wildtype mice, suggesting PON2 may play distinct regional roles in the brain in a sex-specific manner. Taken together, these findings demonstrates that PON2 deficiency significantly alters the brain on both a biochemical and phenotypic level, with a specific impact on motor function. These data have implications for future gene-environment toxicological studies and warrants further investigation of the role of PON2 in the brain.

The role of mycotoxins in neurodegenerative diseases: current state of the art and future perspectives of research

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites that can cause various diseases in humans and animals. The adverse health effects of mycotoxins such as liver failure, immune deficiency, and cancer are well-described. However, growing evidence suggests an additional link between these fungal metabolites and neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the wealth of these initial reports, reliable conclusions are still constrained by limited access to human patients and availability of suitable cell or animal model systems. This review summarizes knowledge on mycotoxins associated with neurodegenerative diseases and the assumed underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. The limitations of the common in vivo and in vitro experiments to identify the role of mycotoxins in neurotoxicity and thereby in neurodegenerative diseases are elucidated and possible future perspectives to further evolve this research field are presented.

Cytotoxicity of Mycotoxins Frequently Present in Aquafeeds to the Fish Cell Line RTGill-W1

In the last decades, the aquaculture industry has introduced plant-based ingredients as a source of protein in aquafeeds. This has led to mycotoxin contaminations, representing an ecological, health and economic problem. The aim of this study was to determine in the RTgill-W1 fish cell line the toxicity of fifteen mycotoxins of common occurrence in aquafeeds. To identify the most sensitive endpoint of toxicity, the triple assay was used. It consisted of three assays: alamarBlue, Neutral Red Uptake and CFDA-AM, which revealed the mitochondrial activity, the lysosomal integrity and the plasma membrane integrity, respectively. Most of the assayed mycotoxins were toxic predominantly at lysosomal level (enniatins, beauvericin, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated metabolites 15-O-acetyl-DON and 3-acetyl-DON). Aflatoxins B1 and B2 exerted the greatest effects at mitochondrial level, while fumonisins B1 and B2 and nivalenol were not toxic up to 100 µg/mL. In general, low toxicity was observed at plasma membrane level. The vast majority of the mycotoxins assayed exerted a pronounced acute effect in the fish RTgill-W1 cell line, emphasizing the need for further studies to ascertain the impact of mycotoxin contamination of fish feeds in the aquaculture industry and to establish safe limits in aquafeeds.

Embryonic exposure to low concentrations of aflatoxin B1 triggers global transcriptomic changes, defective yolk lipid mobilization, abnormal gastrointestinal tract development and inflammation in zebrafish

Aflatoxin B1-contaminated feeds and foods induce various health problems in domesticated animals and humans, including tumor development and hepatotoxicity. Aflatoxin B1 also has embryotoxic effects in different livestock species and humans. However, it is difficult to distinguish between the indirect, maternally-mediated toxic effects and the direct embryotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 in mammals. In the present study, we investigated the aflatoxin B1-induced direct embryotoxic effects in a zebrafish embryo model system combining toxicological, transcriptomic, immunological, and biochemical approaches. Embryonic exposure to aflatoxin B1 induced significant changes at the transcriptome level resulting in elevated expression of inflammatory gene network and repression of lipid metabolism and gastrointestinal tract development-related gene sets. According to the gene expression changes, massive neutrophil granulocyte influx, elevated nitric oxide production, and yolk lipid accumulation were observed in the abdominal region of aflatoxin B1-exposed larvae. In parallel, aflatoxin B1-induced defective gastrointestinal tract development and reduced L-arginine level were found in our model system. Our results revealed the complex direct embryotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1, including inhibited lipid utilization, defective intestinal development, and inflammation.

Using Zebrafish to Elucidate Glial-Vascular Interactions During CNS Development

An emerging area of interest in Neuroscience is the cellular relationship between glia and blood vessels, as many of the presumptive support roles of glia require an association with the vasculature. These interactions are best studied in vivo and great strides have been made using mice to longitudinally image glial-vascular interactions. However, these methods are cumbersome for developmental studies, which could benefit from a more accessible system. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are genetically tractable vertebrates, and given their translucency, are readily amenable for daily live imaging studies. We set out to examine whether zebrafish glia have conserved traits with mammalian glia regarding their ability to interact with and maintain the developing brain vasculature. We utilized transgenic zebrafish strains in which oligodendrocyte transcription factor 2 (olig2) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (gfap) identify different glial populations in the zebrafish brain and document their corresponding relationship with brain blood vessels. Our results demonstrate that olig2+ and gfap+ zebrafish glia have distinct lineages and each interact with brain vessels as previously observed in mouse brain. Additionally, we manipulated these relationships through pharmacological and genetic approaches to distinguish the roles of these cell types during blood vessel development. olig2+ glia use blood vessels as a pathway during their migration and Wnt signaling inhibition decreases their single-cell vessel co-option. By contrast, the ablation of gfap+ glia at the beginning of CNS angiogenesis impairs vessel development through a reduction in Vascular endothelial growth factor (Vegf), supporting a role for gfap+ glia during new brain vessel formation in zebrafish. This data suggests that zebrafish glia, akin to mammalian glia, have different lineages that show diverse interactions with blood vessels, and are a suitable model for elucidating glial-vascular relationships during vertebrate brain development.

Aflatoxins: History, Significant Milestones, Recent Data on Their Toxicity and Ways to Mitigation

In the early 1960s the discovery of aflatoxins began when a total of 100,000 turkey poults died by hitherto unknown turkey "X" disease in England. The disease was associated with Brazilian groundnut meal affected by Aspergillus flavus. The toxin was named Aspergillus flavus toxin-aflatoxin. From the point of view of agriculture, aflatoxins show the utmost importance. Until now, a total of 20 aflatoxins have been described, with B1, B2, G1, and G2 aflatoxins being the most significant. Contamination by aflatoxins is a global health problem. Aflatoxins pose acutely toxic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive, carcinogenic, and teratogenic effects. Besides food insecurity and human health, aflatoxins affect humanity at different levels, such as social, economical, and political. Great emphasis is placed on aflatoxin mitigation using biocontrol methods. Thus, this review is focused on aflatoxins in terms of historical development, the principal milestones of aflatoxin research, and recent data on their toxicity and different ways of mitigation.

A data-driven integrative platform for computational prediction of toxin biotransformation with a case study

Recently, biogenic toxins have received increasing attention owing to their high contamination levels in feed and food as well as in the environment. However, there is a lack of an integrative platform for seamless linking of data-driven computational methods with 'wet' experimental validations. To this end, we constructed a novel platform that integrates the technical aspects of toxin biotransformation methods. First, a biogenic toxin database termed ToxinDB (http://www.rxnfinder.org/toxindb/), containing multifaceted data on more than 4836 toxins, was built. Next, more than 8000 biotransformation reaction rules were extracted from over 300,000 biochemical reactions extracted from ~580,000 literature reports curated by more than 100 people over the past decade. Based on these reaction rules, a toxin biotransformation prediction model was constructed. Finally, the global chemical space of biogenic toxins was constructed, comprising ~550,000 toxins and putative toxin metabolites, of which 94.7% of the metabolites have not been previously reported. Additionally, we performed a case study to investigate citrinin metabolism in Trichoderma, and a novel metabolite was identified with the assistance of the biotransformation prediction tool of ToxinDB. This unique integrative platform will assist exploration of the 'dark matter' of a toxin's metabolome and promote the discovery of detoxification enzymes.

Flufenoxuron suppresses the proliferation of testicular cells by targeting mitochondria in mice

Flufenoxuron is a benzoylurea pesticide that is used to eradicate insects and acarids in the farmland. Even though it specifically works on target animals, the possibilities of its bioaccumulation and harmful effects on non-target animals cannot be denied. As the usage and application of pesticides increases, exposure to them also increases through ingestion of food residues, inhalation, or dermal contact. Pesticides could also be considered as endocrine disruptor chemicals; however, the reproductive toxicity and cellular mechanisms of flufenoxuron have not been identified. Our results indicate that flufenoxuron inhibits cellular proliferation and hampers calcium homeostasis, especially by targeting mitochondria. We also confirmed the induction of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and ER-mitochondrial contact signaling. Using pharmacological inhibitors, we also observed that the mitogen-activated protein kinase and Akt signaling pathways were upregulated by flufenoxuron. Further, by oral administration of flufenoxuron (100 mg/kg/bw) to C57BL/6 male mice, we observed transcriptional changes in the testis-related genes. Collectively, we demonstrated that flufenoxuron inhibits cell proliferation and alters gene expression in mouse testis cells and induces testicular dysfunction in mice. These results indicate that flufenoxuron may be harmful to male reproduction and fertility in the early stages of pregnancy.

Fabrication of volatile compounds loaded-chitosan biopolymer nanoparticles: Optimization, characterization and assessment against Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B1 contamination

The study demonstrates the use of chitosan as a carrier agent of designed antifungal formulation (CME 4:1:1) based on a combination of plant compounds such as trans- cinnamaldehyde (C), methyl eugenol (M), and estragole (E). The formulation was encapsulated inside the chitosan biopolymer nanomatrix (Ne-CME) and characterized by SEM, FTIR, and XRD. The Ne-CME exhibited enhanced antifungal and aflatoxin B₁ inhibitory effect compared to the individual compounds and unencapsulated form. Ne-CME (0.04 μl/ml) caused significant protection of Piper longum fruit from fungal (90.05%) and aflatoxin B₁ (100%) contamination and had no significant negative effects on its nutritional properties. In addition, the probable antifungal mechanism of Ne-CME was investigated using in-silico (effect on Omt-1 and Vbs structural genes of AFB₁ biosynthesis) and biochemical (perturbances in the cell membrane, carbohydrate catabolism, methyl-glyoxal, mitochondrial membrane potential, and antioxidant defense system) assay.

Astrogliosis in an Experimental Model of Hypovitaminosis B12: A Cellular Basis of Neurological Disorders due to Cobalamin Deficiency

Cobalamin deficiency affects human physiology with sequelae ranging from mild fatigue to severe neuropsychiatric abnormalities. The cellular and molecular aspects of the nervous system disorders associated with hypovitaminosis B12 remain largely unknown. Growing evidence indicates that astrogliosis is an underlying component of a wide range of neuropathologies. Previously, we developed an in vitro model of cobalamin deficiency in normal human astrocytes (NHA) by culturing the cells with c-lactam of hydroxycobalamin (c-lactam OH-Cbl). We revealed a non-apoptotic activation of caspases (3/7, 8, 9) in cobalamin-deficient NHA, which may suggest astrogliosis. The aim of the current study was to experimentally verify this hypothesis. We indicated an increase in the cellular expression of two astrogliosis markers: glial fibrillary acidic protein and vimentin in cobalamin-deficient NHA using Western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry with confocal laser scanning microscopy. In the next step of the study, we revealed c-lactam OH-Cbl as a potential non-toxic vitamin B12 antagonist in an in vivo model using zebrafish embryos. We believe that the presented results will contribute to a better understanding of the cellular mechanism underlying neurologic pathology due to cobalamin deficiency and will serve as a foundation for further studies.

Aflatoxin B1 induces reactive oxygen species-dependent caspase-mediated apoptosis in normal human cells, inhibits Allium cepa root cell division, and triggers inflammatory response in zebrafish larvae

Mycotoxin contamination of food and water is a serious global concern. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a deadly mycotoxin that contaminates both food and water bodies in the environment. AFB1 is reported to cause severe health issues, including hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, and immunotoxicity in humans; however, the mechanistic effects on plant and aquatic animals are not fully understood. To obtain a clear understanding of the effects of AFB1 on the ecosystem, we examined the influence of AFB1 exposure on different model systems corresponding to various habitats. In the current study, AFB1 contamination consequences were studied on a human normal cell lines (HaCaT, CCD 841 CoN), meristematic Allium cepa (onion) root cells, and zebrafish embryonic development. Our results clearly indicate that concentrations of AFB1 >10 μM are toxic to HaCaT cells. Morphological changes of HaCaT and CCD 841 CoN cells were clearly observed after exposure to AFB1. Particularly in HaCaT cells, treatment with 50 μM and 100 μM AFB1induces oxidative stress by excessive endogenous free-radical production such as ROS and NO generation. These consequences accelerate the ROS-dependent DNA damage events, which subsequently result in caspase mediated programmed cell death. Exposure of A. cepa root cells to AFB1 for 24 h resulted in abnormal cell division. A. cepa root cells subjected to AFB1 treatment showed a significant concentration-dependent increase in metaphase arrest. Exposure of zebrafish embryos to AFB1 also revealed that AFB1 contamination restricts the larval growth and development, resulting in a remarkably increased zebrafish mortality rate. Collectively, results of the current study indicate that AFB1 contamination triggers the programmed cell death machinery, subsequently affecting the ecosystem.