Definition and risk factors for chronicity following acute idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury

Artificial Intelligence: An Emerging Tool for Studying Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a complex and potentially severe adverse reaction to drugs, herbal products or dietary supplements. DILI can mimic other liver diseases clinical presentation, and currently lacks specific diagnostic biomarkers, which hinders its diagnosis. In some cases, DILI may progress to acute liver failure. Given its public health risk, novel methodologies to enhance the understanding of DILI are crucial. Recently, the increasing availability of larger datasets has highlighted artificial intelligence (AI) as a powerful tool to construct complex models. In this review, we summarise the evidence about the use of AI in DILI research, explaining fundamental AI concepts and its subfields. We present findings from AI-based approaches in DILI investigations for risk stratification, prognostic evaluation and causality assessment and discuss the adoption of natural language processing (NLP) and large language models (LLM) in the clinical setting. Finally, we explore future perspectives and challenges in utilising AI for DILI research.

Drug-Induced Liver Injury in Patients With Chronic Liver Disease

OBJECTIVE

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a global problem and can develop from exposure to prescription or over-the-counter medications as well as herbal and dietary supplements. The diagnosis of DILI is clinically challenging, and liver injury can be severe leading to liver failure, death, or liver transplantation. Patients with underlying chronic liver diseases (CLD) may be at increased risk for DILI, which is associated with factors related to drug or liver disease.

METHODS

This review summarises current knowledge on the risk and outcomes of DILI in patients with CLD.

RESULTS

Patients with CLD may be at an increased risk for DILI. Additionally patients with underlying CLD are at risk for more severe liver injury and worse outcomes after DILI.

DISCUSSION

The risk for and poor outcomes from DILI are accentuated in patients with CLD and potentially leading to the worst-case scenario of acute-on-chronic liver failure. We highlight the key observations on DILI with a broad range of underlying liver diseases and the high-DILI risk agents implicated in those populations.

Aqueous extract of Enantia chlorantha Oliv. demonstrates antimalarial activity and improves redox imbalance and biochemical alterations in mice

BACKGROUND

Malaria is an infectious disease, which has continued to cause inconceivable loss of lives every year, almost unabatedly. Currently, it has become more difficult to treat the disease due to the emergence and spread of resistance to recommended antimalarial drugs. This situation necessitates an urgent search for antimalarial compounds with unique modes of action. Here, we investigate the antimalarial activity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity of Enantia chlorantha aqueous stem bark extract (EcASBE) in vivo.

METHODS

The extract was screened for selected phytoconstituents including alkaloids and flavonoids. We evaluated the antimalarial activity of EcASBE against Plasmodium berghei NK65 infection in mice, using curative, prophylactic, and suppressive antimalarial test models, respectively. In addition, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of the extract were assessed.

RESULTS

The EcASBE significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited parasitaemia dose-dependently, with the highest inhibition (80.4%) and prolonged survival (MST = 20) observed in the curative test. Our findings reveal significant (p < 0.05) improvement of serum ALT, AST, ALP, GGT, and levels of TNF-α, creatinine and urea following extract administration. Furthermore, the extract led to a significant (p < 0.05) rise in the levels of CAT, SOD, GPx, and GSH, with a concomitant reduction in NO and MDA levels.

CONCLUSION

The antimalarial, antioxidative, antiperoxidative, and inflammatory-inhibiting properties of the plant in infected mice demonstrate its great value for therapeutic intervention, and substantiate its use in traditional medicine for malaria treatment. Hence, further investigation to identify the repertoire of the active antimalarial components is warranted.

Analysis of Immunometabolic Profiles in Patients With Chronic Drug-Induced Liver Injury and Validation in Mice to Reveal Potential Mechanisms

BACKGROUND

The mechanism underlying chronic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) remains unclear. Immune activation is a common feature of DILI progression and is closely associated with metabolism. We explored the immunometabolic profile of chronic DILI and the potential mechanism of chronic DILI progression.

METHODS

Plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with chronic DILI were analyzed using multiplex immunoassays and untargeted metabolomics to reveal their immunometabolic profile. The effects and potential mechanisms of chronic DILI-related metabolite on acute or chronic liver injury induced by LPS or CCl4 in mice were investigated.

RESULTS

Patients with chronic DILI exhibited elevated plasma IL-6, IL-12p70, IL-15 and reduced IL-10 levels. The percentage of IL-12+ monocytes was higher, while that of CD206+ monocytes, IL-10+ monocytes, Th2, Treg, and IL-10+ CD4+ T cells were lower in patients with chronic DILI compared to those with acute DILI. We identified the most significantly increased metabolite in patients with chronic DILI was cis-aconitic acid (CAA). Administration of CAA can attenuate liver injury in mice with acute liver injury induced by LPS or CCl4 and promote the spontaneous resolution of liver fibrosis in mice with chronic live injury induced by CCl4. The protective mechanism of CAA against liver injury is associated with the inhibition of hepatic macrophage infiltration and polarization, which is achieved by inhibiting the secretion of neutrophil-derived IL-33 and subsequent phosphorylation of GATA3.

CONCLUSIONS

CAA, which is elevated in patients with chronic DILI, protects against liver injury by inhibiting hepatic macrophage infiltration and polarization through the suppression of the IL-33/GATA3 pathway, suggesting that CAA may serve as a potential target for regulating tissue repair in liver injury.

Drug-induced Liver Injury in Latin America: 10-year Experience of the Latin American DILI (LATINDILI) Network

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Latin America is a region of great interest for studying the clinical presentation of idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (DILI). A comprehensive analysis of patients enrolled into the LATINDILI Network over a decade is presented.

METHODS

Demographics, clinical presentation, histological findings and outcome of prospectively recruited DILI cases in the LATINDILI Network were analyzed. Suspected culprit drugs were classified according to the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical classification. Causality was assessed using the Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method (RUCAM) scale.

RESULTS

Overall, 468 idiosyncratic DILI cases were analyzed (62% women; mean age, 49 years). Hepatocellular injury predominated (62%); jaundice was present in 60% of patients, and 42% were hospitalized. Of the cases, 4.1% had a fatal outcome, and 24 patients (12%) developed chronic DILI. The most common drug classes were systemic anti-infectives (31%), musculoskeletal agents (12%), antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents (11%), and herbal and dietary supplements (9%). Notably, none of the patients with DILI due to antibacterials or immunosuppressants had a fatal outcome. In fact, Hy's law showed to have drug-specific predictive value, with anti-tuberculosis drugs, nimesulide, and herbal and dietary supplements associated with the worst outcome, whereas DILI caused by amoxicillin-clavulanate, nitrofurantoin, and diclofenac, which fulfilled Hy's law, did not have a fatal outcome.

CONCLUSION

Features of DILI in Latin America are comparable to other prospective registries. However, the pattern of drugs responsible for DILI differs. An increasing incidence of herbal and dietary supplements, with high mortality rate, and likewise, nimesulide and nitrofurantoin, was noted. Thus, public health policies should raise awareness of the potential adverse effects of these compounds.

Epidemiology and Risk Determinants of Drug-Induced Liver Injury: Current Knowledge and Future Research Needs

AIMS

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a major global health concern resulting from adverse reactions to medications, supplements or herbal medicines. The relevance of DILI has grown with an aging population, the rising prevalence of chronic diseases and the increased use of biologics, including checkpoint inhibitors. This article aims to summarise current knowledge on DILI epidemiology and risk factors.

METHODS

This review critically appraises available evidence on DILI frequency, outcomes and risk determinants, focusing on drug properties and non-genetic host factors that may influence susceptibility.

RESULTS

DILI incidence varies across populations, with hospitalised patients experiencing notably higher rates than outpatients or the general population. Increased medication use, particularly among older adults and women, may partly explain age- and sex-based disparities in DILI incidence and reporting. Physiological changes associated with aging likely increase susceptibility to DILI in older adults, though further exposure-based studies are needed for definitive conclusions. Current evidence does not strongly support that women are inherently more susceptible to DILI than men; rather, susceptibility appears to depend on specific drugs. However, once DILI occurs, older age and female sex are associated with greater severity and poorer outcomes. Other less-studied host-related risk factors are also discussed based on available evidence.

CONCLUSIONS

This article summarises existing data on DILI frequency, outcomes, drug properties affecting hepatotoxicity and non-genetic host risk factors while identifying critical knowledge gaps. Addressing these gaps through future research could enhance understanding and support preventive measures.

Pirfenidone-induced liver injury, a case report of a rare idiosyncratic reaction

Nearly all medications carry the risk of drug-induced liver injury (DILI). Idiosyncratic reactions are rare and poorly predictable, and the mechanisms are not always well understood. Pirfenidone is an oral antifibrotic drug used to treat idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. While elevation of liver enzymes is a common adverse reaction during therapy, it rarely leads to discontinuation or reduction of the drug. Although isolated cases of liver damage or liver failure have been reported, they are infrequent. This report presents the case of a 70-year-old woman with known idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, depression, hypothyroidism, and hypercholesterolemia who presented at our emergency department with jaundice, anorexia, and asthenia. The patient's medication regimen included lamotrigine, simvastatin, levothyroxine, and pirfenidone, which had been introduced 6 months prior. Laboratory testing revealed elevated liver enzyme levels consistent with acute hepatocellular hepatitis. Following a medical workup, which included anamnesis, laboratory testing, iconographic investigations, and liver biopsy, we concluded that the patient had suffered from pirfenidone-induced liver injury. Pirfenidone was withdrawn, and liver tests gradually improved. The purpose of this clinical case report is to highlight this rare adverse reaction and to make clinicians aware of its assessment and management. In 2018, only one other case of severe liver failure leading to the death of the patient was reported. Early detection of potential DILI during the workup is crucial to discontinue the suspected medication promptly. Any drug-induced hepatitis must be reported for registration.

Coexistence of metabolic-associated fatty liver disease and autoimmune or toxic liver disease

Fatty liver disease (FLD) affects approximately 25% of global adult population. Metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) is a term used to emphasize components of metabolic syndrome in FLD. MAFLD does not exclude coexistence of other liver disease, but impact of coexisting MAFLD is unclear. We investigated prevalence and characteristics of MAFLD in patients with biopsy-proven autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), or toxic liver disease. Liver histopathology and clinical data from Helsinki University Hospital district (1.7 million inhabitants) between 2009 and 2019 were collected from patients with AIH, PBC, PSC, or toxic liver disease at the time of diagnosis. MAFLD was diagnosed as macrovesicular steatosis ≥5% together with obesity, type-2 diabetes, or signs of metabolic dysregulation. Of 648 patients included, steatosis was observed in 15.6% (n = 101), of which 94.1% (n = 95) was due to MAFLD. Prevalence of coexisting MAFLD in the four liver diseases varied between 12.4 and 18.2% (P = 0.483). Fibrosis was more severe in MAFLD among patients with toxic liver disease (P = 0.01). Histopathological characteristics otherwise showed similar distribution among MAFLD and non-FLD controls. Alcohol consumption was higher in MAFLD group among patients with AIH or PBC (P < 0.05 for both). In AIH, smoking was more common in patients with coexisting MAFLD (P = 0.034). Prevalence of coexisting MAFLD in other primary liver diseases is lower than reported in general population. Histopathology of MAFLD patients did not clearly differ from non-FLD ones. Alcohol and smoking were associated with MAFLD in AIH.

An optimized short-term steroid therapy for chronic drug-induced liver injury: A prospective randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The use of corticosteroids in chronic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is an important issue. Our previous randomized controlled trial showed that patients with chronic DILI benefited from a 48-week steroid stepwise reduction (SSR) regimen. However, it remains unclear whether a shorter course of therapy can achieve similar efficacy. In this study, we aimed to assess whether a 36-week SSR can achieve efficacy similar to that of 48-week SSR.

METHODS

A randomized open-label trial was performed. Eligible patients were randomly assigned to the 36- or 48-week (1:1) SSR group. Liver biopsies were performed at baseline and at the end of treatment. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients with relapse rate (RR). The secondary outcomes were improvement in liver histology and safety.

RESULTS

Of the 90 participants enrolled, 84 (87.5%) completed the trial, and 62 patients (68.9%) were women. Hepatocellular damage was observed in 53.4% of the cohort. The RR was 7.1% in the 36-week SSR group but 4.8% in the 48-week SSR group, as determined by per-protocol set analysis (p = 1.000). Significant histological improvements in histological activity (93.1% vs. 92.9%, p = 1.000) and fibrosis (41.4% vs. 46.4%, p = .701) were observed in both the groups. Biochemical normalization time did not differ between the two groups. No severe adverse events were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the 36- and 48-week SSR regimens demonstrated similar biochemical response and histological improvements with good safety, supporting 36-week SSR as a preferable therapeutic choice (ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03266146).

Novel clinical phenotypes, drug categorization, and outcome prediction in drug-induced cholestasis: Analysis of a database of 432 patients developed by literature review and machine learning support

BACKGROUND

Serum transaminases, alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin are common parameters used for DILI diagnosis, classification, and prognosis. However, the relevance of clinical examination, histopathology and drug chemical properties have not been fully investigated. As cholestasis is a frequent and complex DILI manifestation, our goal was to investigate the relevance of clinical features and drug properties to stratify drug-induced cholestasis (DIC) patients, and to develop a prognosis model to identify patients at risk and high-concern drugs.

METHODS

DIC-related articles were searched by keywords and Boolean operators in seven databases. Relevant articles were uploaded onto Sysrev, a machine-learning based platform for article review and data extraction. Demographic, clinical, biochemical, and liver histopathological data were collected. Drug properties were obtained from databases or QSAR modelling. Statistical analyses and logistic regressions were performed.

RESULTS

Data from 432 DIC patients associated with 52 drugs were collected. Fibrosis strongly associated with fatality, whereas canalicular paucity and ALP associated with chronicity. Drugs causing cholestasis clustered in three major groups. The pure cholestatic pattern divided into two subphenotypes with differences in prognosis, canalicular paucity, fibrosis, ALP and bilirubin. A predictive model of DIC outcome based on non-invasive parameters and drug properties was developed. Results demonstrate that physicochemical (pKa-a) and pharmacokinetic (bioavailability, CYP2C9) attributes impinged on the DIC phenotype and allowed the identification of high-concern drugs.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified novel associations among DIC manifestations and disclosed novel DIC subphenotypes with specific clinical and chemical traits. The developed predictive DIC outcome model could facilitate DIC prognosis in clinical practice and drug categorization.

Chinese guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of drug-induced liver injury: an update

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is an important adverse drug reaction that can lead to acute liver failure or even death in severe cases. Currently, the diagnosis of DILI still follows the strategy of exclusion. Therefore, a detailed history taking and a thorough and careful exclusion of other potential causes of liver injury is the key to correct diagnosis. This guideline was developed based on evidence-based medicine provided by the latest research advances and aims to provide professional guidance to clinicians on how to identify suspected DILI timely and standardize the diagnosis and management in clinical practice. Based on the clinical settings in China, the guideline also specifically focused on DILI in chronic liver disease, drug-induced viral hepatitis reactivation, common causing agents of DILI (herbal and dietary supplements, anti-tuberculosis drugs, and antineoplastic drugs), and signal of DILI in clinical trials and its assessment.

Roadmap to DILI research in Europe. A proposal from COST action ProEuroDILINet

In the current article the aims for a constructive way forward in Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) are to highlight the most important priorities in research and clinical science, therefore supporting a more informed, focused, and better funded future for European DILI research. This Roadmap aims to identify key challenges, define a shared vision across all stakeholders for the opportunities to overcome these challenges and propose a high-quality research program to achieve progress on the prediction, prevention, diagnosis and management of this condition and impact on healthcare practice in the field of DILI. This will involve 1. Creation of a database encompassing optimised case report form for prospectively identified DILI cases with well-characterised controls with competing diagnoses, biological samples, and imaging data; 2. Establishing of preclinical models to improve the assessment and prediction of hepatotoxicity in humans to guide future drug safety testing; 3. Emphasis on implementation science and 4. Enhanced collaboration between drug-developers, clinicians and regulatory scientists. This proposed operational framework will advance DILI research and may bring together basic, applied, translational and clinical research in DILI.

Prior drug allergies are associated with worse outcome in patients with idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury: A machine learning approach for risk stratification

The impact of prior drug allergies (PDA) on the clinical features and outcomes of patients who develop idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is largely unknown. We aimed to assess the clinical presentation and outcomes of DILI patients based on the presence or absence of PDA and explore the association between culprit drugs responsible for DILI and allergy. We analysed a well-vetted cohort of DILI cases enrolled from the Spanish DILI Registry. Bootstrap-enhanced least absolute shrinkage operator procedure was used in variable selection, and a multivariable logistic model was fitted to predict poor outcomes in DILI. Of 912 cases with a first episode of DILI, 61 (6.7%) had documented PDA. Patients with PDA were older (p = 0.009), had higher aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels (p = 0.047), lower platelet count (p = 0.011) and higher liver-related mortality than those without a history of drug allergies (11% vs. 1.6%, p < 0.001). Penicillin was the most common drug associated with PDA in DILI patients (32%). A model including PDA, nR-based type of liver injury, female sex, AST, total bilirubin, and platelet count showed an excellent performance in predicting poor outcome in patients from the Spanish DILI Registry (area under the ROC curve [AUC] 0.887; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.794 - 0.981) and the LATINDILI Network (AUC 0.932; 95% CI 0.884 - 0.981). Patients with suspected DILI should be screened for PDA as they would require a close monitoring for early detection of worsening clinical course.

Clinic-radiomics model using liver magnetic resonance imaging helps predict chronicity of drug-induced liver injury

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Some drug-induced liver injury (DILI) cases may become chronic, even after drug withdrawal. Radiomics can predict liver disease progression. We established and validated a predictive model incorporating the clinical characteristics and radiomics features for predicting chronic DILI.

METHODS

One hundred sixty-eight DILI patients who underwent liver gadolinium-diethylenetriamine pentaacetate-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging were recruited. The patients were clinically diagnosed using the Roussel Uclaf causality assessment method. Patients who progressed to chronicity or recovery were randomly divided into the training (70%) and validation (30%) cohorts, respectively. Hepatic T1-weighted images were segmented to extract 1672 radiomics features. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression was used for feature selection, and Rad-score was constructed using support vector machines. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to build a clinic-radiomics model incorporating clinical characteristics and Rad-scores. The clinic-radiomics model was evaluated for its discrimination, calibration, and clinical usefulness in the independent validation set.

RESULTS

Of 1672 radiomics features, 28 were selected to develop the Rad-score. Cholestatic/mixed patterns and Rad-score were independent risk factors of chronic DILI. The clinic-radiomics model, including the Rad-score and injury patterns, distinguished chronic from recovered DILI patients in the training (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUROC]: 0.89, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 0.87-0.92) and validation (AUROC: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.83-0.91) cohorts with good calibration and great clinical utility.

CONCLUSION

The clinic-radiomics model yielded sufficient accuracy for predicting chronic DILI, providing a practical and non-invasive tool for managing DILI patients.

The Evolving Profile of Idiosyncratic Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is an infrequent but important cause of liver disease. Newly identified causes of DILI include the COVID vaccines, turmeric, green tea extract, and immune checkpoint inhibitors. DILI is largely a clinical diagnosis of exclusion that requires evaluation for more common causes of liver injury and a compatible temporal association with the suspect drug. Recent progress in DILI causality assessment includes the development of the semi-automated revised electronic causality assessment method (RECAM) instrument. In addition, several drug-specific HLA associations have been identified that can help with the confirmation or exclusion of DILI in individual patients. Various prognostic models can help identify the 5%-10% of patients at highest risk of death. Following suspect drug cessation, 80% of patients with DILI fully recover, whereas 10%-15% have persistently abnormal laboratory studies at 6 months of follow-up. Hospitalized patients with DILI with an elevated international normalized ratio or mental status changes should be considered for N-acetylcysteine therapy and urgent liver transplant evaluation. Selected patients with moderate to severe drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms or autoimmune features on liver biopsy may benefit from short-term corticosteroids. However, prospective studies are needed to determine the optimal patients and dose and duration of steroids to use. LiverTox is a comprehensive, freely accessible Web site with important information regarding the hepatotoxicity profile of more than 1000 approved medications and 60 herbal and dietary supplement products. It is hoped that ongoing "omics" studies will lead to additional insight into DILI pathogenesis, improved diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, and mechanism-based treatments.

A nomogram model to predict the risk of drug-induced liver injury in patients receiving anti-tuberculosis treatment

Objectives: To establish an individualized nomogram to predict the probability of drug-induced liver injury (DILI) in tuberculosis patients receiving anti-tuberculosis treatment. Methods: The clinical information of patients admitted to a tertiary hospital between January 2010 and December 2022 was retrospectively reviewed from the clinical records. Patients with baseline liver diseases (hepatis B or C infection and fatty liver) or taking liver protective drugs were excluded. The maximum values in liver function test within 180 days after anti-tuberculosis treatment were collected to determine the occurrence of DILI. The candidate variables used for establishing prediction model in this study were the last results within the 30 days before the treatment onset. The final variables were included after univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses and applied to establish the nomogram model. The discrimination power and prediction accuracy of the prediction model were assessed using the area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUC) curve and a calibration chart. The clinical effectiveness was assessed via decision curve analysis (DCA). The established model was validated in two validation groups. Results: A total of 1979 patients with 25 variables were enrolled in this study, and the incidence of DILI was 4.2% (n = 83). The patients with complete variables were divided into training group (n = 1,121), validation group I (n = 492) and validation group II (n = 264). Five variables were independent factors for DILI and included in the final prediction model presented as nomogram: age (odds ratio [OR] 1.022, p = 0.023), total bilirubin ≥17.1 μmol/L (OR 11.714, p < 0.001), uric acid (OR 0.977, p = 0.047), neutrophil count (OR 2.145, 0.013) and alcohol consumption (OR 3.209, p = 0.002). The AUCs of the prediction model in the training group, validation group I and validation group II were 0.833, 0.668, and 0.753, respectively. The p-values of calibration charts in the three groups were 0.800, 0.996, and 0.853. The DCA curves of the prediction model were above the two extreme curves. Conclusion: The nomogram model in this study could effectively predict the DILI risk among patients under anti-tuberculosis drug treatment.

Increased TG to HDL-C ratio is associated with severity of drug-induced liver injury

We investigated the relationship between dyslipidemia and drug-induced liver injury (DILI), especially the level of triglyceride to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio (TG/HDL-C) in severe DILI. In this single-centered retrospective study, of 326 patients with DILI, 221 patients were analyzed. Control groups include medication using group and acute hepatitis B group. The relationship between dyslipidemia and DILI was estimated. Demographic and clinical features were analyzed. Dyslipidemia and TG/HDL-C ratios were compared between DILI and control groups, DILI mild group and severe group. The area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve (AUC) was used to evaluate the credibility of the relationship and to find cut-off points. Dyslipidemia is related to DILI when compared with medication using control group (AOR 4.60; 95% CI 2.81-7.54; P < 0.01) and compared with acute hepatitis B group (AOR 2.12; 95% CI 1.37-3.29; P < 0.01). Dyslipidemia is associated with the severity of DILI (AOR 25.78; 95% CI 7.63-87.1; P < 0.01). TG/HDL-C ratio is higher in DILI group than that of medication using control group, also higher in severe DILI group than that of mild DILI group. AUCs for TG/HDL-C ratio to indicate the severity of DILI was 0.89 (P < 0.05), the cut-off point was 2.35. Dyslipidemia and TG/HDL-C ratio were related to DILI occurrence. Severe liver injury in DILI was associated with dyslipidemia and elevated TG/HDL-C ratio.

Incidence, clinical features and risk factors of tacrolimus induced idiosyncratic liver injury in renal transplant recipients: A nested case-control study

Rare data reported tacrolimus-induced liver injury (tac-DILI) in real world. We performed a nested case-control analysis of 1,010 renal transplant recipients. Recipients with tac-DILI were randomly matched at a ratio of 1:4 by the year of admission to the remaining recipients without tac-DILI to explore risk factors. The incidence of tac-DILI was 8.9% (95% CI = 7.2–10.7%). The most common type was cholestatic pattern (6.7%, 95% CI = 5.2–8.3%), followed by hepatocellular (1.6%, 95% CI = 0.8–2.4%) and mixed patterns (0.6%, 95% CI = 0.1–1.1%). 98.9% of recipients with tac-DILI have mild severity. The latency period were 42.0 (range, 21.5–99.8 days), 14.0 (range, 9.0–80.3 days), 16.0 (range, 11.5–24.5 days), and 49.0 days (range, 28.0–105.6 days) for total, hepatocellular, mixed, and cholestatic patterns, respectively. Baseline ALP level (OR = 1.015, 95% CI = 1.006–1.025, p = 0.002), age (OR = 0.971, 95% CI = 0.949–0.994, p = 0.006), and body weight (OR = 0.960, 95% CI = 0.940–0.982, p &lt; 0.001) were independent risk factors. In conclusion, cholestatic pattern represents the most frequent type of tac-DILI. Young age, low body weight and abnormal baseline ALP level were risk factors.

Autoimmunity associates with severity of illness in elderly patients with drug-induced liver injury

Background: Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a potentially serious adverse drug reaction. Due to the lack of definite etiology, specific clinical manifestations, and diagnostic methods, its prediction and diagnosis are challenging. Elderly individuals are deemed to be at high risk for DILI due to abnormal pharmacokinetics, aging tissue repair function, comorbidities, and taking multiple drugs. This study aimed to identify the clinical characteristics and explore the risk factors associated with the severity of illness in elderly patients with DILI. Methods: In the present study, the clinical characteristics at the time of liver biopsy of consecutive patients with biopsy-proven DILI who presented at our hospital from June 2005 to September 2022 were evaluated. Hepatic inflammation and fibrosis were assessed according to the Scheuer scoring system. The presence of autoimmunity was considered if IgG level >1.1 × ULN (1826 mg/dL), or high titer (>1:80) of ANA, or SMA. Results: In total, 441 patients were enrolled, and the median age was 63.3 years (IQR, 61.0-66.0); 122 (27.7%), 195 (44.2%), or 124 (28.1%) were classified as having minor, moderate, or severe hepatic inflammation, respectively; and 188 (42.6%), 210 (47.6%) or 43 (9.8%) patients presented minor, significant fibrosis or cirrhosis, respectively. Female sex (73.5%) and the cholestatic pattern (47.6%) were dominant in elderly DILI patients. Autoimmunity existed in 201 patients (45.6%). Comorbidities were not directly associated with the severity of DILI. PLT (OR: 0.994, 95% CI: 0.991-0.997; p < 0.001), AST (OR: 1.001, 95% CI: 1.000-1.003, p = 0.012), TBIL (OR: 1.006, 95% CI: 1.003-1.010, p < 0.001), and autoimmunity (OR: 1.831, 95% CI: 1.258-2.672, p = 0.002) were associated with the degree of hepatic inflammation. Meanwhile, PLT (OR: 0.990, 95% CI: 0.986-0.993, p < 0.001), TBIL (OR: 1.004, 95% CI: 1.000-1.007, p = 0.028), age (OR: 1.123, 95% CI: 1.067-1.183, p < 0.001), and autoimmunity (OR: 1.760, 95% CI: 1.191-2.608, p = 0.005) were associated with the stage of hepatic fibrosis. Conclusion: This study revealed that the presence of autoimmunity represents a more serious illness state of DILI, deserving more intensive monitoring and progressive treatment.

The progression of chronicity and autoimmune hepatitis in recurrent drug-induced liver injury

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Recurrent drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is not well documented. We retrospectively analysed the characteristics of patients who had a history of two separate DILI episodes due to different drugs.

METHODS

We collected data from 57 patients with recurrent DILI from 9582 confirmed DILI cases. Demographic, laboratory, and clinical data from both episodes were collected and analysed to determine the relationship between recurrent DILI, chronic DILI, and autoimmune hepatitis (AIH).

RESULTS

The incidence rate of recurrent DILI in our cohort was 0.59%. Most of the 57 patients with recurrent DILI were female (73.68%). The latency period of the initial episode was 30 days, whereas that of the second episode was 13 days (P = 0.003). The pattern of liver injury was not significantly different between episodes (P = 0.52). Laboratory indicators, such as alanine aminotransferase, aspartate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and total bilirubin, were significantly lower in the second episode than in the initial episode (P < 0.05). The incidence of chronic DILI was 43.86% during the initial episode and increased to 63.16% during the second episode. After the initial episode, 15 patients developed AIH during the second episode.

CONCLUSIONS

The latency period of recurrent DILI was gradually shortened. The clinical indices of liver injury tended to be less elevated during the second episode. Female post-menopausal patients with abnormal serum immunoglobulin G levels may be predisposed to AIH. The second DILI episode was more likely to have features of AIH.

[A high relapse risk of chronic drug-induced liver injury is correlated with a greater severity of liver fibrosis]

OBJECTIVE

To construct a risk prediction model for relapse of chronic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) and explore the correlation between DILI relapse risk and liver fibrosis.

METHODS

We retrospectively collected the clinical data of 1138 patients with chronic DILI hospitalized from January, 2017 to January, 2022, including 154 patients with and 984 without DILI relapse. Based on the results of univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses, a risk prediction model for DILI relapse was constructed, evaluated for its discrimination and calibration using AUC value and Hosmer-Lemeshow test, and verified with a 200 times 5, 10 and 20 folds cross validation method. Spearman correlation analysis was used to evaluate the correlation between the new model and liver fibrosis, and its diagnostic efficiency for liver fibrosis was assessed by comparison with APRI and FIB-4 using ROC curve.

RESULTS

The proportions of patients with S0, S1, S2, S3 and S4 liver fibrosis were 1.9%, 13.1%, 42.2%, 27.9% and 14.9% in the relapse group, respectively, as compared with 8.9%, 43.5%, 26.1%, 17.1% and 4.4% in the non-relapse group, respectively, showing severer liver fibrosis in patients with than those without DILI relapse. Multivariable logistic regression analysis identified LSM≥13.7 kPa (OR=4.35, 95%CI: 2.61-7.25, P < 0.001), CHE < 2500 U/L (OR=5.17, 95%CI: 2.13-12.53, P < 0.001), CHE of 2500-5000 U/L (OR=4.07, 95%CI: 2.75-6.01, P < 0.001), and AST > 2×ULN (OR=2.29, 95%CI: 1.38-3.80, P=0.001) as risk factors for relapse of chronic DILI. The ACLS model constructed based on these non-invasive indicators had an AUC value of 0.803 (95%CI: 0.78-0.83). The results of Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit test (χ2=7.73, P=0.46) and the cross validation tests (average AUC of 0.803) all showed a good stability of the model. Spearman correlation analysis showed that ACLS score was positively correlated with the severity of liver fibrosis (rho=0.530, P < 0.001). At the optimal cut-off value of 3 points for diagnosing moderate liver fibrosis, the ACLS model had an AUC value of 0.78 (with specificity of 72.7% and sensitivity of 73.3%), demonstrating a better efficacy than that of APRI and FIB-4 (P < 0.001). At the cut-off value of 6 for severe liver fibrosis, the diagnostic efficacy of the model (AUC=0.83; specificity 75.7%, sensitivity 72.7%) was still better than that of APRI (P < 0.001) but comparable with that of FIB-4 (P=0.38).

CONCLUSION

The patients at high risks of chronic DILI relapse have severer liver fibrosis and should be followed up regularly for timely aggressive treatment.

Recreational Drugs and the Risk of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Recreational or aesthetic drug use is a distinctive behavior of humans, principally attested in the last century. It is known that recreational and illegal drugs are major contributors to the universal morbidity rate worldwide. Many of these substances have a well-established hepatotoxic potential, causing acute or chronic liver injury, liver fibrosis and cirrhosis, but their implications for hepatocellular carcinoma or other varieties of liver tumors are little known. In this article, we perform an extensive literature review, aiming to provide updated information about recreational drug use and the risk of developing liver tumors. Khat use and pyrrolizidine alkaloid consumption (present in some natural plants) have been linked to liver cirrhosis. Kava intake is associated with different liver tumors in animal models but not in humans. Cannabis' potential to accelerate liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis is controversial according to the existing data. Cigarette smoking is an important contributor to hepatocellular carcinoma, and anabolic androgen steroids are well-defined causes of a variety of liver cancers and other hepatic tumors. Long-term follow-up studies of subjects who have developed injuries in association with the use of recreational drugs are warranted so as to better define the risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma in association with these substances and, thus, to implement health care policies to combat this preventable cause of cancer.

Spectrum of drug-induced liver injury in a tertiary hospital in southern India

Background

Anti-tuberculosis drugs are thought to account for about 50% of drugs that cause liver injury in India. We show that the spectrum of drugs is much wider than previously reported.

Methods

We evaluated all patients with unexplained acute liver injury presenting during 2006–2016 using a structured proforma for drug-induced liver injury (DILI). The Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method was used to assess causality.

Results

DILI was found in 143 of 2534 patients with acute liver injury. Nineteen patients had probable ayurvedic DILI. The other common causes of DILI were statins (16 patients) and anti-tuberculosis drugs (11 patients). Eight patients had DILI post-liver transplant. Fluconazole was the most common cause of post-liver transplant DILI. Chronic DILI (abnormal liver function test after 12 months of stopping the suspected drug) was found in 2 patients.

Conclusion

In otherwise unexplained acute liver injury, DILI due to ayurvedic drugs should be sought. DILI should be considered in post-liver transplant patients. Patients with DILI should be monitored for at least 12 months to exclude progression to chronic DILI.

In Vitro Models for Studying Chronic Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a major clinical problem in terms of patient morbidity and mortality, cost to healthcare systems and failure of the development of new drugs. The need for consistent safety strategies capable of identifying a potential toxicity risk early in the drug discovery pipeline is key. Human DILI is poorly predicted in animals, probably due to the well-known interspecies differences in drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity targets. For this reason, distinct cellular models from primary human hepatocytes or hepatoma cell lines cultured as 2D monolayers to emerging 3D culture systems or the use of multi-cellular systems have been proposed for hepatotoxicity studies. In order to mimic long-term hepatotoxicity in vitro, cell models, which maintain hepatic phenotype for a suitably long period, should be used. On the other hand, repeated-dose administration is a more relevant scenario for therapeutics, providing information not only about toxicity, but also about cumulative effects and/or delayed responses. In this review, we evaluate the existing cell models for DILI prediction focusing on chronic hepatotoxicity, highlighting how better characterization and mechanistic studies could lead to advance DILI prediction.

Identification of MRI features associated with injury type, severity, and prognosis in drug-induced liver injury

OBJECTIVES

To identify magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features associated with injury type, severity, and liver transplantation (LT)/liver-related death (LRD) in drug-induced liver injury (DILI).

METHODS

The eligible DILI patients (2016 to 2020) who underwent contrast abdominal MRI within 3 months of onset were retrospectively analysed at Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University. The MRI features independently associated with severity and prognosis were identified by backwards logistic regression. Unadjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) are given.

RESULTS

The median age of 180 patients was 55.5 years, with 126 (70.0%) women. The injury types included hepatocellular (135 cases, 75.0%), mixed (23, 12.8%), and cholestatic (22, 12.2%). The proportion of periportal oedema in patients with hepatocellular and mixed injury was significantly higher than that in cholestatic injury (62.2%, 47.8% vs. 18.2%, p < 0.001). For severity, 157 (87.2%) patients had mild to moderate injury, and 23 (12.8%) had severe to fatal/LT. Irregularity of the liver surface (6.56 (95% CI, 1.27-22.84)), transient hepatic attenuation difference (THAD) (3.27 (95% CI, 1.14-9.36)), and splenomegaly (5.86 (95% CI, 1.96-17.53)) were independently associated with severity. Eight (4.4%) patients died/underwent LT. THAD (8.89 (95% CI, 1.35-58.43)), and ascites (64.63 (95% CI, 6.93-602.40)) were independently associated with LT/LRD. The prediction of the new model employing THAD and ascites for LT/LRD within 1 year was 0.959 (95% CI, 0.917-1.000).

CONCLUSIONS

Periportal oedema was associated with the type of injury. Irregularity of the liver surface, THAD, and splenomegaly were associated with severity. THAD and ascites may have potential clinical utility in predicting LT/LRD outcomes within 1 year.

KEY POINTS

• Contrast abdominal magnetic resonance imaging features can help clinicians evaluate the type of injury, severity, and poor prognosis of drug-induced liver injury. • Transient hepatic attenuation difference and ascites have potential clinical utility in the prediction of the poor prognosis of liver transplantation/liver-related death. • The new model predicting poor prognosis has a relatively high sensitivity of 0.875 and a high specificity of 0.919.

Clinical Significance of Transient Asymptomatic Elevations in Aminotransferase (TAEAT) in Oncology

Monitoring for liver injury remains an important aspect of drug safety assessment, including for oncotherapeutics. When present, drug-induced liver injury may limit the use or result in the discontinuation of these agents. Drug-induced liver injury can exhibit with a wide spectrum of clinical and biochemical manifestations, ranging from transient asymptomatic elevations in aminotransferases (TAEAT) to acute liver failure. Numerous oncotherapeutics have been associated with TAEAT, with published reports indicating a phenomenon in which patients may be asymptomatic without overt liver injury despite the presence of grade ≥3 aminotransferase elevations. In this review, we discuss the occurrence of TAEAT in the context of oncology clinical trials and clinical practice, as well as the clinical relevance of this phenomenon as an adverse event in response to oncotherapeutics and the related cellular and molecular mechanisms that may underlie its occurrence. We also identify several gaps in knowledge relevant to the diagnosis and the management of TAEAT in patients receiving oncotherapeutics, and identify areas warranting further study to enable the future development of consensus guidelines to support clinical decision-making.

Alanine Aminotransferase and Bilirubin Dynamic Evolution Pattern as a Novel Model for the Prediction of Acute Liver Failure in Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Aims: To develop, optimize, and validate a novel model using alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and total bilirubin (TB) dynamic evolution patterns in predicting acute liver failure (ALF) in drug-induced liver injury (DILI) patients.

Methods: The demographics, clinical data, liver biopsy, and outcomes of DILI patients were collected from two hospitals. According to the dynamic evolution of ALT and TB after DILI onset, the enrolled patients were divided into ALT-mono-peak, TB-mono-peak, double-overlap-peak, and double-separate-peak (DSP) patterns and compared. Logistic regression was used to develop this predictive model in both discovery and validation cohorts.

Results: The proportion of ALF was significantly higher in patients with the DSP pattern than in the ALT-mono-peak pattern and DOP pattern (10.0 vs. 0.0% vs. 1.8%,p &lt; 0.05). The area under receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of the DSP pattern model was 0.720 (95% CI: 0.682–0.756) in the discovery cohort and 0.828 (95% CI: 0.788–0.864) in the validation cohort in predicting ALF, being further improved by combining with international normalized ratio (INR) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (AUROC in the discovery cohort: 0.899; validation cohort: 0.958). Histopathologically, patients with the DSP pattern exhibited a predominantly cholestatic hepatitis pattern (75.0%, p &lt; 0.05) with a higher degree of necrosis (29.2%, p = 0.084).

Conclusion: DILI patients with the DSP pattern are more likely to progress to ALF. The predictive potency of the model for ALF can be improved by incorporating INR and ALP. This novel model allows for better identification of high-risk DILI patients, enabling timely measures to be instituted for better outcome.

The Hepatoprotective and Hepatotoxic Roles of Sex and Sex-Related Hormones

Most liver diseases, including acute liver injury, drug-induced liver injury, viral hepatitis, metabolic liver diseases, and end-stage liver diseases, are strongly linked with hormonal influences. Thus, delineating the clinical manifestation and underlying mechanisms of the “sexual dimorphism” is critical for providing hints for the prevention, management, and treatment of those diseases. Whether the sex hormones (androgen, estrogen, and progesterone) and sex-related hormones (gonadotrophin-releasing hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and prolactin) play protective or toxic roles in the liver depends on the biological sex, disease stage, precipitating factor, and even the psychiatric status. Lifestyle factors, such as obesity, alcohol drinking, and smoking, also drastically affect the involving mechanisms of those hormones in liver diseases. Hormones deliver their hepatic regulatory signals primarily via classical and non-classical receptors in different liver cell types. Exogenous sex/sex-related hormone therapy may serve as a novel strategy for metabolic liver disease, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. However, the undesired hormone-induced liver injury should be carefully studied in pre-clinical models and monitored in clinical applications. This issue is particularly important for menopause females with hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and transgender populations who want to receive gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT). In conclusion, basic and clinical studies are warranted to depict the detailed hepatoprotective and hepatotoxic mechanisms of sex/sex-related hormones in liver disease. Prolactin holds a promising perspective in treating metabolic and advanced liver diseases.

Pharmacokinetic and toxicodynamic concepts in idiosyncratic, drug-induced liver injury

INTRODUCTION

Idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (IDILI) causes morbidity and mortality in patients and leads to curtailed use of efficacious pharmaceuticals. Unlike intrinsically toxic reactions, which depend on dose, IDILI occurs in a minority of patients at therapeutic doses. Much remains unknown about causal links among drug exposure, a mode of action, and liver injury. Consequently, numerous hypotheses about IDILI pathogenesis have arisen.

AREAS COVERED

Pharmacokinetic and toxicodynamic characteristics underlying current hypotheses of IDILI etiology are discussed and illustrated graphically.

EXPERT OPINION

Hypotheses to explain IDILI etiology all involve alterations in pharmacokinetics, which lead to plasma drug concentrations that rise above a threshold for toxicity, or in toxicodynamics, which result in a lowering of the toxicity threshold. Altered pharmacokinetics arise, for example, from changes in drug metabolism or from transporter polymorphisms. A lowered toxicity threshold can arise from drug-induced mitochondrial injury, accumulation of toxic endogenous factors or harmful immune responses. Newly developed, interactive freeware (DemoTox-PK; https://bit.ly/DemoTox-PK) allows the user to visualize how such alterations might lead to a toxic reaction. The illustrations presented provide a framework for conceptualizing idiosyncratic reactions and could serve as a stimulus for future discussion, education, and research into modes of action of IDILI.

Prediction of biochemical nonresolution in patients with chronic drug-induced liver injury: A large multicenter study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

To clarify high-risk factors and develop a nomogram model to predict biochemical resolution or biochemical nonresolution (BNR) in patients with chronic DILI.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Retrospectively, 3655 of 5326 patients with chronic DILI were enrolled from nine participating hospitals, of whom 2866 underwent liver biopsy. All of these patients were followed up for over 1 year and their clinical characteristics were retrieved from electronic medical records. The endpoint was BNR, defined as alanine aminotransferase or aspartate aminotransferase >1.5× upper limit of normal or alkaline phosphatase >1.1× ULN, at 12 months from chronic DILI diagnosis. The noninvasive high-risk factors for BNR identified by multivariable logistic regression were used to establish a nomogram, which was validated in an independent external cohort. Finally, 19.3% (707 of 3655) patients presented with BNR. Histologically, with the increase in liver inflammation grades and fibrosis stages, the proportion of BNR significantly increased. The risk of BNR was increased by 21.3-fold in patients with significant inflammation compared to none or mild inflammation (p < 0.001). Biochemically, aspartate aminotransferase and total bilirubin, platelets, prothrombin time, sex, and age were associated with BNR and incorporated to construct a nomogram model (BNR-6) with a concordance index of 0.824 (95% CI, 0.798-0.849), which was highly consistent with liver histology. These results were successfully validated both in the internal cohort and external cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant liver inflammation is a robust predictor associated with biochemical nonresolution. The established BNR-6 model provides an easy-to-use approach to assess the outcome of chronic DILI.

Alteration of Bile Acids and Omega-6 PUFAs Are Correlated With the Progression and Prognosis of Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Background & Aims

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is one of the leading causes of liver failure with some of the patients progressed to chronic DILI. The mechanisms underlying the severity and chronicity of DILI are poorly elucidated and the biomarkers are limited. Metabolites and gut microbiota played a crucial role in the development of various liver diseases. Herein, a systematic analysis of serum metabolites and gut microbiota was performed in DILI patients, aiming to identify metabolites correlated with the progression and clinical prognosis of DILI.

Methods

Various serum metabolites were quantitated using a metabolite array technology in this prospective study. Gut microbiome compositions and the expression profiles of liver genes were determined in patients with DILI and healthy controls.

Results

Metabolomic analysis revealed that bile acids (BAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were closely related to DILI severity and chronicity respectively. The ratios of serum primary/secondary BAs and omega-6/omega-3 PUFAs were elevated in DILI patients. A model established by adrenic acid (AdA) and aspartic acid (Asp) exerts good performance for predicting the chronicity of DLIL. Hepatic transcriptome revealed enhanced expression of PUFA peroxidation and supressed expression of BA synthesis related genes in DILI patients. In addition, Lactic acid bacteria and BA converting bacteria were increased in gut of DILI patients. Besides, elevated serum malondialdehyde (MDA) and fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) was observed in DILI patients.

Conclusion

BAs and PUFAs could be potent markers for the severity and chronicity of DILI respectively. The panel of AdA and Asp could be ideal predictive model for the risk of chronicity at the acute stage of DILI. Gut microbiota might act as a negative feedback mechanism to maintain the homeostasis of BAs and PUFAs via FGF19 signalling and PUFA saturation, respectively. Our study revealed novel biomarkers for severe and chronic DILI and provided new therapeutic targets for DILI.

Corticosteroid plus glycyrrhizin therapy for chronic drug- or herb-induced liver injury achieves biochemical and histological improvements: a randomised open-label trial

BACKGROUND

Treatment of chronic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) or herb-induced liver injury(HILI) is an important and unresolved challenge. There is no consensus regarding the indications for corticosteroids for chronic DILI/HILI.

AIMS

To investigate the efficacy and safety of corticosteroid plus glycyrrhizin for patients with chronic DILI/HILI.

METHODS

This was a randomised open-label trial. Eligible patients with causality assessment using the updated RUCAM were randomly assigned (1:1) either to the steroid treatment group (48-week stepwise dose reduction of methylprednisolone plus glycyrrhizin) or control group (glycyrrhizin alone). Liver biopsies were performed at baseline and at the end of the 48-week treatment period. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients with sustained biochemical response (SBR). The secondary outcomes were improvement in liver histology, time to biochemical normalisation and safety.

RESULTS

Of 80 participants, 70 (87.5%) completed the trial. The patients were predominantly female (77.5%), aged >40 years (77.5%) and had a hepatocellular injury pattern of DILI (71.2%). Compared to the control group, the treatment group showed a higher proportion of SBR (94.3% vs. 71.4%, p = 0.023), shorter biochemical normalisation time and histological improvements in both histological activity and fibrosis. The DILI and HILI subgroups, as well as the autoimmune hepatitis (AIH)-like DILI and non-AIH-like subgroups, showed comparable responses. No severe adverse events were observed during the trial.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the first clinical evidence that corticosteroid plus glycyrrhizin therapy for chronic DILI with or without AIH-like features can achieve both biochemical response and histological improvements with good safety. (ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02651350).

Drug-induced liver injury: A management position paper from the Latin American Association for Study of the liver

Idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) caused by xenobiotics (drugs, herbals and dietary supplements) is an uncommon cause of liver disease presenting with a wide range of phenotypes and disease severity, acute hepatitis mimicking viral hepatitis to autoimmune hepatitis, steatosis, fibrosis or rare chronic vascular syndromes. Disease severity ranges from asymptomatic liver test abnormalities to acute liver failure. DILI has been traditionally classified in predictable or intrinsic (dose-related) or unpredictable (not dose-related) mechanisms. Few prospective studies are assessing the real prevalence and incidence of hepatotoxicity in the general population. DILI registries represent useful networks used for the study of liver toxicity, aimed at improving the understanding of causes, phenotypes, natural history, and standardized definitions of hepatotoxicity. Although most of the registries do not carry out population-based studies, they may provide important data related to the prevalence of DILI, and also may be useful to compare features from different countries. With the support of the Spanish Registry of Hepatotoxicity, our Latin American Registry (LATINDILI) was created in 2011, and more than 350 DILI patients have been recruited to date. This position paper describes the more frequent drugs and herbs-induced DILI in Latin America, mainly focusing on several features of responsible medicaments. Also, we highlighted the most critical points on the management of hepatotoxicity in general and those based on findings from our Latin American experience in particular.

Long-term sequelae of drug-induced liver injury

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) has a very variable clinical and biochemical phenotype and differs widely in severity, from mild injury to life-threatening liver failure. Chronic injury has also been reported to occur at a variable frequency, ranging from 3.4% to 39%, 6-12 months after discontinuing the implicated agent. This wide range is probably related to various definitions of chronic liver injury and variable selection of patients. The long-term sequalae of this chronic injury in terms of morbidity and mortality are unclear, although rare vanishing bile duct syndrome is associated with an unfavourable prognosis, with increased risk of chronic liver failure and need for liver transplantation. Other forms of long-term sequalae associated with DILI are progressive fibrosis, autoimmune-like hepatitis, secondary sclerosing cholangitis, sinusoidal obstruction syndrome and, as a common final stage, the development of cirrhosis, portal hypertension and its complications. Immune checkpoint inhibitors, which can cause an autoimmune-like phenotype have also recently been shown to cause sclerosing cholangitis with cytotoxic T CD8+ cell infiltration in biliary tracts. DILI has been shown to have a significant impact on health-related quality of life but very little is known about its psychological consequences in the long-term. Further investigations with structured long-term follow-up and periodic quality of life surveys are needed to assess the impact of DILI on psychological outcomes, particularly in those with chronic sequelae.

Machine Learning to Identify Interaction of Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms as a Risk Factor for Chronic Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a major cause of drug development failure and drug withdrawal from the market after approval. The identification of human risk factors associated with susceptibility to DILI is of paramount importance. Increasing evidence suggests that genetic variants may lead to inter-individual differences in drug response; however, individual single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) usually have limited power to predict human phenotypes such as DILI. In this study, we aim to identify appropriate statistical methods to investigate gene-gene and/or gene-environment interactions that impact DILI susceptibility. Three machine learning approaches, including Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS), Multifactor Dimensionality Reduction (MDR), and logistic regression, were used. The simulation study suggested that all three methods were robust and could identify the known SNP-SNP interaction when up to 4% of genotypes were randomly permutated. When applied to a real-life DILI chronicity dataset, both MARS and MDR, but not logistic regression, identified combined genetic variants having better associations with DILI chronicity in comparison to the use of individual SNPs. Furthermore, a simple decision tree model using the SNPs identified by MARS and MDR was developed to predict DILI chronicity, with fair performance. Our study suggests that machine learning approaches may help identify gene-gene interactions as potential risk factors for better assessing complicated diseases such as DILI chronicity.

Advanced preclinical models for evaluation of drug-induced liver injury - consensus statement by the European Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network [PRO-EURO-DILI-NET]

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a major cause of acute liver failure (ALF) and one of the leading indications for liver transplantation in Western societies. Given the wide use of both prescribed and over the counter drugs, DILI has become a major health issue for which there is a pressing need to find novel and effective therapies. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying DILI, our incomplete knowledge of its pathogenesis and inability to predict DILI is largely due to both discordance between human and animal DILI in preclinical drug development and a lack of models that faithfully recapitulate complex pathophysiological features of human DILI. This is exemplified by the hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen (APAP) overdose, a major cause of ALF because of its extensive worldwide use as an analgesic. Despite intensive efforts utilising current animal and in vitro models, the mechanisms involved in the hepatotoxicity of APAP are still not fully understood. In this expert Consensus Statement, which is endorsed by the European Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network, we aim to facilitate and outline clinically impactful discoveries by detailing the requirements for more realistic human-based systems to assess hepatotoxicity and guide future drug safety testing. We present novel insights and discuss major players in APAP pathophysiology, and describe emerging in vitro and in vivo pre-clinical models, as well as advanced imaging and in silico technologies, which may improve prediction of clinical outcomes of DILI.

The LAC Score Indicates Significant Fibrosis in Patients With Chronic Drug-Induced Liver Injury: A Large Biopsy-Based Study

Currently, there are no satisfactory noninvasive methods for the diagnosis of fibrosis in patients with chronic drug-induced liver injury (DILI). Our goal was to develop an algorithm to improve the diagnostic accuracy of significant fibrosis in this population. In the present study, we retrospectively investigated the biochemical and pathological characteristics of consecutive patients with biopsy-proven chronic DILI, who presented at our hospital from January 2013 to December 2017. A noninvasive algorithm was developed by using multivariate logistic regression, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and decision curve analysis (DCA) to diagnose significant fibrosis in the training cohort, and the algorithm was subsequently validated in the validation cohort. Totally, 1,130 patients were enrolled and randomly assigned into a training cohort (n = 848) and a validation cohort (n = 282). Based on the multivariate analysis, LSM, CHE, and APRI were independently associated with significant fibrosis. A novel algorithm, LAC, was identified with the AUROC of 0.81, which was significantly higher than LSM (AUROC 0.78), CHE (AUROC 0.73), and APRI (AUROC 0.68), alone. The best cutoff value of LAC in the training cohort was 5.4. When the LAC score was used to diagnose advanced fibrosis and cirrhosis stages, the optimal cutoff values were 6.2 and 6.7, respectively, and the AUROC values were 0.84 and 0.90 in the training cohort and 0.81 and 0.83 in the validation cohort. This study proved that the LAC score can contribute to the accurate assessment of high-risk disease progression and the establishment of optimal treatment strategies for patients with chronic DILI.

Research status and progress of drug induced liver injury

The incidence rate of drug-induced liver injury has been high with the extensive use of drugs and the development and application of new drugs. The pathogenesis of drug-induced liver injury is not fully understood, so there is no significant breakthrough in its treatment. The diagnosis of drug-induced liver injury still depends on drug history, clinical manifestations, imaging, biochemical tests, and liver biopsy. This article reviews the recent progress in the understanding of the incidence rate, classification, risk factors, and serum markers of drug-induced liver injury.

Drug-Induced Vanishing Bile Duct Syndrome: From Pathogenesis to Diagnosis and Therapeutics

The most concerned issue in the context of drug/herb-induced chronic cholestasis is vanishing bile duct syndrome. The progressive destruction of intrahepatic bile ducts leading to ductopenia is usually not dose dependent, and has a delayed onset that should be suspected when abnormal serum cholestasis enzyme levels persist despite drug withdrawal. Immune-mediated cholangiocyte injury, direct cholangiocyte damage by drugs or their metabolites once in bile, and sustained exposure to toxic bile salts when biliary epithelium protective defenses are impaired are the main mechanisms of cholangiolar damage. Current therapeutic alternatives are scarce and have not shown consistent beneficial effects so far. This review will summarize the current literature on the main diagnostic tools of ductopenia and its histological features, and the differential diagnostic with other ductopenic diseases. In addition, pathomechanisms will be addressed, as well as the connection between them and the supportive and curative strategies for ductopenia management.

Elevated bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase at onset, and drug metabolism are associated with prolonged recovery from DILI

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Although most drug-induced liver injury (DILI) cases resolve after the offending medication is discontinued, time to recovery varies among patients, with 6 -12% developing a chronic disease. Herein, we investigated clinical factors and drug properties as potential risk determinants that influence the time course for DILI recovery and developed a model to predict its trajectory.

METHODS

We applied an accelerated failure time model to 294 cases collected by the International Drug-Induced Liver Network Consortium (iDILIC). Factors included in the multivariate recovery score model were selected through univariate analysis. The model was externally validated using 257 cases from the Spanish DILI Registry and 191 cases from the LiverTox database.

RESULTS

Higher serum bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) at DILI onset, a longer time to onset, and non-significant drug metabolism were associated with a longer recovery and were included in the recovery score model. We defined high- and low-risk groups based on the scores assigned by the model. The estimated probability of recovery by 6 months was 0.46 (95% CI 0.26-0.61) for the high-risk group and 0.93 (95% CI 0.58-0.99) for the low-risk group in the iDILIC. Model performance was validated in both validation sets. The high- and low-risk cases identified by the model showed a significantly different time course for recovery, with a majority of low-risk cases recovering sooner.

CONCLUSION

The trajectory of biochemical recovery from DILI is predicted by the extent of drug metabolism, serum bilirubin and ALP at DILI onset. The model can be used to compute an estimated DILI recovery and, when a significant delay is predicted, clinicians may consider additional investigations such as histologic evaluation or extended follow-up.

LAY SUMMARY

In this study, we investigated whether drug properties and clinical factors are associated with the time it takes to recover from drug-induced liver injury (DILI). We found that total bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase level at DILI onset, time to onset, and extent of drug metabolism were consistently associated with recovery time. Using these factors, we built a model to predict the trajectory of recovery from DILI and validated this model in 2 independent cohorts. Our findings offer important insights into the factors influencing the trajectory of recovery from DILI. Additional investigations and longer follow-ups can be planned in those for whom a delayed recovery is predicted.

Comprehensive analysis and insights gained from long-term experience of the Spanish DILI Registry

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Prospective drug-induced liver injury (DILI) registries are important sources of information on idiosyncratic DILI. We aimed to present a comprehensive analysis of 843 patients with DILI enrolled into the Spanish DILI Registry over a 20-year time period.

METHODS

Cases were identified, diagnosed and followed prospectively. Clinical features, drug information and outcome data were collected.

RESULTS

A total of 843 patients, with a mean age of 54 years (48% females), were enrolled up to 2018. Hepatocellular injury was associated with younger age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] per year 0.983; 95% CI 0.974-0.991) and lower platelet count (aOR per unit 0.996; 95% CI 0.994-0.998). Anti-infectives were the most common causative drug class (40%). Liver-related mortality was more frequent in patients with hepatocellular damage aged ≥65 years (p = 0.0083) and in patients with underlying liver disease (p = 0.0221). Independent predictors of liver-related death/transplantation included nR-based hepatocellular injury, female sex, higher onset aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and bilirubin values. nR-based hepatocellular injury was not associated with 6-month overall mortality, for which comorbidity burden played a more important role. The prognostic capacity of Hy's law varied between causative agents. Empirical therapy (corticosteroids, ursodeoxycholic acid and MARS) was prescribed to 20% of patients. Drug-induced autoimmune hepatitis patients (26 cases) were mainly females (62%) with hepatocellular damage (92%), who more frequently received immunosuppressive therapy (58%).

CONCLUSIONS

AST elevation at onset is a strong predictor of poor outcome and should be routinely assessed in DILI evaluation. Mortality is higher in older patients with hepatocellular damage and patients with underlying hepatic conditions. The Spanish DILI Registry is a valuable tool in the identification of causative drugs, clinical signatures and prognostic risk factors in DILI and can aid physicians in DILI characterisation and management.

LAY SUMMARY

Clinical information on drug-induced liver injury (DILI) collected from enrolled patients in the Spanish DILI Registry can guide physicians in the decision-making process. We have found that older patients with hepatocellular type liver injury and patients with additional liver conditions are at a higher risk of mortality. The type of liver injury, patient sex and analytical values of aspartate aminotransferase and total bilirubin can also help predict clinical outcomes.

Incidence, characteristics and risk factors for drug-induced liver injury in hospitalized patients: A matched case-control study

AIMS

The diagnosis of drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is relatively complex and involves a wide variety of drugs. The purpose of this study was to use algorithms to quickly screen DILI patients, determine its incidence and identify risk factors.

METHODS

The Adverse Drug Events Active Surveillance and Assessment System-2 was used to extract the data of patients hospitalized in 2019 according to the set standards and the Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method was used to evaluate patients who met the standards. A retrospective case-control study was conducted according to suspected drugs, length of hospital stay and height- and weight-matched controls, and logistic regression was used to identify risk factors.

RESULTS

Among the 156 570 hospitalized patients, 480 patients (499 cases) with DILI were confirmed and the incidence of DILI was 0.32%. Anti-infective agents, antineoplastic agents and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs were the major categories of drugs causing DILI, and the highest incidence of DILI was due to voriconazole. The latency period and hospital stay of patients with cholestasis were both relatively long. Patients with hyperlipidaemia (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.884), cardiovascular disease (AOR 1.465), pre-existing liver disease (AOR 1.827) and surgical history (AOR 1.312) were at higher risk for DILI.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of DILI in hospitalized patients was uncommon (0.32%) and its pathogenic drugs were widely distributed. The incidence of DILI for many drugs has been seriously underestimated. It is recommended to focus on patients with hyperlipidaemia, cardiovascular disease, pre-existing liver disease and surgical history.

ACG Clinical Guideline: Diagnosis and Management of Idiosyncratic Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is common in gastroenterology and hepatology practices, and it can have multiple presentations, ranging from asymptomatic elevations in liver biochemistries to hepatocellular or cholestatic jaundice, liver failure, or chronic hepatitis. Antimicrobials, herbal and dietary supplements, and anticancer therapeutics (e.g., tyrosine kinase inhibitors or immune-checkpoint inhibitors) are the most common classes of agents to cause DILI in the Western world. DILI is a diagnosis of exclusion, and thus, careful assessment for other etiologies of liver disease should be undertaken before establishing a diagnosis of DILI. Model for end-stage liver disease score and comorbidity burden are important determinants of mortality in patients presenting with suspected DILI. DILI carries a mortality rate up to 10% when hepatocellular jaundice is present. Patients with DILI who develop progressive jaundice with or without coagulopathy should be referred to a tertiary care center for specialized care, including consideration for potential liver transplantation. The role of systemic corticosteroids is controversial, but they may be administered when a liver injury event cannot be distinguished between autoimmune hepatitis or DILI or when a DILI event presents with prominent autoimmune hepatitis features.

A High Serum Level of Taurocholic Acid Is Correlated With the Severity and Resolution of Drug-induced Liver Injury

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Alterations in the serum levels of bile acids are associated with drug-induced liver injury (DILI). We investigated the association between serum levels of bile acids and the severity and outcome of DILI, along with the potential role of variants in the ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 11 (ABCB11) gene and expression of its product, ABCB11 (also called BSEP).

METHODS

We performed this prospective study of 95 patients (median age, 53 years; 73.7% female) with DILI from August 2018 through August 2019. Patients were matched for age, gender, and body mass index with healthy individuals (n = 100; healthy controls) and patients with chronic hepatitis B (n = 105; CHB controls). We collected demographic and biochemical data at baseline and 1 week, 1 month, 3 months, and 6 months after DILI onset and at the time of biochemical recovery, liver failure or liver transplantation. Serum levels of bile acids were measured using high-performance liquid-chromatography tandem mass-spectrometry. All 27 exons of ABCB11 were sequenced and expression of BSEP was analyzed by immunohistochemistry in liver biopsy specimens.

RESULTS

Levels of 30 of the 37 bile acids analyzed differed significantly between patients with DILI and healthy controls. Changes in levels of taurocholic acid (TCA), glycocholic acid, taurochenodeoxycholate, and glycochenodeoxycholate associated with the increased levels of bilirubin and greater severity of DILI, and were also associated with CHB. Cox regression analysis showed that only change in the levels of TCA independently associated with biochemical resolution of DILI. Combination of TCA level (≥ 1955.41 nmol/L), patient age, and DILI severity was associated with abnormal blood biochemistry at 6 months after DILI onset (area under the curve, 0.81; 95% confidence interval, 0.71-0.88; sensitivity, 0.69; specificity, 0.81). ABCB11 missense variants were not associated with differences in the serum bile acid profiles, DILI severity, or clinical resolution. However, lower levels of BSEP in bile canaliculi in liver biopsies were associated with altered serum levels of bile acids.

CONCLUSIONS

In this prospective study performed in Chinese patients, we found that the serum levels of TCA were associated with the severity and clinical resolution of DILI. Reduced protein expression of BSEP in liver tissue, rather than variants of the ABCB11 gene were associated with altered serum levels of bile acids.

Clinical Characteristics and Outcome of Drug-Induced Liver Injury in the Older Patients: From the Young-Old to the Oldest-Old

Older patients with hepatotoxicity have been scarcely studied in idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) cohorts. We sought the distinctive characteristics of DILI in older patients across age groups. A total of 882 DILI patients included in the Spanish DILI Registry (33% ≥ 65 years) were categorized according to age: "young" (< 65 years); "young-old" (65-74 years); "middle-old" (75-84 years); and "oldest-old" (≥ 85 years). All elderly groups had an increasingly higher comorbidity burden (P < 0.001) and polypharmacy (P < 0.001). There was a relationship between jaundice and hospitalization (P < 0.001), and both were more prevalent in the older age groups, especially in the oldest-old (88% and 69%, respectively), and the DILI episode was more severe (P = 0.029). The proportion of females decreased across age groups from the young to the middle-old, yet in the oldest-old there was a distinct female predominance. Pattern of liver injury shifted towards cholestatic with increasing age among top culprit drugs amoxicillin-clavulanate, atorvastatin, levofloxacin, ibuprofen, and ticlopidine. The best cutoff point for increased odds of cholestatic DILI was 65 years. Older patients had increased non-liver-related mortality (P = 0.030) as shown by the predictive capacity of the Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score (odds ratio (OR) = 1.116; P < 0.001), and comorbidity burden (OR = 4.188; P = 0.001) in the 6-month mortality. Older patients with DILI exhibited an increasingly predominant cholestatic phenotype across a range of culprit drugs, other than amoxicillin-clavulanate, with increased non-liver-related mortality and require a different approach to predict outcome. The oldest DILI patients exhibited a particular phenotype with more severe DILI episodes and need to be considered when stratifying older DILI populations.

Serum Metabolomic Analysis of Chronic Drug-Induced Liver Injury With or Without Cirrhosis

Background: Chronic drug-induced liver injury (DILI) occurs in up to 20% of all DILI patients. It presents a chronic pattern with persistent or relapsed episodes and may even progress to cirrhosis. However, its underlying development mechanism is poorly understood. Aims: To find serum metabolite signatures of chronic DILI with or without cirrhosis, and to elucidate the underlying mechanism. Methods: Untargeted metabolomics coupled with pattern recognition approaches were used to profile and extract metabolite signatures from 83 chronic DILI patients, including 58 non-cirrhosis (NC) cases, 14 compensated cirrhosis (CC) cases, and 11 decompensated cirrhosis (DC) cases. Results: Of the 269 annotated metabolites associated with chronic DILI, metabolic fingerprints associated with cirrhosis (including 30 metabolites) and decompensation (including 25 metabolites), were identified. There was a significantly positive correlation between cirrhosis-associated fingerprint (eigenmetabolite) and the aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index (APRI) (r = 0.315, P = 0.003). The efficacy of cirrhosis-associated eigenmetabolite coupled with APRI to identify cirrhosis from non-cirrhosis patients was significantly better than APRI alone [area under the curve (AUC) value 0.914 vs. 0.573]. The decompensation-associated fingerprint (eigenmetabolite) can effectively identify the compensation and decompensation periods (AUC value 0.954). The results of the metabolic fingerprint pathway analysis suggest that the blocked tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) and intermediary metabolism, excessive accumulation of bile acids, and perturbed amino acid metabolism are potential mechanisms in the occurrence and development of chronic DILI-associated cirrhosis. Conclusions: The metabolomic fingerprints characterize different stages of chronic DILI progression and deepen the understanding of the metabolic reprogramming mechanism of chronic DILI progression to cirrhosis.