A perspective review on role of novel NSAID prodrugs in the management of acute inflammation

Assessment of Alginate Gel Films as the Orodispersible Dosage Form for Meloxicam

The aim of this study was to obtain films based on sodium alginate (SA) for disintegration in the oral cavity. The films were prepared with a solvent-casting method, and meloxicam (MLX) as the active ingredient was suspended in a 3% sodium alginate solution. Two different solid-dosage-form additives containing different disintegrating agents, i.e., VIVAPUR 112® (MCC; JRS Pharma, Rosenberg, Germany) and Prosolve EASYtabs SP® (MIX; JRS Pharma, Rosenberg, Germany), were used, and four different combinations of drying time and temperature were tested. The influence of the used disintegrant on the properties of the ODFs (orodispersible films) was investigated. The obtained films were studied for their appearance, elasticity, mass uniformity, water content, meloxicam content and, finally, disintegration time, which was studied using two different methods. The films obtained with the solvent-casting method were flexible and homogeneous in terms of MLX content. Elasticity was slightly better when MIX was used as a disintegrating agent. However, these samples also revealed worse uniformity and mechanical durability. It was concluded that the best properties of the films were achieved using the mildest drying conditions. The type of the disintegrating agent had no effect on the amount of water remaining in the film after drying. The water content depended on the drying conditions. The disintegration time was not affected by the disintegrant type, but some differences were observed when various drying conditions were applied. However, regardless of the formulation type and manufacturing conditions, the analyzed films could not be classified as fast disintegrating films, as the disintegration time exceeded 30 s in all of the tested formulations.

Anti-inflammatory effects of α-humulene on the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in lipopolysaccharide-induced THP-1 cells

While acute inflammation is an essential physical response to harmful external influences, the transition to chronic inflammation is problematic and associated with the development and worsening of many deadly diseases. Until now, established pharmaceutical agents have had many side effects when used for long periods. In this study, a possible anti-inflammatory effect of the sesquiterpene α-humulene on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induction was tested. Herein, human THP-1-derived macrophages were used and their pro-inflammatory interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) cytokine release was measured by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A dose-dependent effect of α-humulene on IL-6 release was observed at 0.5 and 100 µM α-humulene, with a maximum IL-6 inhibition of 60% compared to the LPS reference value after the addition of 100 µM α-humulene. TNF-α as well as IL-1β cytokine concentrations were not reduced by the addition of 0.5 and 100 µM α-humulene. This study suggests that α-humulene has potential as a promising natural alternative to established pharmaceuticals for the treatment of elevated IL-6 levels and chronic inflammation in humans.

Chromone-based small molecules for multistep shutdown of arachidonate pathway: Simultaneous inhibition of COX-2, 15-LOX and mPGES-1 enzymes

As a new approach to the management of inflammatory disorders, a series of chromone-based derivatives containing a (carbamate)hydrazone moiety was designed and synthesized. The compounds were assessed for their ability to inhibit COX-1/2, 15-LOX, and mPGES-1, as a combination that should effectively impede the arachidonate pathway. Results revealed that the benzylcarbazates (2a-c) demonstrated two-digit nanomolar COX-2 inhibitory activities with reasonable selectivity indices. They also showed appreciable 15-LOX inhibition, in comparison to quercetin. Further testing of these compounds for mPGES-1 inhibition displayed promising activities. Intriguingly, compounds 2a-c were capable of suppressing edema in the formalin-induced rat paw edema assay. They exhibited an acceptable gastrointestinal safety profile regarding ulcerogenic liabilities in gross and histopathological examinations. Additionally, upon treatment with the test compounds, the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was elevated, whereas that of TNF-α, iNOS, IL-1β, and COX-2 were downregulated in LPS-challenged RAW264.7 macrophages. Docking experiments into the three enzymes showed interesting binding profiles and affinities, further substantiating their biological activities. Their in silico physicochemical and pharmacokinetic parameters were advantageous.

Methenamine for urinary tract infection prophylaxis: A systematic review

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) commonly affect many patient populations. Recurrent UTIs (rUTIs) can be particularly problematic and lead to potential hospitalizations, multiple antibiotic courses, and have a potential negative impact on quality of life. To prevent UTIs, antibiotics are frequently used for prophylaxis; however, antibiotic prophylaxis has notable untoward consequences including but not limited to potential adverse effects and development of antibiotic resistance. Methenamine, an antiseptic agent initially available in 1967, has re-emerged as a potential option for UTI prophylaxis in various populations, including older adults and renal transplant recipients. The objective of this systematic review was to evaluate the clinical effectiveness and safety of methenamine for UTI prophylaxis. A systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidance was performed. A PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane library search was conducted to identify relevant English-language studies evaluating methenamine for UTI prophylaxis including randomized controlled trials, case-control studies, and meta-analyses through June 2023. Articles were excluded if the studies did not primarily describe or evaluate methenamine for UTI prophylaxis, were commentaries/viewpoints articles, point prevalence studies, review articles, studies that evaluated methenamine used with another agent, and any duplicate publications from searched databases. A total of 11 articles were identified for inclusion. This systematic review suggests methenamine generally appears to be an effective and well-tolerated antibiotic-sparing option for UTI prophylaxis. Furthermore, the pharmacology, dosage and formulation, warnings, precautions, and safety considerations of methenamine that provide potential clinical considerations regarding its use for UTI prophylaxis are described. Further studies are needed to evaluate the clinical utility of methenamine for UTI prophylaxis.

Insights into Prospects of Novel NSAID Prodrugs in the Management of Gastrointestinal Toxicity: A Perspective Review

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have a long history in the healthcare system due to their therapeutic potential. These NSAIDs cause ulcerogenicity, stomach pains, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, mucosa bleeding, and pancreatitis when used moderately and consistently. With researchers, managing the aforementioned adverse effects therapeutically is getting increasingly difficult. One method for creating NSAID moieties with low penetration as well as ulcerogenic properties is the prodrug technique. During the oral consumption of NSAID-prodrugs, ulcerations, intestinal hemorrhage, and mucosa hemorrhage have significantly decreased. Considering this background, this review focussed on NSAID prodrugs as well as their justifications, the pathogenesis of NSAIDs inducing gastrointestinal toxicity, and the role of different antioxidants and spacer groups. Prodrug moieties have more advantages over parent medicines concerning both solubility and lipophilicity. In general, NSAID-class prodrugs can successfully treat both acute and long-term inflammation and aches without causing ulcerotoxicity and related gastrointestinal side effects, which reduces their burden from the pharmacoeconomic perspective.

Diclofenac, ibuprofen, and paracetamol biodegradation: overconsumed non-steroidal anti-inflammatories drugs at COVID-19 pandemic

The consumption of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have increased significantly in the last years (2020-2022), especially for patients in COVID-19 treatment. NSAIDs such as diclofenac, ibuprofen, and paracetamol are often available without restrictions, being employed without medical supervision for basic symptoms of inflammatory processes. Furthermore, these compounds are increasingly present in nature constituting complex mixtures discarded at domestic and hospital sewage/wastewater. Therefore, this review emphasizes the biodegradation of diclofenac, ibuprofen, and paracetamol by pure cultures or consortia of fungi and bacteria at in vitro, in situ, and ex situ processes. Considering the influence of different factors (inoculum dose, pH, temperature, co-factors, reaction time, and microbial isolation medium) relevant for the identification of highly efficient alternatives for pharmaceuticals decontamination, since biologically active micropollutants became a worldwide issue that should be carefully addressed. In addition, we present a quantitative bibliometric survey, which reinforces that the consumption of these drugs and consequently their impact on the environment goes beyond the epidemiological control of COVID-19.

Newly developed nano-biocomposite embedded hydrogel to enhance drug loading and modulated release of anti-inflammatory drug

A newly developed iron-based nano-biocomposite (nano Fe-CNB) impregnated alginate formulation (CA) is proposed to improve drug loading and exhibit pH-responsive behavior of model anti-inflammatory drug-ibuprofen for controlled release applications. The proposed formulation is investigated with conventional β-CD addition in CA. The nano Fe-CNB-based formulations with and without β-CD, (Fe-CNB β-CD CA and Fe-CNB CA) are compared with only CA and β-CD incorporated CA formulations. The results indicate the incorporation of nano-biocomposite or β-CD into CA enhances the drug loading (>40%). However, pH-responsive controlled release behavior is observed for nano Fe-CNB based formulations only. The release studies from Fe-CNB β-CD CA indicate ∼ 45% release in stomach pH (1.2) within 2 h. In contrast, Fe-CNB CA shows ∼20% release only in stomach pH and improved release (∼49%) at colon pH (7.4). The rheology and swelling studies indicate Fe-CNB CA remains intact in stomach pH with a minimal drug release, but it disintegrates at colon pH due to charge reversal behavior of nano-biocomposite and ionization of polymeric chains. Thus, Fe-CNB CA formulation is found to be a potential candidate for targeting colon delivery, inflammatory bowel disease, and post-operative conditions.

Design, Synthesis, and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Some Coumarin Schiff Base Derivatives: In silico and in vitro Study

Introduction

Inflammation is a fundamental response of the immune system during tissue damage or pathogen infection to protect and maintain tissue homeostasis. However, inflammation may lead to life-threatening conditions. The most common treatment of inflammation is non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Nowadays, the development of safer new NSAIDs is critical as most of the existing NSAIDs have serious adverse effects, such as gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity and cardiotoxicity. In the present study, four compounds as Schiff base derivatives of 7-hydroxy-4-formyl coumarin and 7-methoxy-4-formyl coumarin were designed and synthesized aiming to develop a lead compound that exhibits anti-inflammatory activity and circumvents the side effects of NSAIDs, especially GI toxicity.

Materials and Methods

Lipinski’s rule of five was applied for each designed molecule to evaluate the drug-likeness properties. Molecular docking studies were performed using the ligands and the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein to select the best-scored molecule using AutoDock 4.2.6. The molecules were then synthesized and characterized. An in vitro anti-inflammatory assay of the compounds against the COX-2 receptor was realized through a protein denaturation assay.

Results and Discussion

All four synthesized ligands passed Lipinski’s rule of five and exhibited higher binding free energy compared to the positive standard control (ibuprofen), and the Ki values of compounds 5, 7, and 8 were in the nanomolar range. However, only compounds 6 and 7 obtained a higher percentage of inhibition of protein denaturation relative to ibuprofen.

Conclusion

The present study suggested that compound 7 may be a lead molecule because this ligand not only exhibited the best computational and experimental results but also exhibited the strongest correlation between the concentration and percentage of protein denaturation (R = 0.986 and R² = 0.972) with the lowest P-value (0.014).

Toxicity of two drugs towards the marine filter feeder Mytilus spp, using biochemical and shell integrity parameters

The increasing presence of anthropogenic contaminants in the environment may constitute a challenge to non-target biota, considering that most contaminants can exert deleterious effects. Salicylic acid (SA) is a non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) which exerts its activity by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). Another class of drugs is that of the diuretics, in which acetazolamide (ACZ) is included. This pharmaceutical acts by inhibiting carbonic anhydrase (CA), a key enzyme in acid-base homeostasis, regulation of pH, being also responsible for the bio-availability of Ca²⁺ for shell biomineralization processes. In this work, we evaluated the chronic (28-day) ecotoxicological effects resulting from the exposures to SA and ACZ (alone, and in combination) on individuals of the marine mussel species Mytillus spp., using enzymatic (catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), COX and CA), non-enzymatic (lipid peroxidation, TBARS levels) and morphological and physiological (shell hardness, shell index and feeding behaviour) biomarkers. Exposure to ACZ and SA did not cause significant alterations in CAT and GSTs activities, and in TBARS levels. In terms of CA, this enzyme was inhibited by the highest concentration of ACZ in gills of exposed animals, but no effects occurred in the mantle tissue. The activity of COX was not altered after exposure to the single chemicals. However, animals exposed to the mixture of ACZ and SA evidenced a significant inhibition of COX activity. Morphological and physiological processes (namely, feeding, shell index, and shell hardness) were not affected by the here tested pharmaceutical drugs. Considering the general absence of adverse effects, further studies are needed to fully evaluate the effects of these pharmaceutical drugs on alternative biochemical and physiological pathways.

Chloropyridinyl Esters of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents and Related Derivatives as Potent SARS-CoV-2 3CL Protease Inhibitors

We report the design and synthesis of a series of new 5-chloropyridinyl esters of salicylic acid, ibuprofen, indomethacin, and related aromatic carboxylic acids for evaluation against SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease enzyme. These ester derivatives were synthesized using EDC in the presence of DMAP to provide various esters in good to excellent yields. Compounds are stable and purified by silica gel chromatography and characterized using 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and mass spectral analysis. These synthetic derivatives were evaluated in our in vitro SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro inhibition assay using authentic SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro enzyme. Compounds were also evaluated in our in vitro antiviral assay using quantitative VeroE6 cell-based assay with RNAqPCR. A number of compounds exhibited potent SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro inhibitory activity and antiviral activity. Compound 9a was the most potent inhibitor, with an enzyme IC50 value of 160 nM. Compound 13b exhibited an enzyme IC50 value of 4.9 µM. However, it exhibited a potent antiviral EC50 value of 24 µM in VeroE6 cells. Remdesivir, an RdRp inhibitor, exhibited an antiviral EC50 value of 2.4 µM in the same assay. We assessed the mode of inhibition using mass spectral analysis which suggested the formation of a covalent bond with the enzyme. To obtain molecular insight, we have created a model of compound 9a bound to SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro in the active site.

Learning Atomic Interactions through Solvation Free Energy Prediction Using Graph Neural Networks

Solvation free energy is a fundamental property that influences various chemical and biological processes, such as reaction rates, protein folding, drug binding, and bioavailability of drugs. In this work, we present a deep learning method based on graph networks to accurately predict solvation free energies of small organic molecules. The proposed model, comprising three phases, namely, message passing, interaction, and prediction, is able to predict solvation free energies in any generic organic solvent with a mean absolute error of 0.16 kcal/mol. In terms of accuracy, the current model outperforms all of the proposed machine learning-based models so far. The atomic interactions predicted in an unsupervised manner are able to explain the trends of free energies consistent with chemical wisdom. Further, the robustness of the machine learning-based model has been tested thoroughly, and its capability to interpret the predictions has been verified with several examples.

Novel NSAIDs

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are some of the most commonly used drugs to relieve a multitude of pain symptoms.F They are readily available and used extensively. There is a lot of concern about their adverse side effects namely cardiovascular (CV) and gastrointestinal (GI) side effects. It is important to have a good grasp of the pharmacology of these drugs in order to use them safely and effectively. NSAIDs work by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme system responsible for production of prostaglandins. Prostaglandins mediate pain inflammation and temperature regulation in the body. NSAIDS can be divided into selective and non-selective types. Three isoforms of COX have been identified COX-1, COX-2 and COX-3. Selective NSAIDs act on these isoforms. COX-1 is anti-inflammatory, COX-2 pro-inflammatory and COX-3, a variant of COX-1, does not produce prostaglandins. The CV side effects of these drugs can be wide ranging and include a rise in blood pressure (BP) and a higher risk of thromboembolic events. Patients also suffer from peptic ulcer disease or bleeding in the stomach as a result of their use. NSAIDs can cause liver and kidney toxicity and should be used with caution in patients with bleeding tendencies. New NSAIDs on the market include; lornoxicam (xefo®), meloxicam (coxflam®), celecoxib (celebrex®), parecoxib (rayzon®) and etoricoxib (arcoxia®). New ways of delivering NSAIDs to the body with minimal or no side effects are being researched. Novel technology in this field includes nano formulated NSAIDs; indomethacin (tivorbex®) and dicofenac (zorvolex), prodrugs and multi action drugs; cyclooxygenase inhibiting nitric oxide donors and hydrogen sulphide releasing drugs. Further exciting innovations are in the pipeline that could change the face of how we use these drugs. Until then they must be used with careful consideration and only if the benefits of use outweigh the risks.

Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoencapsulated Curcuminoids Extracted from Curcuma longa L. in a Model of Cutaneous Inflammation

The present study evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect of nanoencapsulated curcuminoid preparations of poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (Nano-cur) and free curcuminoids (Cur) in an experimental model of croton oil-induced cutaneous inflammation. Male Swiss mice, weighing 25-30 g, received oral treatment by gavage 1 h before CO application or topical treatment immediately after CO application (200 μg diluted in 70% acetone) with a single dose of Cur and Nano-cur. After 6 h, the animals were anesthetized and euthanized. The ears were sectioned into disks (6.0 mm diameter) and used to determine edema, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and oxidative stress. Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) was used to evaluate the percutaneous penetration of Cur and Nano-cur. Topical treatment with both preparations had a similar inhibitory effect on the development of edema, MPO activity, and the oxidative response. The PAS technique showed that the percutaneous permeation of both topically applied preparations was similar. Oral Nano-cur administration exerted a higher anti-inflammatory effect than Cur. Topical Cur and Nano-cur application at the same dose similarly inhibited the inflammatory and oxidative responses. Oral Nano-cur administration inhibited such responses at doses that were eight times lower than Cur, suggesting the better bioavailability of Nano-cur compared with Cur.Graphical abstract.

Correlation of D-xylose with severity and morbidity-related factors of COVID-19 and possible therapeutic use of D-xylose and antibiotics for COVID-19

The SARS-Cov-2 pandemic that currently affects the entire world has been shown to be especially dangerous in the elderly (≥65 years) and in smokers, with notably strong comorbidity in patients already suffering from chronic diseases, such as Type 2 diabetes, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases, obesity, and hypertension. Inflammation of the lungs is the main factor leading to respiratory distress in patients with chronic respiratory disease and in patients with severe COVID-19. Several studies have shown that inflammation of the lungs in general and Type 2 diabetes are accompanied by the degradation of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), especially heparan sulfate (HS). Several studies have also shown the importance of countering the degradation of HS in lung infections and Type 2 diabetes. D-xylose, which is the initiating element for different sulfate GAG chains (especially HS), has shown regeneration properties for GAGs. D-xylose and xylitol have demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antiglycemic, antiviral, and antibacterial properties in lung infections, alone or in combination with antibiotics. Considering the existing research on COVID-19 and related to D-xylose/xylitol, this review offers a perspective on why the association between D-xylose and antibiotics may contribute to significantly reducing the duration of treatment of COVID-19 patients and why some anti-inflammatory drugs may increase the severity of COVID-19. A strong correlation with scurvy, based on gender, age, ethnicity, smoking status, and obesity status, is also reviewed. Related to this, the effects of treatment with plants such as Artemisia are also addressed. CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS: D-xylose; xylitol; l-ascorbic Acid; D-glucuronic acid; N-acetylglucosamine; D-N-acetylglucosamine; N-acetylgalactosamine; galactose.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and organ damage: A current perspective

Owing to the efficacy in reducing pain and inflammation, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are amongst the most popularly used medicines confirming their position in the WHO's Model List of Essential Medicines. With escalating musculoskeletal complications, as evident from 2016 Global Burden of Disease data, NSAID usage is evidently unavoidable. Apart from analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic efficacies, NSAIDs are further documented to offer protection against diverse critical disorders including cancer and heart attacks. However, data from multiple placebo-controlled trials and meta-analyses studies alarmingly signify the adverse effects of NSAIDs in gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, hepatic, renal, cerebral and pulmonary complications. Although extensive research has elucidated the mechanisms underlying the clinical hazards of NSAIDs, no review has extensively collated the outcomes on various multiorgan toxicities of these drugs together. In this regard, the present review provides a comprehensive insight of the existing knowledge and recent developments on NSAID-induced organ damage. It precisely encompasses the current understanding of structure, classification and mode of action of NSAIDs while reiterating on the emerging instances of NSAID drug repurposing along with pharmacophore modification aimed at safer usage of NSAIDs where toxic effects are tamed without compromising the clinical benefits. The review does not intend to vilify these 'wonder drugs'; rather provides a careful understanding of their side-effects which would be beneficial in evaluating the risk-benefit threshold while rationally using NSAIDs at safer dose and duration.

Improved Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Diclofenac Sodium by Topical Nanoemulgel: Formulation Development—In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

The present study aimed to develop diclofenac sodium nanoemulgel for managing pain and inflammation using the low-energy emulsification technique. Nanoemulsion of diclofenac was formulated using clove oil with adequate amount of surfactants and cosurfactants, and it was converted to hydrogel form using Carbopol 980 as the gelling agent. The droplet size of the oil globules in the nanoemulsion was found to be 64.07 ± 2.65 nm with a low polydispersity index (0.238 ± 0.02) along with high negative zeta potential (−39.06 mV). The developed nanoemulgel exhibited non-Newtonian and pseudoplastic behavior. The in vitro release profile of the developed nanoemulgel was higher as compared to marketed and conventional gel. The carrageenan-induced paw edema test was performed in rats to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of developed nanoemulgel. The developed nanoemulgel showed significantly higher (p<0.01) effect in reducing pain and inflammation symptoms as compared to marketed as well as conventional gel of diclofenac. The overall findings of the study suggest that the developed nanoemulgel formulation of diclofenac can be used as a potential approach for the management of pain and inflammation.

Anti-inflammatory Strategies for Schizophrenia: A Review of Evidence for Therapeutic Applications and Drug Repurposing

Schizophrenia is a debilitating psychiatric disorder with a substantial socioeconomic and humanistic burden. Currently available treatment strategies mostly rely on antipsychotic drugs, which block dopaminergic effects in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain. Although antipsychotic drugs help relieve psychotic symptoms, a definitive cure for schizophrenia has yet to be achieved. Recent advances in neuroinflammation research suggest that proinflammatory processes in the brain could cause alterations in neurobehavioral development and increase vulnerability to schizophrenia. With a growing need for novel strategies in the treatment of schizophrenia, it would be meaningful to review the current evidence supporting the therapeutic potential of anti-inflammatory strategies. This review details the key findings of clinical trials that investigate the efficacy of anti-inflammatory agents as adjuvants to antipsychotic treatment. We further discuss the possibilities of repurposing anti-inflammatory agents and developing novel strategies for the treatment of schizophrenia.

Synthesis of Ibuprofen Monoglyceride in Solventless Medium with Novozym®435: Kinetic Analysis

This study investigates the enzymatic esterification of glycerol and ibuprofen in a solventless medium catalyzed by immobilized lipase B from Candida antarctica (Novozym®435). Fixing the concentration of this enzymatic solid preparation at 30 g·L−1, and operating at a constant stirring speed of 720 rpm, the temperature was changed between 50 and 80 °C, while the initial concentration of ibuprofen was studied from 20 to 100 g·L−1. Under these conditions, the resistance of external mass transport can be neglected, as confirmed by the Mears criterion (Me < 0.15). However, the mass transfer limitation inside the pores of the support has been evidenced. The values of the effectiveness factor (η) vary between 0.08 and 0.16 for the particle size range considered according to the Weisz–Prater criteria. Preliminary runs permit us to conclude that the enzyme was deactivated at medium to high temperatures and initial concentration values of ibuprofen. Several phenomenological kinetic models were proposed and fitted to all data available, using physical and statistical criteria to select the most adequate model. The best kinetic model was a reversible sigmoidal model with pseudo-first order with respect to dissolved ibuprofen and order 2 with respect to monoester ibuprofen, assuming the total first-order one-step deactivation of the enzyme, with partial first order for ibuprofen and enzyme activity.

Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Camptothecin Conjugated with NSAIDs as Novel Dual-actin Antitumor Agents

Objective:

The single-agent therapy was unable to provide an effective control of the malignant process, a well-established strategy to improve the efficacy of antitumor therapy is the rational design of drug combinations aimed at achieving synergistic effects.

Objective:

The objective of this study is generating the new potential anticancer agents with synergistic activity. Owing to the unique mechanism of action of Camptothecin (CPT), it has shown abroad spectrum of anti-cancer activity against human malignancies, and growing evidence revealed that Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) reduce the risk of different kinds of cancers. So four CPT-NSAIDs conjugates were synthesized and evaluated.

Methods:

In this study, a series of novel CPT - NSAIDs derivatives were synthesized by esterification. These new compounds were evaluated for in vitro antitumor activity against tumor cell lines A549, Hela, HepG2, HCT116 by MTT assay. To probe the required stabilities as prodrugs, stability tests were studied in human plasma. To further evaluate the stability of Ketoprofen-CPT in vivo, the female SD rats were used to determine the pharmacokinetics following a single oral dose.

Results:

In vitro results showed that Ketoprofen-CPT and Naproxen-CPT conjugates possessed nice efficacy. In a molecular docking model, the two conjugates interacted with Topo I-DNA through hydrogen bonds, <pi>-<pi> stacking and so on.In human plasma results showed that the prodrug was converted to ketoprofen and another compound. The female SD rats were used to determine the pharmacokinetics following a single oral dose, the half-life (t1/2) of Ketoprofen-CPT was approximately 12 h which was much longer than that of CPT.

Conclusion:

Good activity was noted for some compounds will be helpful for the design of dualaction agents with most promising anti-cancer activity.

Dextran Aldehyde in Biocatalysis: More Than a Mere Immobilization System

Dextran aldehyde (dexOx), resulting from the periodate oxidative cleavage of 1,2-diol moiety inside dextran, is a polymer that is very useful in many areas, including as a macromolecular carrier for drug delivery and other biomedical applications. In particular, it has been widely used for chemical engineering of enzymes, with the aim of designing better biocatalysts that possess improved catalytic properties, making them more stable and/or active for different catalytic reactions. This polymer possesses a very flexible hydrophilic structure, which becomes inert after chemical reduction; therefore, dexOx comes to be highly versatile in a biocatalyst design. This paper presents an overview of the multiple applications of dexOx in applied biocatalysis, e.g., to modulate the adsorption of biomolecules on carrier surfaces in affinity chromatography and biosensors design, to serve as a spacer arm between a ligand and the support in biomacromolecule immobilization procedures or to generate artificial microenvironments around the enzyme molecules or to stabilize multimeric enzymes by intersubunit crosslinking, among many other applications.

Synthesis and in-vivo taste assessment of meloxicam pivalate

Meloxicam (MX), a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, widely used to treat arthritis, has a very bitter taste. Chemical modification of the bitter functionality was achieved by synthesis of a prodrug, meloxicam pivalate (MXP). Taste improvement was evaluated using single bottle-test rat model. It was found that palatability of MXP solution improved significantly as compared to MX.

Oxaprozin prodrug as safer nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug: Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation

Oxaprozin is a popular non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and its chronic oral use is clinically restricted due to its gastrointestinal (GI) complications. In order to circumvent the GI complications, oxaprozin was amended as a prodrug in a one-pot reaction using N,N-carbonyldiimidazole as an activating agent. Dextran of average molecular weight (60,000-90,000 Da) was exploited as a carrier in the process of oxaprozin prodrug production by esterification. The structural profiles of the synthesized oxaprozin prodrug were characterized by FT-IR and NMR spectroscopy. The oxaprozin prodrug possessed optimal molecular weight, lipophilicity, partition coefficient, protein binding, and degree of substitution of 52.4%. The release of oxaprozin upon hydrolysis of the prodrug in both simulated gastric fluid and simulated intestinal fluid followed first-order kinetics with 55.2 min of half-life. Varied ADME properties of the prodrug resulted upon Schrodinger's QikProp tool application. Oxaprozin prodrug displayed significant analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activities, with a remarkable decrease in the ulcer index and being devoid of antigenicity in experimental animals. Thus, it is evident that oxaprozin prodrug is a safer oral NSAID without causing any ulcerations.

Discovery of new indomethacin-based analogs with potentially selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition and observed diminishing to PGE2 activities

New ring-extended analogs of indomethacin were designed based on the structure of active binding site of both COX-1 and COX-2 isoenzymes and the interaction pattern required for selective inhibition of COX-2 to improve its selectivity against COX-2. The strategy adopted for designing the new inhibitors involved i) ring extension of indomethacin to reduce the possibility of analogs to be accommodated into the narrow hydrophobic tunnel of COX-1, ii) deletion of carboxylic acid to reduce the possibility of inhibitor to form salt bridge with Arg120 and eventually prevent COX-1 inhibition, and iii) introduction of methylsulfonyl group to increase the opportunity of the analogs to interact with the polar side pocket that's is crucial for inhibition process of COX-2. The three series of tetrahydrocarbazoles involving 4, 5, 9, 10 and 12 were synthesized in quantitative yields adopting limited number of reaction steps, and applying laboratory friendly reaction conditions. In vitro and in vivo assays for data profiling the new candidates revealed the significant improvement in the potency and selectivity against COX-2 of 6-methoxytetrahydrocarbazole 4 (IC₅₀ = 0.97 μmol) to verify the effect of ring extension in comparison to indomethacin (IC₅₀ = 2.63 μmol), and 6-methylsulfonyltetrahydrocarbazole 10a (IC₅₀ = 0.28 μmol) to verify the effect of ring extension and introduction of methylsulfonyl group. 9-(4-chlorobenzoyl)-6-(methylsulfonyl)-1,2,3,9-tetrahydro-4H-carbazol-4-one 12a showed the most potential and selective activity against COX-2 (IC₅₀ = 0.23 μmol) to be with superior potency to Celecoxib (IC₅₀ = 0.30 μmol). Consistently, 12a was the most active with all the other anti-inflammatory test descriptors and its activity in diminishing the PGE2 with the other analogs confirmed the elaboration of new class of selective COX-2 inhibitors beyond the diarylsulfonamides as a previously common class of selective COX-2 inhibitors. Molecular docking study revealed the high binding score of compound 12a (-30.78 kcal/mol), with less clash contribution (7.2) that is close to indomethacin. Also, 12a showed low conformation entropy score (1.40). Molecular dynamic (MD) simulation identified the equilibrium of both potential and kinetic energies.

Synthesis and Pharmacological Evaluation of Acrylate-Based Gastrosparing NSAID Prodrugs

Dexibuprofen and aceclofenac are well-known NSAID molecules, their oral use leads to gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity. To circumvent that GI toxicity, the prodrug approach is a better alternative. Hence, this research was undertaken to synthesize prodrugs of dexibuprofen and aceclofenac using acrylic polymers with degradable ester bonds. Dexibuprofen was linked to 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate by an activated ester technique. The resulting material was copolymerized with 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate and methyl methacrylate (in 1:3 mole ratios) by the free radical polymerization method, utilizing azoisobutyronitrile at 65-70°C. Similarly aceclofenac was also processed. The resulting prodrugs were characterized by IR, NMR, and elemental analysis. The synthesized prodrugs possess optimal physicochemical characteristics such as the intended molecular weight, lipophilicity, partition coefficient, and protein binding. The drug release on hydrolysis was studied in various fluids such as SGF (pH 1.2), SIF (pH 7.4), and SCF (pH 6.8), to establish the drug release kinetics. Pharmacological evaluation exhibited anti-inflammatory activity with remarkable reduction in ulcerogenicity compared to the parent drug. Under the conditions used, the prodrugs showed no antigenicity in Wistar rats. Thus, it was concluded that acrylic-based prodrugs were efficient in drug localization in the stomach, without gastric problems.