Individual differences in vigilance: Personality, ability and states of stress

Modality Changes in Vigilance Displays: Further Evidence of Supramodal Resource Depletion in Vigilance

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to evaluate the effects of a modality change on vigilance performance to determine whether depletion of modality-specific resources contributes to the vigilance decrement.

BACKGROUND

Resource theory accounts for the vigilance decrement by arguing that the demands of vigilance deplete limited information processing resources. Research indicates that both supramodal and modality-specific resources are involved in vigilance, but it is unclear whether the vigilance decrement is due to depletion of supramodal resources, modality-specific resources, or both. If depletion of modality-specific resources contributes to the decrement, changing the modality of a vigilance display should improve vigilance performance after a decrement.

METHOD

Participants completed a 50-min vigilance task beginning in either the visual modality or the auditory modality. After 40-min, half of the participants experienced a sudden transition to the other modality; the remaining participants did not experience a modality change.

RESULTS

Performance declined over time and was generally superior in the auditory modality. Changing modality from visual to auditory increased correct detections, whereas changing from auditory to visual decreased correct detections. Both types of modality change were associated with an increase in false alarms, and neither had an effect on workload or stress.

CONCLUSION

Supramodal resource depletion, rather than modality-specific resource depletion, is the most likely explanation for the vigilance decrement that can be derived from resource theory.

APPLICATION

Modality changes are not likely to counteract the vigilance decrement and may actually increase false alarm errors. Countermeasure development should involve identification of depleted supramodal resources.

An investigation of cardiac vagal tone over time and its relation to vigilance performance: a growth curve modeling approach

Introduction

Research over the last couple of decades has demonstrated a relationship between psychophysiological measures, specifically cardiac functions, and cognitive performance. Regulation of the cardiac system under parasympathetic control is commonly referred to as cardiac vagal tone and is associated with the regulation of cognitive and socioemotional states. The goal of the current study was to capture the dynamic relationship between cardiac vagal tone and performance in a vigilance task.

Method/Results

We implemented a longitudinal growth curve modeling approach which unveiled a relationship between cardiac vagal tone and vigilance that was non-monotonic and dependent upon each person.

Discussion

The findings suggest that cardiac vagal tone may be a process-based physiological measure that further explains how the vigilance decrement manifests over time and differs across individuals. This contributes to our understanding of vigilance by modeling individual differences in cardiac vagal tone changes that occur over the course of the vigilance task.

Handoffs and the challenges to implementing teamwork training in the perioperative environment

Perioperative handoffs are high-risk events for miscommunications and poor care coordination, which cause patient harm. Extensive research and several interventions have sought to overcome the challenges to perioperative handoff quality and safety, but few efforts have focused on teamwork training. Evidence shows that team training decreases surgical morbidity and mortality, and there remains a significant opportunity to implement teamwork training in the perioperative environment. Current perioperative handoff interventions face significant difficulty with adherence which raises concerns about the sustainability of their impact. In this perspective article, we explain why teamwork is critical to safe and reliable perioperative handoffs and discuss implementation challenges to the five core components of teamwork training programs in the perioperative environment. We outline evidence-based best practices imperative for training success and acknowledge the obstacles to implementing those best practices. Explicitly identifying and discussing these obstacles is critical to designing and implementing teamwork training programs fit for the perioperative environment. Teamwork training will equip providers with the foundational teamwork competencies needed to effectively participate in handoffs and utilize handoff interventions. This will improve team effectiveness, adherence to current perioperative handoff interventions, and ultimately, patient safety.

Fatigue and Secondary Media Impacts in the Automated Vehicle: A Multidimensional State Perspective

Safety researchers increasingly recognize the impacts of task-induced fatigue on vehicle driving behavior. The current study (N = 180) explored the use of a multidimensional fatigue measure, the Driver Fatigue Questionnaire (DFQ), to test the impacts of vehicle automation, secondary media use, and driver personality on fatigue states and performance in a driving simulator. Secondary media included a trivia game and a cellphone conversation. Simulated driving induced large-magnitude fatigue states in participants, including tiredness, confusion, coping through self-comforting, and muscular symptoms. Consistent with previous laboratory and field studies, dispositional fatigue proneness predicted increases in state fatigue during the drive, especially tiredness, irrespective of automation level and secondary media. Similar to previous studies, automation slowed braking response to the emergency event following takeover but did not affect fatigue. Secondary media use relieved subjective fatigue and improved lateral control but did not affect emergency braking. Confusion was, surprisingly, associated with faster braking, and tiredness was associated with impaired control of lateral position of the vehicle. These associations were not moderated by the experimental factors. Overall, data support the use of multidimensional assessments of both fatigue symptoms and information-processing components for evaluating safety impacts of interventions for fatigue.

Is vigilance a personality trait? Plasticity is key alongside some contextual consistency

Animals regularly scan their environment for predators and to monitor conspecifics. However, individuals in a group seem to differ in their vigilance linked to age, sex or state with recent links made to personality. The aims of the study were to investigate whether a) individuals differ consistently in their vigilance, b) vigilance is linked to other personality traits and c) other factors affect vigilance in the colour polymorphic Gouldian finch. Birds were tested in same (red-headed or black-headed) or mixed head colour morph same sex pairs in four contexts (novel environment, familiar environment, two changed environments). Vigilance was measured as horizontal head movements. Vigilance showed contextual consistency but no long-term temporal consistency over a year. Head movements were only weakly linked to other personality traits indicative of a risk-reward trade-off with more explorative individuals being less vigilant. Vigilance was highly plastic across situations and affected by group composition. Mixed head colour morph pairs made more head movements, potentially linked to higher social vigilance. Results indicate that vigilance is a highly plastic trait affected by personality rather than a personality trait on its own, which allows adapting vigilance to different situations.

Listening to the call of boredom at work: A Heideggerian journey into Michel Houellebecq’s novels

From the very first organizational theories, boredom at work has been closely linked to the issue of time. However, studies on boredom have often considered the phenomenon as a mere behavioral outcome of organizational processes or practices and have built on an instrumental approach, neglecting its deeper manifestations. Following recent calls to tackle boredom as a fundamental issue in organization studies, we build on Heidegger’s framework to delve into superficial, retrospective, and profound boredom. This phenomenological approach enables us to go beyond the instrumental view of boredom, revealing the close links between boredom at work, time, and authenticity. To this end, we adopt a genuine empirical tool, immersed in the eight novels of the famous French writer, Michel Houellebecq, a unique observer of contemporary workers. Our findings help us to highlight two contributions. First, we argue that in trying to divert their employees from boredom by creating and developing “passing the time” activities, organizations only reinforce boredom at work, leading them to an unauthentic relationship with time and being. Second, we delve into the meanders of profound boredom at work and suggest that by listening to its call, individuals may unveil what truly matters to them and find a way to reach authenticity at work.

The Mediating Effect of Fatigue on the Nature Element, Organisational Culture and Task Performance in Central Taiwan

In the current dynamic business environment, managing the physical working environment of the workforce has become an important part of the company. This study seeks to investigate the effects of the nature element and organisational culture on the task performance of employees with fatigue as a mediator, based on a sample of 103 white-collar employees who work in the central district of Taichung City during the spring and using a purposive sampling method. The data were collected through a self-administered subjective measurement instrument questionnaire and were analysed using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) path analysis. The results show that organisational culture and task performance were significantly positive. The mediating effect of fatigue caused this relationship to become negative. It was also found that there was a negative relationship between nature elements and task performance. The results provide insights into the importance of employers in providing a healthy workplace which promotes collaboration, health, safety, and the wellbeing of the employee in line with the recommendations of the World Health Organisation (WHO). The study concludes that future international comparative studies can be performed to identify the best workplace design that can reduce employees’ fatigue and alleviate their current work performance.

Introversion and High Spatial Ability Is Associated With Origami Proficiency

This study examined the relationship between origami performance, personality traits, and spatial ability. The researchers asked 43 Japanese university students (19 women and 24 men) to fold three models of origami (paper folding). Their performance was assessed by the number of successes in correctly folding the paper to make the models. They also answered the personality inventory NEO-FFI and completed the block-design test of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV, which measures the spatial ability of people. The results showed that although origami performance demonstrated no significant relation with neuroticism, openness to experience, agreeableness, or conscientiousness, it improved as introversion tendency and spatial ability increased. There were no differences based on sex in origami performance. The findings suggest that performing origami requires spatial ability, which supports the view that origami is a potential educational material for training and enhancing spatial ability, and that introversion is advantageous to origami performance.

Toward practical driving fatigue detection using three frontal EEG channels: a proof-of-concept study

Objective. Although various driving fatigue detection strategies have been introduced, the limited practicability is still an obstacle for the real application of these technologies. This study is based on the newly proposed non-hair-bearing (NHB) method to achieve practical driving fatigue detection with fewer channels from NHB areas and more efficient electroencephalogram (EEG) features.Approach. EEG data were recorded from 20 healthy subjects (15 males, age = 22.2 ± 3.2 years) in a 90 min simulated driving task using a remote wireless cap. Behaviorally, subjects demonstrated a salient fatigue effect, as reflected by a monotonic increase in reaction time. Using a sliding-window approach, we determined the vigilant and fatigued states at individual level to reduce the inter-subject differences in behavioral impairment and brain activity. Multiple EEG features, including power-spectrum density (PSD), functional connectivity (FC), and entropy, were estimated in a pairwise manner, which were set as input for fatigue classification.Main results. Intriguingly, this data-driven approach showed that the best classification performance was achieved using three EEG channel pairs located in the NHB area. The mixed features of the frontal NHB area lead to the high within-subject detection rate of driving fatigue (92.7% ± 0.92%) with satisfactory generalizability for fatigue classification across different subjects (77.13% ± 0.85%). Moreover, we found the most prominent contributing features were PSD of different frequency bands within the frontal NHB area and FC within the frontal NHB area and between frontal and parietal areas.Significance. In summary, the current work provided objective evidence to support the effectiveness of the NHB method and further improved the performance, thereby moving a step forward towards practical driving fatigue detection in real-world scenarios.

The ANT Executive Control Index: No Evidence for Temporal Decrement

OBJECTIVE

This study tested whether indices of executive control, alertness, and orienting measured with Attention Network Test (ANT) are vulnerable to temporal decrement in performance.

BACKGROUND

Developing the resource theory of sustained attention requires identifying neurocognitive processes vulnerable to decrement. Executive control processes may be prone to impairment in fatigue states. Such processes are also highlighted in alternative theories. Determining the role of executive control in vigilance can both advance theory and contribute to practical countermeasures for decrement in human factors contexts.

METHOD

In Study 1, 80 participants performed the standard ANT for an extended duration of about 55 to 60 min. Study 2 (160 participants) introduced manipulations of trial blocking and stimulus degradation intended to increase resource depletion. Reaction time and accuracy measures were analyzed. Subjective stress and workload were assessed in both studies.

RESULTS

In both studies, the ANT induced levels of subjective workload and task disengagement consistent with previous sustained attention studies. No systematic decrement in any performance measure was observed.

CONCLUSION

Executive control assessed by the ANT is not highly vulnerable to temporal decrement, even when task demands are elevated. Future work should differentiate executive control processes; proactive control may be more implicated in sustained attention decrement than in reactive control.

APPLICATION

Designing systems and interfaces to reduce executive control demands may be generally beneficial but will not directly mitigate temporal performance decrement. Enhancing design guidelines and neuroergonomic methods for monitoring operator attention requires further work to identify key neurocognitive processes for decrement.

Workforce perceptions of human factors as indicators of plant reliability and process safety

Human factors, as perceived by the maintenance workforce, were used as the measure for comparing work areas within a petroleum company. These factors were then compared to an objective measure of reliability (Mean Time Between Failures) in order to determine which factors would be most predictive of plant reliability and process safety. Maintenance personnel were surveyed using scales based on Problem-solving, Vigilance, Design and maintenance, Job-related feedback and Information about change. Analysis of Variance was used to assess the strength of these variables in relation to Reliability Level. Significant differences were observed between different reliability levels based on workforce perceptions of problem-solving requirements and the design and maintainability of plant. Conclusions were that perceptions of human factors in the workplace can be predictive of group-level performance, and that if issues relating to design and maintainability are not addressed at the design stage, greater problem-solving abilities will be required from maintenance personnel. Practitioner summary: Workforce perceptions of plant performance could provide a statistically valid measure of current and future reliability. A survey of perceptions of human factors was conducted with maintenance personnel in a petroleum company. Results indicated significant relationships between reliability and requirements for Problem-solving, as well as Design and Maintenance of equipment. Abbreviations: HFIT: human factors investigation tool, FPSO: floating production, storage and offtake, MTBF: mean time between failures, CPS: cognitive problem- solving, WDS: work design questionnaire, SPSS: statistical package for the social sciences, PAF: principal axis factoring, ANOVA: analysis of variance, ANCOVA: analysis of co-variance, M: mean, SD: standard deviation.

Drowsiness or mind-wandering? Fluctuations in ocular parameters during attentional lapses

Two independent lines of evidence suggest that drowsiness and mind-wandering share common neurocognitive processes indexed by ocular parameters (e.g., eyeblink frequency and pupil dynamics). Mind-wandering and drowsiness frequently co-occur, however, such that it remains unclear whether observed oculometric variations are related to mind-wandering, drowsiness, or a mix of both. To address this issue, we assessed fluctuations in mind-wandering and sleepiness during a sustained attention task while ocular parameters were recorded. Results showed that oculometric variations during mind-wandering were fully explained by increased sleepiness. However, mind-wandering and sleepiness had additive deleterious effects on performance that were not fully explained by ocular parameters. These findings suggest that oculometric variations during task performance reflect increased drowsiness rather than processes specifically involved in mind-wandering, and that the neurocognitive processes indexed by oculometric parameters (e.g., regulatory processes of the locus coeruleus norepinephrine system) do not fully explain how mind-wandering and sleepiness cause attentional lapses.

Vigilance Decrement and Enhancement Techniques: A Review

This paper presents the first comprehensive review on vigilance enhancement using both conventional and unconventional means, and further discusses the resulting contradictory findings. It highlights the key differences observed between the research findings and argues that variations of the experimental protocol could be a significant contributing factor towards such contradictory results. Furthermore, the paper reveals the effectiveness of unconventional means of enhancement in significant reduction of vigilance decrement compared to conventional means. Meanwhile, a discussion on the challenges of enhancement techniques is presented, with several suggested recommendations and alternative strategies to maintain an adequate level of vigilance for the task at hand. Additionally, this review provides evidence in support of the use of unconventional means of enhancement on vigilance studies, regardless of their practical challenges.

Effects of state motivation in overload and underload vigilance task scenarios

Vigilance, or sustained attention, is the ability to maintain attention for prolonged periods of time. Interestingly, to date, few studies on vigilance have focused on the role of state motivation in sustaining attention. To address this disparity in the literature, the present study examined the effect of two types of state motivation on vigilance performance across task types (cognitive or sensory) and across the number of displays (one, two, or four). A sample of 105 participants completed a 24-min overload or underload vigilance task in a research laboratory. Participants were randomly assigned to either a cognitive or sensory vigilance task, and were randomly assigned to monitor one, two, or four displays for target stimuli. The results indicated that intrinsic state motivation predicted correct detection performance and state success motivation predicted sensitivity, but not false alarm performance, response bias, or global workload. We conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and practical applications of this research.

Task Engagement and the Vigilance Decrement Revisited: Expanding Upon the Work of Joel S. Warm Using a Semantic Vigilance Paradigm

OBJECTIVE

The goal of the present study is twofold: (1) demonstrate the importance of measuring and understanding the relationship between task engagement and vigilance performance, and (2) celebrate the work of Joel S. Warm and expand upon his previous research in two semantic vigilance paradigms.

BACKGROUND

The importance of measuring task engagement in cognitive and sensory vigilance tasks has been well documented. But to date, our understanding of the effects of task engagement on semantic vigilance performance is limited.

METHOD

Seventy-three participants completed either a standard semantic vigilance task or a lure semantic vigilance task. Participants also completed subjective measures of workload and stress.

RESULTS

The results indicated that changes in task engagement are associated with correct detection performance. Changes in task engagement may be related to individual differences in the distress associated with performing semantic vigilance tasks.

CONCLUSION

In line with the work of Warm and his colleagues (Dember, Warm, Bowers, & Lanzetta, 1984), participants who reported increased task engagement after the vigil outperformed their peers who noted decreased task engagement upon conclusion of the task. Participants reporting increases in engagement with the semantic vigilance tasks also reported significantly greater distress pretask, but not posttask. Instead, increases in postvigil distress were driven by the task to which participants were assigned, not task engagement.

APPLICATION

The present study has several implications for applied settings that involve long duration semantic processing or semantic target identification. Such real-world tasks include aviation, cyber threat detection and analysis, driving, and reading.

Dangerous intersections? A review of studies of fatigue and distraction in the automated vehicle

The impacts of fatigue on the vehicle driver may change with technological advancements including automation and the increasing prevalence of potentially distracting in-car systems. This article reviews the authors' simulation studies of how fatigue, automation, and distraction may intersect as threats to safety. Distinguishing between states of active and passive fatigue supports understanding of fatigue and the development of countermeasures. Active fatigue is a stress-like state driven by overload of cognitive capabilities. Passive fatigue is produced by underload and monotony, and is associated with loss of task engagement and alertness. Our studies show that automated driving reliably elicits subjective symptoms of passive fatigue and also loss of alertness that persists following manual takeover. Passive fatigue also impairs attention and automation use in operators of Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs). Use of in-vehicle media has been proposed as a countermeasure to fatigue, but such media may also be distracting. Studies tested whether various forms of phone-based media interacted with automation-induced fatigue, but effects were complex and dependent on task configuration. Selection of fatigue countermeasures should be guided by an understanding of the form of fatigue confronting the operator. System design, regulation of level of automation, managing distraction, and selection of fatigue-resilient personnel are all possible interventions for passive fatigue, but careful evaluation of interventions is necessary prior to deployment.

The Abbreviated Vigilance Task and Its Attentional Contributors

OBJECTIVE

To measure contributing attentional processes, particularly that of executive attention, to two iterations of the abbreviated vigilance task.

BACKGROUND

Joel Warm was at the forefront of vigilance research for decades, and resource theory is currently the dominant explanation for the vigilance decrement. The underlying mechanisms contributing to both overall performance and the decrement are only partly understood.

METHOD

Seventy-eight participants answered questionnaires about their attentional skills and stress state, performed the Attention Network Test and two blocks of the 12-min abbreviated vigilance task, with a brief break between the two vigils during which they viewed images intended to affect performance. Changes in oxygenated hemoglobin were measured with functional near-infrared imaging.

RESULTS

Expected patterns were observed for both iterations of the abbreviated vigilance task, with performance declining after the first 2 min. Manipulations intended to evaluate whether executive processes contributed to vigilance performance failed to observe an effect. Other factors, particularly orienting and alerting attentional networks, task engagement, and subclinical ADHD symptomology were associated with performance. Significant factors for the first and second vigilance blocks were different.

CONCLUSION

We suggest that (a) cognitive control is not a predominant factor, at least for the abbreviated vigilance task, and (b) attentional mechanisms and stress states affecting performance on the abbreviated vigilance task change over time.

APPLICATION

Potential applications of this research include the use of breaks for sustained attention tasks involving high sensory load, and implications for the use of the abbreviated vigilance task as a proxy for general vigilance processes.

Socially alerted cognition evoked by a confederate's mere presence: analysis of reaction-time distributions and delta plots

We examined aspects of social alerting as induced through the presence of an attentive but non-evaluative confederate on mental efficiency. To this end, individuals were administered with a chained mental-arithmetic task (levels: low vs. high demand) in two contextual conditions (levels: alone vs. presence). In addition, we examined self-report measures of subjective state for purposes of control. As a result, the presence (vs. alone) condition improved (not hampered) processing speed (while error rate remained low overall), and this effect was differentially more pronounced for high (vs. low) demand. Reaction-time distributional analyses revealed that improvements in average performance actually originated from a selective speeding-up in the slower percentiles, indicating that social alerting promotes stability of information-processing throughput. These results challenge prevalent theoretical notions of mere-presence effects as individuals became consistently faster and less vulnerable to commit attention failure. Our findings indicate that social presence promotes not only processing speed but volitional steadiness.

Where is my mind? Examining mind-wandering and vigilance performance

Vigilance is the ability to sustain attention to information for prolonged periods of time, particularly in environments where critical signals may be rare. Recent research in the domain of mind-wandering has suggested that processes associated with mind-wandering may underpin the typical decline in vigilance task performance. Current methods for measuring mind-wandering either disrupt vigils by asking probe questions throughout the task, or, require observers to reflect on how much mind-wandering occurred during the task upon conclusion of the vigil. Across three experimental studies, we treat mind-wandering as an individual difference, which was measured pre- and post-vigil. We argue this technique is a more holistic representation of mind-wandering and is less intrusive than probe measures, which serve to disrupt the vigil. The results of our first experiment challenge previous results in the literature: higher rates of mind-wandering were associated with improved correct detection performance. Interestingly, the second experiment suggests that increases in mind-wandering were not linked to vigilance performance deficits. However, significant differences in global workload emerged in the second experiment, implying individuals low in mind-wandering report greater workload. In a third experiment, wherein we manipulated event rate, mind-wandering typology had no significant effect on vigilance performance. We conclude with a discussion of the relevance of individual differences in mind-wandering in vigilance research considering the present findings.

On the preservation of vigilant attention to semantic information in healthy aging

Despite decades of research on younger adults, little is known about the way in which vigilant attention is affected by healthy aging, and the small body of work that does exist has yielded mixed findings. Prior examinations of aging and vigilant attention have focused almost exclusively on sensory/perceptual tasks despite the fact that many real-world vigilance tasks are semantic in nature and it has been shown that older adults exhibit memory and attention deficits in semantic tasks in other domains. Here, we present the first empirical investigation of vigilant attention to verbal stimuli in healthy normal aging. In Experiment 1 we find that older adults are just as able as younger adults to identify critical targets defined by category membership (both overall and over time). In Experiment 2, we increase the difficulty of the task by changing the target category from one block to the next, but again find no age-group effects in accuracy. Response time data, however, show that older adults respond more slowly and subjective ratings indicate that older adults experience higher workload and arousal compared to their younger counterparts. The practical as well as theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

Transcranial Doppler Sonography Reveals Reductions in Hemispheric Asymmetry in Healthy Older Adults during Vigilance

Given that older adults are remaining longer in the workforce, their ability to perform demanding cognitive tasks such as vigilance assignments needs to be thoroughly examined, especially since many vigilance assignments affect public safety (e.g., aviation, medicine and long distance driving). Previous research exploring the relation between aging and vigilance is conflicted, with some studies finding decreased vigilance performance in older adults but others finding no effect of age. We sought a better understanding of effects of age on vigilance by assessing neurophysiological change over the course of a vigil in young (aged 18–24) and healthy older (aged 66–77) adults. To measure temporal changes in cerebral blood flow, participants underwent functional transcranial doppler (fTCD) recording during a 1 h vigilance task. Based on research showing a compensatory effect of increased left hemisphere activation during vigilance in young adults and the “hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults” (HAROLD) model, we predicted that during vigilance our older adults would show greater left hemisphere activation but perform at a similar level compared to young adults. While cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) declined over time in both groups, only young adults showed the typical right-lateralized CBFV pattern. Older adults showed greater left hemisphere activation consistent with the HAROLD model. However, the increased left hemisphere activation did not appear to be compensatory as the older adults performed at a significantly lower level compared to young adults over the vigil. Findings are discussed in terms of the HAROLD model of healthy aging and the resource theory of vigilance.

Task Engagement and Attentional Resources

OBJECTIVE

Two studies tested multivariate models of relationships between subjective task engagement and vigilance. The second study included a stress factor (cold infection). Modeling tested relationships between latent factors for task engagement and vigilance, and the role of engagement in mediating effects of cold infection.

BACKGROUND

Raja Parasuraman's research on vigilance identified several key issues, including the roles of task factors, arousal processes, and individual differences, within the framework of resource theory. Task engagement is positively correlated with performance on various attentional tasks and may serve as a marker for resource availability.

METHOD

In the first study, 229 participants performed simultaneous and successive vigilance tasks. In the second study, 204 participants performed a vigilance task and a variable-foreperiod simple reaction-time task on two separate days. On the second day, 96 participants performed while infected with a naturally occurring common cold. Task engagement was assessed in both studies.

RESULTS

In both studies, vigilance decrement in hit rate was observed, and task performance led to loss of task engagement. Cold infection also depressed both vigilance and engagement. Fitting structural equation models indicated that simultaneous and successive tasks should be represented by separate latent factors (Study 1), and task engagement fully mediated the impact of cold infection on vigilance but not reaction time (Study 2).

CONCLUSIONS

Modeling individual differences in task engagement elucidates the role of resources in vigilance and underscores the relevance of Parasuraman's vision of the field.

APPLICATION

Assessment of task engagement may support diagnostic monitoring of operators performing tasks requiring vigilance.

Boredom in the Workplace: A New Look at an Old Problem

OBJECTIVE

We review historical and more recent efforts in boredom research and related fields. A framework is presented that organizes the various facets of boredom, particularly in supervisory control settings, and research gaps and future potential areas for study are highlighted.

BACKGROUND

Given the ubiquity of boredom across a wide spectrum of work environments--exacerbated by increasingly automated systems that remove humans from direct, physical system interaction and possibly increasing tedium in the workplace--there is a need not only to better understand the multiple facets of boredom in work environments but to develop targeted mitigation strategies.

METHOD

To better understand the relationships between the various influences and outcomes of boredom, a systems-based framework, called the Boredom Influence Diagram, is proposed that describes various elements of boredom and their interrelationships.

RESULTS

Boredom is closely related to vigilance, attention management, and task performance. This review highlights the need to develop more naturalistic experiments that reflect the characteristics of a boring work environment.

CONCLUSION

With the increase in automation, boredom in the workplace will likely become a more prevalent issue for motivation and retention. In addition, developing continuous measures of boredom based on physiological signals is critical.

APPLICATION

Personnel selection and improvements in system and task design can potentially mitigate boredom. However, more work is needed to develop and evaluate other potential interventions.

Self-Report Measures of Boredom: An Updated Review of the Literature

A detailed review of the psychometric measures of boredom was published approximately 12 years ago (Vodanovich, 2003). Since that time, numerous studies have been conducted on existing scales, and new measures of boredom have been developed. Given these assessment advancements, an updated review of self-report boredom scales is warranted. The primary focus of the current review is research published since 2003, and it includes a total of 16 boredom scales. The measures reviewed consist of two trait assessments (Boredom Proneness Scale, Boredom Susceptibility subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale), five context-specific trait boredom scales (Boredom Coping Scale, Leisure Boredom Scale, Free Time Boredom Scale, Sexual Boredom Scale, Relational Boredom Scale), three assessments of state boredom (Multidimensional State Boredom Scale, State Boredom Measure, Boredom Experience Scale), and six context-specific state boredom measures-Lee's Job Boredom Scale, Dutch Boredom Scale, Boredom Coping Scale (Academic), the Boredom subscale of the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire, Academic Boredom Scale, Precursors to Boredom Scale. In addition to providing a review of these measures, a brief critique of each scale is included, as well as suggestions for needed research focus.

Short Stress State Questionnaire

Conscious appraisals of stress, or stress states, are an important aspect of human performance. This article presents evidence supporting the validity and measurement characteristics of a short multidimensional self-report measure of stress state, the Short Stress State Questionnaire (SSSQ; Helton, 2004 ). The SSSQ measures task engagement, distress, and worry. A confirmatory factor analysis of the SSSQ using data pooled from multiple samples suggests the SSSQ does have a three factor structure and post-task changes are not due to changes in factor structure, but to mean level changes (state changes). In addition, the SSSQ demonstrates sensitivity to task stressors in line with hypotheses. Different task conditions elicited unique patterns of stress state on the three factors of the SSSQ in line with prior predictions. The 24-item SSSQ is a valid measure of stress state which may be useful to researchers interested in conscious appraisals of task-related stress.

An ACT-R Process Model of the Signal Duration Phenomenon of Vigilance

Performance on tasks that require sustained attention can be impacted by various factors that include: signal duration, the use of declarative memory in the task, the frequency of critical stimuli that require a response, and the event-rate of the stimuli. A viable model of the ability to maintain vigilance ought to account for these phenomena. In this paper, we focus on one of these critical factors: signal duration. For this we use results from Baker (1963), who manipulated signal duration in a clock task where the second hand moved in a continuous swipe motion. The critical stimuli were stoppages of the hand that lasted for 200, 300, 400, 600, or 800 ms. The results provided evidence for an interaction between condition and time-on-task, where performance declined at a faster rate as the signal duration decreased. In this paper, we describe an ACT-R model that uses fatigue mechanisms from Gunzelmann et al. (2009) that were proposed to account for the impact of sleep loss on sustained attention performance. The research demonstrates how those same mechanisms can be used to understand vigilance task performance. This illustrates an important foundation for predicting and tracking vigilance decrements in applied settings, and validates a mechanism that creates a theoretical link between the vigilance decrement and sleep loss.

Cognitive Flexibility and Sustained Attention

Researchers investigating the relationship between individual differences and sustained attention tasks do not clearly find marked traits and abilities that are predictive of vigilant performance. Yet, this important research is applicable to tasks like driving, TSA monitoring, Air Traffic Control, and even for the Department of Homeland Security’s civilian campaign, “See something, say something.” In this paper, we take an individual differences approach to uncover the relationship between cognitive flexibility and sustained attention. Twenty-nine undergraduate students from George Mason University participated in this study for course credit. The Youmans Cognitive Flexibility Puzzle (Gonzalez, Figueroa, Bellows, Rhodes, & Youmans, 2013) was used to assess cognitive flexibility, and a modified version the Air Traffic Controller (ATC) task (Hitchcock, Warm, Matthews, Dember, Shear, Tripp et al., 2003) measured sustained attention. Mixed ANOVAs were used to analyze performance on the ATC task ( hits, false alarms, reaction times). Highly flexible individuals were faster to respond despite missing signals and committing errors. Implications are discussed.

Individual Differences in Facial Emotion Processing

This study tested whether trait emotional intelligence (TEI) measures of narrow bandwidth predict perception of facial emotion, using two tasks: identification of microexpressions of emotion and controlled visual search for target emotions. A total of 129 undergraduates completed multiple scales for TEI, as well as cognitive ability, personality, and stress measures. TEI was associated with a reduced stress response, but failed to predict performance on either task, contrary to the initial hypothesis. However, performance related significantly to higher cognitive intelligence, subjective task engagement, and use of task-focused coping. Individual differences in attentional resources may support processing of both emotive and non-emotive stimuli.

Narcissism as a Predictor of Facebook Users' Privacy Concern, Vigilance, and Exposure to Risk

A model is developed and tested to explain the relationships among narcissism, privacy concern, vigilance, and exposure to risk on Facebook, with age and gender as controlling variables. Two important constructs are conceptualized and measured in this research. Facebook exposure is defined as the opportunity for privacy and security breaches on Facebook. Facebook vigilance is the extent to which consumers stay focused, attentive, and alert to potential security and privacy risks on Facebook by restricting who can access and post to their Facebook accounts. Data from a survey of 286 adult Facebook users in the U.S. support the hypothesized relationships in the model. Results suggest that narcissism is related to increased Facebook exposure and lower Facebook vigilance, despite greater stated concern for privacy and security. Furthermore, females and younger users have greater risk exposure compared to males and older users. Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.

Predicting battlefield vigilance: a multivariate approach to assessment of attentional resources

Technological innovation increasingly requires operators in various applied settings to maintain vigilance for extended periods. However, standard psychometric tests typically predict less than 10% of performance variance. The present study (N = 462) aimed to apply the resource theory of sustained attention to construct a multivariate test battery for predicting battlefield vigilance. The battery included cognitive ability tests, a high-workload short vigilance task and subjective measures of stress response. Four versions of a 60- min simulated military battlefield monitoring task were constructed to represent different operational requirements. The test battery predicted 24-44% of criterion variance, depending on task version, suggesting that it may identify vigilant operators in military and other applied contexts. A multiple-groups path analysis showed that relationships between ability and vigilance were moderated by working memory demands. Findings are consistent with a diffuse theoretical concept of 'resources' in which performance energisation depends on multiple, loosely coupled processes.

Health specific traits beyond the Five Factor Model, cognitive processes and trait expression: replies to Watson (2012), Matthews (2012) and Haslam, Jetten, Reynolds, and Reicher (2012)

In this article we reply to the issues raised by the three commentaries on Ferguson's (2012) article. Watson argues that the four traits identified by Ferguson (2012) – health anxiety, alexithymia, empathy and Type D – do not lie outside the Five Factor Model (FFM). We present factor analytic data showing that health anxiety forms a separate factor from positive and negative affectivity, alexithymia forms a factor outside the FFM and while emotional empathy loads with agreeableness, cognitive empathy forms a separate factor outside the FFM. Across these analyses there was no evidence for a general factor of personality. We also show that health anxiety, empathic facets and alexithymia show incremental validity over FFM traits. However, the evidence that Type D lies outside the FFM is less clear. Matthews (2012) argues that traits have a more distributed influence on cognitions and that attention is not part of Ferguson's framework. We agree; but Ferguson's original statement concerned where traits have their maximal effect. Finally, Haslam et al. suggest that traits should be viewed from a dynamic interactionist perspective. This is in fact what Ferguson (2012) suggested and we go on to highlight that traits can also influence group processes.

The Type of Temperament, Mood, and Strategies of Categorization

In Strelau’s theory of temperament (RTT), there are four types of temperament, differentiated according to low vs. high stimulation processing capacity and to the level of their internal harmonization. The type of temperament is considered harmonized when the constellation of all temperamental traits is internally matched to the need for stimulation, which is related to effectiveness of stimulation processing. In nonharmonized temperamental structure, an internal mismatch is observed which is linked to ineffectiveness of stimulation processing. The three studies presented here investigated the relationship between temperamental structures and the strategies of categorization. Results revealed that subjects with harmonized structures efficiently control the level of stimulation stemming from the cognitive activity, independent of the affective value of situation. The pattern of results attained for subjects with nonharmonized structures was more ambiguous: They were as good as subjects with harmonized structures at adjusting the way of information processing to their stimulation processing capacities, but they also proved to be more responsive to the affective character of stimulation (positive or negative mood).